Introduction To Control System

Wollo University
Kombolcha Institute of Technology

Electrical and Computer Engineering Department
Introduction to Control System Exit Exam Module
By Temesgen Gelchu
2/3/2023
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Chapter: Introduction to Control Systems ............................................................................................. 4
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 Examples of Control Systems ................................................................................................... 5
1.3 Basic terms in control systems ................................................................................................. 7
1.4 Types of Control System ........................................................................................................... 8
Chapter Two: Review of Laplace Transform ....................................................................................... 13
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 13
2.2 Properties of Laplace Transform ........................................................................................... 15
Chapter Three: MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF DYNAMIC SYSTEMS ............................. 18
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 18
3.2 Classical Mathematical Modeling Techniques of a Dynamic System .................................. 18
3.2.1 Differential equation ....................................................................................................... 18
3.2.2 Transfer function ............................................................................................................ 18
3.2.3 Impulse response function .............................................................................................. 19
3.3 Mathematical models of electrical systems ............................................................................ 20
3.4 Mathematical models of mechanical systems ........................................................................ 23
3.4.1 Gear Trains systems ........................................................................................................ 28
3.5 Mathematical models of electromechanical systems ............................................................. 30
3.6 Diagrammatical representation mechanisms of a systems dynamic models ....................... 31
3.6.1 Block Diagram ................................................................................................................. 31
3.6.2 Signal Flow Graph (SFG) ............................................................................................... 39
3.6.3 Mason’s Gain formula .................................................................................................... 42
Chapter Four: Time Domain Analysis of Control Systems ................................................................. 46
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 46
4.2 Time Domain Transient Response Specifications ................................................................. 47
4.3 Analysis of First Order Systems ............................................................................................. 48
4.3.1 Unit-Step Response of First-Order Systems .................................................................. 49
4.3.2 Unit-Ramp Response of First-Order Systems ............................................................... 50
4.3.3 Unit-Impulse Response of First-Order Systems ............................................................ 51
4.4 Analysis of second order systems ........................................................................................... 52
4.4.1 Unit step response of second order systems ................................................................... 53
4.5 Transient response specification parameters of under-damped Second-Order Systems... 58
4.6 Stability of control systems ..................................................................................................... 61
4.6.1 Definition of stability ....................................................................................................... 61
4.6.2 Analysis of stability ......................................................................................................... 61
4.7 Steady State Errors Analysis .................................................................................................. 69
CHAPTER FIVE: ROOT LOCUS ANALYSIS ....................................................................................... 74
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 74
5.2 Root-locus plots for negative feedback Systems .................................................................... 74
5.2.1 Angle and Magnitude Conditions .................................................................................. 74
5.3 General rules for construction of root loci ........................................................................ 77
5.4 Control Systems Design by the Root-Locus Method ............................................................ 83
5.4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 83
5.4.2 Lead Compensation......................................................................................................... 84
5.4.3 Lag Compensation .......................................................................................................... 90
Chapter Five: Frequency Response Analysis ........................................................................................ 94
6.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 94
6.2 Presenting Frequency-Response Characteristics in Graphical Forms ................................ 96
6.3 Frequency domain specifications ......................................................................................... 108
6.4 Bode Stability Criterion ........................................................................................................ 111
6.5 Control Systems Design by Frequency Response ............................................................... 112
6.5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 112
6.5.2 Lead Compensation....................................................................................................... 114
6.5.3 Lag compensation.......................................................................................................... 117
6.5.4 Lag-Lead Compensation ............................................................................................... 121
References .......................................................................................................................................... 126
Chapter: Introduction to Control Systems
1.1 Introduction
Control systems played an important role in the advancement and improvement of
engineering skill.
Practically every activity in our day-to-day life is influenced by some sort of control
system. It plays an important role in the working space vehicles, satellites, guided missiles
etc.
Generally, control systems are found in number of practical applications like computerized
control systems, transportation systems, power systems, temperature limiting systems,
robotics etc.
What is Control System?
To define control system let us define first system and control separately.
What is system?
System is a combination of or arrangement of different physical components which act
together as an entire unit to achieve a certain objective.
Every physical object is actually a system (system can be physical, Ecological and biological).
Example:
Lamp is a good example of physical system because it made of different component.
What is control?
The meaning of control is to direct, regulate or command a system so that a desired objective is
obtained.
Control system is a system to provide a desired function, involving some control action in it.
It is a system that can regulate itself and another system.
It is a system Controlling the operation of another system.
It is a device or set of devices to manage, command, direct or regulate the behaviour of other
device or system.
Switching lamp ON and OFF using switch:
Automatic control systems
It is control operations in which no human intervention is required.
It is a combination of components that act together in such a way that the overall system behaves
automatically in a prespecified desired manner.
It has a central aim of developing control strategies to improve performance of a system.
Distinct characteristics of Automatic control
Reduces human participation in all technical activities.
Decreases labour cost.
Allows the production of more goods.
Allows the construction of more works.
Reduces work hazards.
Manual Control Systems:
It is control operations that involve human action to make an adjustment.
Example:
Room temperature regulation via electric fan.
Water level control (if controlled by human being).
1.2 Examples of Control Systems
1. Water level control

2. Fluid flow control
3. Fluid flow control
4. Temperature control of an electric furnace

1.3 Basic terms in control systems
To describe control systems, some basic terminologies must be defined.
1. Controlled Variable:
The quantity or condition that is measured and controlled. The output of the system.
2. Manipulated Variable:
The quantity or condition that is varied by the controller so as to affect the value of
controlled variable. The factor that is changed to keep the measured variable at setpoint.
3. Controller:
It is the element of the system itself or may be external to the system to control the plant or
process
4. Plants:
A piece of equipment / set of machine parts to perform a particular operation. Any physical object
to be controlled.
Example: a mechanical device, a heating furnace, a chemical reactor.
5. Processes:
Natural or an artificial, progressively continuing operation that consists of a series of actions
directed toward a particular result. Any operation to be controlled.
Example: Chemical, economic, biological processes
6. System:
Interconnection of elements and devices for a desired purpose. For a system to perform a certain
task, it must be excited by a proper input. An entity with recognizable inputs and outputs.
Input: is a stimulus, excitation or command signal that is applied to control system/system to get
a specified output.
Output: is actual response resulting from a control system/system.
7. Disturbances:
A signal that tends to adversely affect the value of the system. An unwanted input of the system.
Types of disturbance:
Internal disturbance: generated within the system.
External disturbance: generated outside the system.
8. Feedback Control system:
A system that maintains a prescribed relationship between the output and some reference input by
comparing them and using the difference (i. 𝑒. error) as a means of control.
1.4 Types of Control System
Man-made Control Systems: The various control systems designed and manufactured
by human being.
Example: Vehicles, aeroplanes, speed control of DC-motor, fluid level control,
temperature control of a boiler, hydropower generator shaft speed control, robot control
and so on.
Basic classification of control system depending on the relations of control action
with output:
Open-loop Control Systems
Closed-loop Control Systems
Open-loop Control Systems:
• A system in which control action does not depend on output.
• A system in which output is dependent on input but input is totally
independent of output.
• Utilize a controller to obtain the desired response.
• Output has no effect on the control action.
• No feedback – no correction of disturbances.
Since in open-loop control systems reference input is not compared with measured
output, for each reference input there is fixed operating condition. Accuracy of the
system is dependent on the accuracy of calibration.
Performance of the system is severely affected by the presence of disturbances, or
variation in operating/ environmental conditions.
Advantages of open-loop system:
• These systems are simple in construction and design.
• These systems are economic.
• These systems are easy from maintenance point of view.
• Usually, these systems are not much troubled with the problem of stability.
• These systems are convenient to use when output is difficult to measure.
Dis-advantages of open-loop system:
• These systems are not accurate and reliable because their accuracy is dependent on
the accuracy of calibration.
• In these systems, inaccurate results are obtained with parameter variations, i.e.,
internal disturbances.
• Recalibration of the controller is required from time to time for maintaining quality
and accuracy.
Closed-loop Control Systems: are the system in which controlling actions are somehow
dependent on the output or changes in output. It is control system with feedback.
Utilizes an additional measure of the actual output to compare with the desired
output response. The measure of the output is called the feedback signal.
Uses a measurement of the output and feedback of this signal to compare it with
the desired output (reference or command).
Layout of closed-loop/feedback/control system

Example: Refrigerator, water heater, liquid level control
Human being: If a person wants to reach for a book on the shelf, the closed loop system
represented as shown below:
Position of the book is given as the reference. Feedback signal is from eyes, compares the
actual position of hands with reference position. Error signal is given to brain. Brain
manipulates this error and gives signal to hand. This process continuous till to reach the
position of book.
Temperature control system
The aim is to maintain hot water temperature constant. Pressure thermometer ‘p’ used as
feedback which send signal for comparison with set point and error actuates the valve
which controls the flow rate of steam and eventually controlling temperature of water.
Its block diagram representation
Block diagram of temperature control system

Missile launching system:
The enemy airplane is sighted by radar which continuously tracks the path of the airplane.
Launcher computer calculates the firing angles in terms of launch command, which when
amplified drives launcher.
Launcher angular position feedback to the launcher computer and then missile is triggered
when the error between command signal and missile firing angle becomes zero.
Missile launching system
Advantages of closed-loop system
• In these systems accuracy is very high due to correction of any arising error.
• Since these systems sense environmental changes as well as internal disturbances,
the errors are modified.
• There is reduced effect of non-linearity in these systems.
• These systems have high bandwidth, i.e., high operating frequency zone.
• There are facilities of automation in these systems.
Disadvantages of closed-loop system
• The systems are complicated in design and hence costlier.

• These systems may become unstable.
Chapter Two: Review of Laplace Transform
2.1 Introduction
The Laplace transform method is an operational method that can be used advantageously for
solving linear differential equations. If the algebraic equation in a complex variable s is solved for
the dependent variable, then the solution of the differential equation may be found by use of the
inverse Laplace transform of dependent variable.
Advantages of the Laplace transform method:

➢ It allows the use of graphical techniques for predicting the system performance
without actually solving system differential equations.
➢ It gives both the transient component and steady-state component of the solution
simultaneously, when we solve the differential equation.
Review of Complex Variables and Complex Functions
Complex number: It has a constant real part and constant imaginary part. Example: 1 + 𝑗2
Complex variable: It has a real part variable and/or imaginary part variable. Example: 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔
Where, 𝜎-real part variable, 𝜔-imaginary part variable and 𝑠−complex variable.
Complex function: A function of the complex variable that has a real and imaginary part.
Example: G(s) = s + 2 = σ + jω + 2 = (σ + 2) + jω
G(s) = Gx + jGy , Since s = σ + jω
Where, Gx-is real part of G(s) and Gy -is imaginary part of G(s)
The magnitude of G(s) is |G(s)| = √Gx 2 + Gy 2
Angle of G(s) is θ = tan−1 (Gy ⁄Gx ).
The angle is measured counterclockwise from the positive real axis. The complex
̅ (s) = Gx − jGy.
conjugate of G(s) is G
Laplace and Inverse Laplace Transformation
Laplace transform is an integral transform with ‘kernel’ k(s, t) = e−st and over a time
interval of 0 up to ∞.
Let us define 𝑓(𝑡) be a function of time t such that 𝑓 (𝑡) = 0 for 𝑡 < 0. Then the Laplace
transform of 𝑓(𝑡) is given by
∞
𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝐹 (𝑠) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡

0
Where 𝐿 is Laplace transform operator and 𝑠 complex variable.
The reverse process of finding the time function 𝑓(𝑡) from the Laplace transform F(s) is
called the inverse Laplace transformation.
Inverse Laplace transform is also an integral transform.
1 c+j∞
𝑓 (𝑡) = L−1 {F(s)} = 2πj ∫c−j∞ F(s) est ds for 𝑡 > 0
where c −complex constant and is chosen larger than the reals parts of all singular
points of 𝐹(𝑠).
The Laplace transform method yields the complete solution (complementary solution and
particular solution) of linear, time-invariant, differential equations. It doesn’t require the
evaluation of the integration constants from the initial conditions as classical method,
because the initial conditions are automatically included in the Laplace transform of the
differential equation.
In solving linear, time-invariant, differential equations by the Laplace transform method,

two steps are involved.
1. Taking the Laplace transform of each term in the given differential equation and
obtain the expression for the Laplace transform of the dependent variable by
rearranging the algebraic equation.
2. The time solution of the differential equation is obtained by finding the inverse
Laplace transform of the dependent variable.
2.2 Properties of Laplace Transform
1) Linearity:
𝐿{𝑐1𝑓1 (𝑡) + 𝑐2𝑓2 (𝑡)} = 𝑐1𝐹1 (𝑠) + 𝑐2 𝐹2 (𝑠)
2) Laplace transform of a derivative of a function 𝐟(𝐭)
d
L { f(t)} = sF(s) − f(0)
dt
For nth derivative of f(t)
𝑘 (𝑛−𝑘−1) ( )
𝐿{𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑡)} = 𝑆 𝑛 𝐹 (𝑠) − ∑𝑛−1
𝑘=0 𝑠 𝑓 0
= 𝑠 𝑛 𝐹 (𝑠) − 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑓 (0) − 𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑓̇ (0) − ⋯ − 𝑓 (𝑛−1) (0)
3) Laplace transform of the integral of a function
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑓 ′ (0)
𝐿 {∫ 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡} = +
𝑠 𝑠
Where, 𝑓 ′(0) = [∫ 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡]|𝑡=0
4) Translated function {𝐟(𝐭 − 𝛂)𝐮(𝐭 − 𝛂) 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝛂 ≥ 𝟎}
𝐿{𝑓 (𝑡 − 𝛼 )𝑢(𝑡 − 𝛼 )} = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑠 𝐹(𝑠) for 𝛂 ≥ 0

5) Multiplication by 𝐞−𝛂𝐭
𝐿{𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝐹(𝑠 + 𝛼)
6) Change of time scaling
L{f(t⁄α} = αF(αs)
7) Final value theorem
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝒔𝑭(𝒔)

𝒕→∞ 𝒔→𝟎
8) Initial value theorem
lim 𝒇(𝒕) = lim 𝒔𝑭(𝒔)

𝒕→𝟎 𝒔→∞
9) Complex differentiation theorem
𝑑
𝐿{𝑡𝑓(𝑡)} = − 𝐹(𝑠)
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑛
𝐿{𝑡 𝑛 𝑓(𝑡)} = (−1)𝑛 𝐹(s)
𝑑𝑠 𝑛
Example: Find the solution 𝑥(𝑡) of the differential equation using Laplace transform.
ẍ + 3ẋ + 2x = 0, x(0) = a, ẋ (0) = b
where a and b are constants.
Solution:
L{ẍ + 3ẋ + 2x = 0}
[s 2 X(s) − sx(0) − ẋ (0)] + [3(sX(s) − x(0))] + 2X(s) = 0
[s 2 X(s) − as − b] + [3(sX(s) − a)] + 2X(s) = 0
[s 2 + 3s + 2]X(s) = as + b + 3a
as + b + 3a as + b + 3a 2a + b a + b
X(s) = 2
= = −
s + 3s + 2 (s + 1)(s + 2) s+1 s+2
2a + b a + b
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = L−1 { − }
s+1 s+2
∴ x(t) = (2a + b)e−t − (a + b)e−2t
Exercise:
1) Solve the following differential equation.
⃛
x − 4ẍ − 4ẋ + 16x = 1, x(0) = 0, ẋ (0) = 0, ẍ (0) = 1
2𝑠
2) If the Laplace transform of 𝑓 (𝑡) is given by 𝐹 (𝑠) = 𝑠 3 +1. Find the initial and the final
𝑑
values of 𝑑𝑡 𝑓(𝑡).
3) For the system that is described by the following definition, find the initial and final
values of the response y(t).
y − 2ÿ + ẏ − 2 = e−t , ÿ (0) = ẏ (0) = y(0) = 0

⃛
𝑠−𝑒 −2𝑠
4) If the Laplace transform of 𝑓 (𝑡) is given by 𝐹 (𝑠 ) = and
𝑠 2 +𝑠−1
[∫ 𝑓 (𝑡 )𝑑𝑡 ]|𝑡=0 = 2.
Find
i. The Laplace transform of ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡.
ii. The final value of ∫ 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡.

Chapter Three: MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF DYNAMIC
SYSTEMS
3.1 Introduction
Causality: the current output of the system (the output at time t = 0) depends on the past
input (the input for t < 0) but does not depend on the future input (the input for t > 0). No
future anticipation.
Linear Time-Variant systems: systems that are represented by differential equations
whose coefficients are functions of time.
Linear Time-Invariant Systems: Dynamic systems that are composed of constant
coefficients or functions of independent variable of differential equations.
Mathematical model of a dynamic system: It is defined as a set of equations that
represents the dynamics of the system accurately or, at least, fairly well, whether they are
mechanical, electrical, thermal, economic, biological, and so on.
Mathematical models are more important to analysis control system. The most popular
mathematical models are:
i. Differential equation iii. Impulse response
ii. Transfer function iv. State space representation
Rather than the mathematical models, there are two popular schematic system
descriptions. These are:
i. Block diagrams ii. Signal flow graphs
3.2 Classical Mathematical Modeling Techniques of a Dynamic System
3.2.1 Differential equation
• The oldest way of a time domain system description.

• It includes linearly independent equations of a system as well as the appropriate initial
condition.
3.2.2 Transfer function
• It is a description of frequency domain.

• It holds only for LTI systems having zero initial conditions.
Consider the following
Let u(t) be the input signal y(t) be the output signal and g(t) be the representation of
the system. Then, the transfer function of a LTI system with zero initial conditions is the
ratio of the Laplace transform of the output y(t) to the Laplace transform of the input u(t).
Mathematically
𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑌(𝑠)
𝐺 (𝑠 ) = |@𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑈(𝑠)
• It is mathematical model expressing differential equation that relates output variable to
input variable.
• It is property of system itself, independent of magnitude and nature of input.
• The transfer function includes the transfer functions of the individual elements. It doesn’t
provide any information concerning the physical structure of the system. (The transfer
functions of many physically different systems can be identical.)
• Poles and zeros of a transfer function is obtained from denominator and numerator of the
transfer function respectively. To derive the transfer function, we proceed according to
the following steps.
1) Write the differential equation for the system.

2) Take the Laplace transform of the differential equation, assuming all initial conditions
are zero.
3) Take the ratio of the output to the input. This ratio is the transfer function.
Example: Find the zeros and poles of the following transfer functions
s+2 1
a) G(s) = (s−2)(s+3) b) G(s) = s2 +5s+6
Solution:
a) Zeros: s + 2 = 0 ⇒ s = −2
poles: (s − 2)(s + 3) = 0 ⇒ s = 2 & s = −3
b) Zeros: There is no finite zeros
poles: s 2 + 5s + 6 = (s + 2)(s + 3) = 0 ⇒ s = −2 & s = −3
Exercise: Find zeros and poles of the following transfer functions.
d3 y(t) d2 y(t) s+2

a) +3 + 2y(t) = u(t) b) G(s) = s2 +7s+12
dt3 dt2
3.2.3 Impulse response function
Consider the following

Impulse response h(t) of a linear system with zero initial conditions is the systems output
when its input is the unit impulse function.
Then Y(s) = H(s)U(s) = H(s) since δ(s) = U(s) = 1
The impulse response of the above system is
y(t) = L−1 (Y(s)) = L−1 (H(s)) = h(t)
3.3 Mathematical models of electrical systems
Linear time invariant electric Network

To develop the over all differential equation of the electric network, KVL and KCL will be
applied.
The basic elements of an electrical system are resistor, inductor and capacitor.
Resistor
Inductor
Capacitor
where 𝑉 is voltage and 𝑖 is current.

Example: Consider RLC circuit shown below. Find the differential equation and transfer function
of the electrical network. Assume the vi (t) as an input and vo (t) as an output of the given system.
Solution: To get the differential equation of the system, let us apply KVL into the given
network.
di(t)
vi (t) = Ri(t) + L + vo (t) (3.1)
dt
1
vo (t) = ∫ i(t)dt
C
dvo (t)
i(t) = C (3.2)
dt
In order to get transfer function, let us apply Laplace transform into equation (3.1) and (3.2).
From eqn. (3.1),
vi (s) = RI(s) + LsI(s) + vo (s) (3.3)
From Eqn. (3.2),
I(s) = CSvo (s) (3.4)
Substituting eqn. (3.4) into eqn. (3.3) and rearranging will result the following transfer function.
𝑣𝑜 (𝑠) 1⁄
= 𝐿𝐶
𝑣𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 𝑅 𝑠 + 1⁄
𝐿 𝐿𝐶
Example: Find the transfer function 𝐸0 (𝑠)/𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) of the given network below
Solution:
1
ei = R1 i1 + C ∫(i1 − i2 ) dt (3.5)
1
1 1
R2 i2 + C ∫ i2 dt + C ∫(i2 − i1 ) dt = 0 (3.6)
2 1
1
eo = C ∫ i2 dt (3.7)
2
Taking the Laplace transforms of Equations (3.5), (3.6) & (3.7) gives,
1
Ei (s) = R1 I1 (s) + C s (I1 (s) − I2 (s)) (3.8)
1
1 1
R2 I2 (s) + C s I2 (s) + C s (I2 (s) − I1 (s)) = 0 (3.9)
2 1
1
Eo (s) = C s I2 (s) (3.10)
2
Rearranging Eqn. (3.8), (3.9) & (3.10) we find the transfer function between Eo (s) and Ei (s) to be
Eo (s) 1
=
Ei (s) R1 R2 C1 C2 s 2 + (R1 C1 + R2 C2 + R1 C2 )s + 1
Example: Find the transfer function for the following operational amplifier circuits
➢ Rearranging Eqn. (2.8), (2.9) & (2.10) we find the transfer function between Eo (s) and
Ei (s) to be
Eo (s) 1
= 2
Ei (s) R1 R2 C1 C2 s + (R1 C1 + R2 C2 + R1 C2 )s + 1
Example: Find the transfer function for the following operational amplifier circuits
i. Inverting amplifier iii. Differential amplifier

ii. Non – inverting amplifier iv. Integral amplifier
Inverting amplifier
0 − v i vo − 0 vo −R 2
i1 = i2 → = ∴ =
R1 R2 vi R1
Non-inverting amplifier
vo − vi vi vo R 1 + R 2
i1 = i2 → = ∴ =
R2 R1 vi R1
Differential amplifier
dvi vo dvi
i1 = i2 → − C = ∴ vo = −RC
dt R dt
Exercise 3.1:
𝐈𝟐 (𝐬)
1) Given the network of Figure (a), find the transfer function for the given network below.
𝐕 (𝐬)
Vo (s)
2) Find the TF.
Vi (s)
3.4 Mathematical models of mechanical systems
Linear time invariant mechanical system

Mechanical systems are classified into two types:
i. Translational ii. Rotational
Translational motion: During this the motion of the body is along a straight line or a curved
path.
There are three elements which are dominantly involved in the analysis of translational motion.
These are mass, spring and damper.
Mass: In the physical model of a mass, it is assumed that its mass is concentrated at the center of
the mass. Consider the mass shown below with zero friction.
Where a is the acceleration, v is the velocity, and x is the displacement of the mass.
Spring: consider a spring having negligible mass as shown below. Let the linear spring constant
for the spring be K. The spring subjected to force and it undergoes elastic deformation. Where x
is the displacement.
Here,
Damper: Motion is opposed by friction. Types of frictional forces are given below.
i. Coulomb frictional force: The sliding friction between dry surfaces.
ii. Viscous friction: The friction between moving surfaces by a viscous fluid or the friction
between a solid body and a fluid medium. Viscous friction is proportional to velocity.
Dashpot
Where D is the damping coefficient.

Stiction: The friction force that required to initiate motion between two contact surfaces.
Rotational motion: During this the motion of the body is about its own axis. It is similar to
translational motion except torque, inertia and angular displacement are considered instead of
force, mass and linear displacement. The three basic elements of rotational motion are inertia (J),
damper (D) and spring (K).
Inertia
where α is the angular acceleration, ω is the angular velocity, θ is the angular displacement and
T is torque.
Damper
Spring
Example:
1) Determine the mathematical model for the system shown below.
Solution:
The force 𝑓 causes the displacement on mass M. This is opposed by spring as well as by damper.
So, the mathematical model of the system is given by,
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑀 =𝑓−𝐷 − 𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑓=𝑀 +𝐷 + 𝐾𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2) Determine the torque equation of the system shown below.
Solution:
3) Determine the mathematical model for the mechanical system shown below.
Solution:
m1 ẍ 1 + k1 x1 + k2 (x1 − x2 ) + b(ẋ 1 − ẋ 2 ) = u
m2 ẍ 2 + k3 x2 + k2 (x2 − x1 ) + b(ẋ 2 − ẋ 1 ) = 0
Exercise3.2:
X2 (s)
1. Determine the transfer function ⁄F(s) for the system shown in Figure (a). Both
masses slide on a frictionless surface, and k = 1 N⁄m.
Fig. Two connected masses on a frictionless surface.

2. A two-mass model of the robot is shown in Figure (b). Find the transfer function
Y(s)
⁄F(s).
Fig. (b): spring-mass-damper model of a robot arm.

3) For the three-cart system illustrated in Figure (c), obtain the equations of motion. The
system has three inputs u1 , u2 , and u3 and three outputs x1 , x2 , and x3 . Obtain three second-
order ordinary differential equations with constant coefficients.
Fig. (c): Three-cart system with Three inputs and three outputs.
𝑋2 (𝑠)
4) Find the transfer function for the Figure (d)
𝐹(𝑠)
Figure (d) for question 4

θ2 (s)
5) Find the transfer function for the Figure (e)
T(s)
Figure (e) for question 5
3.4.1 Gear Trains systems

It is possible to transmit mechanical energy from one part of a system to another via
devices such as gear trains, timing belt over a pulley or lever.
It used in control systems to attain mechanical matching of drivers and load.
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
𝑟1 & 𝑟2 − radius of first and second gear respectively, 𝑁1 & 𝑁2 − Teeth of first and second
gear respectively, 𝜃1 & 𝜃2 − angular displacement of first and second gear respectively,
𝑇𝑚 & 𝑇𝐿 − motor and load torque respectively, 𝐽1 & 𝐷1 − moment of inertia and viscous
friction of first gear respectively, 𝐽2 & 𝐷2 − moment of inertia and viscous friction of second
gear respectively, 𝑇1 − torque transmitted towards load, 𝑇2 − torque transmitted towards
motor.
Motor torque balance equation is given by
𝑑 2 𝜃1 𝑑𝜃1
𝑇𝑚 = 𝐽1 2
+ 𝐷1 + 𝑇1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
If there is no loss, the work done by two gears are equal
𝑇1𝜃1 = 𝑇2 𝜃2
The distance by two gears are equal
𝑟1 𝜃1 = 𝑟2 𝜃2
The number of teeth is proportional to radius
𝑁1 𝑁2
=
𝑟1 𝑟2
T1 θ2 r1 N1
∴ = = =
T2 θ1 r2 N2
Torque balance equation transmitted towards motor.

𝑑 2 𝜃2 𝑑𝜃2
𝑇2 = 𝐽2 2
+ 𝐷2 + 𝑇𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
d2 θ1 dθ1 N N
∴ Tm = J1 + D1 + N1 T2 , since T1 = N1 T2
dt2 dt 2 2
d2 θ1 dθ1 N1 𝑑 2 𝜃2 𝑑𝜃2
Tm = J1 2 + D1 + [𝐽2 + 𝐷2 + 𝑇𝐿 ]
dt dt N2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
d2 θ1 dθ1 N1 N1 𝑑 2 𝜃1 N1 𝑑𝜃1
Tm = J1 2
+ D1 + [𝐽2 2
+ 𝐷2 + 𝑇𝐿 ]
dt dt N2 N2 𝑑𝑡 N2 𝑑𝑡
N1 2 d2 θ1 N1 2 dθ1 N1
Tm = [J1 + J2 ( ) ] 2 + [D1 + 𝐷2 ( ) ] + T
N2 dt N2 dt N2 L
N 2
Moment of inertial J2 is reflected on motor shaft as J2 (N1 )
2
N 2
Viscous friction 𝐷2 is reflected on motor shaft as 𝐷2 (N1 )
2
N
Load torque TL is reflected on motor shaft as N1 TL
2
3.5 Mathematical models of electromechanical systems
Consider the armature-controlled dc motor
Figure: armature – controlled dc motor

A magnetic field is developed by stationary permanent magnets or a stationary electromagnet
called the fixed field. A rotating circuit called the armature, through which current 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) flows,
passes through this magnetic field at right angles and feels a force. The resulting torque turns the
rotor. Since the current-carrying armature is rotating in a magnetic field, back electromotive
(𝑣𝑏 (𝑡)) is developed which is proportional to speed and opposite to applied voltage.
Motor is driving load having equivalent inertia 𝐽𝑚 and equivalent damping 𝐷𝑚 at armature.
𝜽𝒎 (𝒔)
Derive the transfer function .
𝑬𝒂 (𝒔)
By applying KVL for armature circuit:

𝑑𝑖𝑎 (𝑡)
𝑒𝑎 (𝑡) = 𝑅𝑎 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) + 𝐿𝑎 + 𝑣𝑏 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Taking Laplace transform
Ea (s) = Ra Ia (s) + La sIa (s) + Vb (s) (1)
The back emf
𝑑𝜃𝑚 (𝑡)
𝑣𝑏 (𝑡) = 𝑘𝑏 ⇔ 𝑉𝑏 (𝑠) = 𝑘𝑏 𝑠𝜃𝑚 (𝑠) (2)
𝑑𝑡
where 𝑘𝑏 back emf constant.

The torque developed by the motor is given by
𝑇𝑚 (𝑡) = 𝑘𝑡 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) ⇔ 𝑇𝑚 (𝑠) = 𝑘𝑡 𝐼𝑎 (𝑠) (3)
where 𝑘𝑡 motor torque constant.
The motor torque in terms of 𝜃𝑚 is given by
𝑑 2 𝜃𝑚 (𝑡) 𝑑𝜃𝑚 (𝑡)
𝑇𝑚 (𝑡) = 𝐽𝑚 2
+ 𝐷𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Taking Laplace transform
𝑇𝑚 (𝑠) = 𝐽𝑚 𝑠 2 𝜃𝑚 (𝑠) + 𝐷𝑚 𝑠𝜃𝑚 (𝑠) (4)
From Eq. (3) and (4)
𝑘𝑡 𝐼𝑎 (𝑠) = 𝐽𝑚 𝑠 2 𝜃𝑚 (𝑠) + 𝐷𝑚 𝑠𝜃𝑚 (𝑠)
1
𝐼𝑎 (𝑠) = [𝐽 𝑠2 𝜃𝑚 (𝑠) + 𝐷𝑚 𝑠𝜃𝑚 (𝑠)] (5)
𝑘𝑡 𝑚
Substituting Eq. (2) and (5) into Eq. (1) yields

θm (s) 1
= kt [ ]
Ea (s) La Jm s + (Ra Jm + La Dm )s 2 + (Ra Dm + kt kb )s
3
If we assume that the armature inductance, La , is small compared to the armature resistance,
Ra , which is usual for a dc motor, the transfer function becomes,
θm (s) 𝑘𝑡
= 2
Ea (s) R a Jm 𝑠 + (R a Dm + k t k b )𝑠
𝜔(𝑠)
Exercise 1.3: Derive the transfer function 𝐸 .
𝑎 (𝑠)
3.6 Diagrammatical representation mechanisms of a systems dynamic models
3.6.1 Block Diagram
➢ It is a pictorial representation of the functions performed by each component and the flow
of signals. Such a diagram depicts the interrelationships that exist among the various
components.
➢ In a block diagram all system variables are linked to each other through functional blocks.
➢ Note that the signal can pass only in the direction of the arrows.
➢ The advantages of the block diagram representation of a system lie in the fact that it is easy
to form the overall block diagram for the entire system by merely connecting the blocks of
the components according to the signal flow and that it is possible to evaluate the
contribution of each component to the overall performance of the system.
➢ Differing from a purely abstract mathematical representation, a block diagram has the
advantage of indicating more realistically the signal flows of the actual system. It should
be noted that a block diagram of a given system is not unique. A number of different block
diagrams can be drawn for a system, depending on the point of view of the analysis.
Parts of a block diagram
i) Summing Point
As it is shown in figure 3.4, a circle with a cross is the symbol that indicates a summing
operation.
The plus or minus sign at each arrowhead indicates whether that signal is to be added or
subtracted. Quantities being added or subtracted should be the same dimensions and the
same units.
ii) Branch/ Takeoff point
It is a point from which the signal from a block goes concurrently to other blocks or
summing points.
Fig. 3.4: Block diagram of a closed loop system.

Open-Loop Transfer Function
Consider a block diagram of a closed-loop system shown in Fig.3.5. The output Y(s) is
feedback to the summing point, where it is compared with the reference input R(s).
The ratio of the feedback signal B(s) to the actuating error signal E(s) is called the open-
loop transfer function.
That is,
B(s)
Open loop transfer function =
E(s)
B(s) = H(s)Y(s) = H(s)G(s)E(s), since Y(s) = G(s)E(s)
B(s)
∴ = H(s)G(s)
E(s)
Fig. 3.5: Block diagram of a closed loop system.
Feed forward Transfer Function
From Figure 3.5, the ratio of the output signal Y(s) to the actuating error signal E(s) is
called the feed forward transfer function. That is,
Y(s)
Feed forward transfer function =
E(s)
Y(s)
Y(s) = G(s)E(s) ⇒ = G(s)
E(s)
If the feedback transfer function H(s) is unity, then the open-loop transfer function and the
feed forward transfer function are the same.
Closed-Loop Transfer Function
➢ From Figure 3.5, the ratio of the output signal Y(s) to the reference input signal R(s) is
called the closed-loop transfer function. That is,
Y(s)
Closed loop transfer function =
R(s)
In general, for a negative feedback system the closed loop transfer function can be easily obtained
by using the following formula.
Feed forward transfer function
Closed loop transfer function =
1 + open loop transfer function
Procedures for Drawing a Block Diagram
To draw a block diagram for a system the following procedures will be followed.
1) Write the equations that describe the dynamic behavior of each component.
2) Then take the Laplace transforms of these equations, assuming zero initial conditions.
3) Represent each Laplace-transformed equation individually in block form.
4) Assemble the elements into a complete block diagram.
Example: Represent the following system in block form
Solution: The system differential equation (using KVL)

1
Loop1: ei = R1 i1 + C ∫(i1 − i2 ) dt
1
1 1
Loop2: R 2 i2 +
C2
∫ i2 dt + C ∫(i2 − i1 ) dt = 0
1
1
eo = ∫ i dt
C2 2
Taking the Laplace transforms gives,
1
Loop1: Ei (s) = R1 I1 (s) + C s (I1 (s) − I2 (s))
1
C1 R1 s + 1
→ I2 (s) = C1 s [Ei (s) − ( ) I1 (s)]
C1 s
1 1
Loop2: R2 I2 (s) + I (s ) + (I2 (s) − I1 (s)) = 0
C2 s 2 C1 s
C 1
→ I1 (s) = (R2 C1 s + C1 + 1) I2 (s), also Eo (s) = C s I2 (s)
2 2
Then block diagram representation of the system is as shown below.

Rules for block diagram reduction
The complex block diagram involving many feedback loops can be simplified by reduction of
block diagram.
1) Summing point: It is a point where two or more signals may be added /subtracted.
2) For blocks in cascade (series)
3) For blocks in parallel
4) Shifting a summing point before a block
5) Shifting of summing point after a block

6) Shifting of take-off point before a block
7) Shifting of take-off point after a block
Procedure for block diagram reduction

1) Reduce the cascade blocks.
2) Reduce the parallel blocks.
3) Reduce the internal feedback loops.
4) It is advisable to shift take-off points towards right and summing points towards left.
5) Repeat steps 1 to step 4 until the simple form is obtained.
6) Find transfer function of the overall system using the formula.
𝒀(𝒔)
Example: a) Find the single block equivalent and transfer function of the ⁄𝑿(𝒔).
Solution:
Y(s) K c G1G3
=
X(s) 1 + G1 G2 + K c G1 G3H
𝑪(𝒔)
b) Find the single block equivalent and transfer function of the ⁄𝑹(𝒔).
𝑪(𝒔)
c) Obtain the simplified block and ⁄𝑹(𝒔).
d) Obtain the expression for the output C(s) of the system

Answer:
G1 G4 (G2+G3 ) G4 (G2 +G3)
C(s) = 1+H R1 (s) + 1+H R2 (s)
1 G1 (G2 +G3 )+G1 G4 (G2 +G3 ) 1 G1 (G2 +G3 )+G1 G4 (G2 +G3 )
e) For the block diagram given below
a) Reduce the block diagram and find the closed loop transfer function.
b) Find the poles and zeros of the closed loop system.
c) Convert the system into unity feedback.
Solution:
C(s) 255s+55
a) = 5s3 +s2 +510s+110
R(s)
b) Characteristic equation: 5s 3 + s 2 + 510s + 110 = 0

55 11
i. Zeros: 255s + 55 = 0 → s = − 255 = − 51
ii. poles: solve, 5s 3 + s 2 + 510s + 110 = 0
c) Unity feedback form
s+1 5
where G(s) = [( ) + 10]
5s+1 s2
C(s) G(s) G(s) G∗ (s)

= → =
R(s) 1 + H(s)G(s) 1 + 2G(s) 1 + G ∗ (s)
Then solving for G∗ (s) gives,
G(s)
→ G∗ (s) =
1 + G(s)
3.6.2 Signal Flow Graph (SFG)
A signal flow graph is another graphical representation of control system. In which nodes
represent system variable are connected by direct branches.
It may be regarded as a simplified version of a block diagram.
Signal Flow Graph Terminology
Consider the signal flow graph shown below:
1) Node: Node is system variable which is equal to the sum of all incoming signal at
node, while outgoing signal from node do not affect the value of node.
Example: x2 = G1 x1 + H2 x3 & x4 = G3 x3 + H1 x4
2) Branch: It is direct line between nodes.
3) Transmittance: It is gain between nodes/branch gain.
Example: G1 , G2 , G3 & G4 .
4) Input node/source node: It is node which has only outgoing branches.
Example: x1 .
5) Output node/sink node: It is node which has only incoming branches.
Example: x5 .
6) Chain node/mixed node: It is node which has both incoming and outgoing branches.
Example: 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 & 𝑥4 .
7) Forward path: It is path from input node to output node.
Example: 𝑥1 → 𝑥2 → 𝑥3 → 𝑥4 → 𝑥5 .
8) Closed loop/feedback loop: It is loop which start from particular node and ends to
same node. Example: 𝑥2 → 𝑥3 → 𝑥2 .
9) Self-loop: It start from a node and end at same node. Example: 𝑥4 .
10) Path gain: The product of gains going through a forward path.
Example: The path gain of the path
𝑥1 → 𝑥2 → 𝑥3 → 𝑥4 → 𝑥5 is 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐺4 .
11) Loop gain: A product of branch gains in a closed loop.
Example: 𝑥2 → 𝑥3 → 𝑥2 is 𝐺2 𝐻2.
12) Dummy Node: If the incoming as well as outgoing branches exist at the first and the
last node representing input and output variables, these nodes cannot be taken as input
and output nodes. In such case, separate input and output nodes are created by adding
branches with gain 1.
Example:
Without input and output nodes. Dummy nodes.
Construction of signal flow graph from linear equations

Let consider the system described by linear equation shown below:
𝑥2 = 𝑎12 𝑥1 + 𝑎32 𝑥3 + 𝑎42 𝑥4 , 𝑥3 = 𝑎23 𝑥2
𝑥4 = 𝑎24 𝑥2 + 𝑎34 𝑥3 + 𝑎44 𝑥4 , 𝑥5 = 𝑎25 𝑥2 + 𝑎45 𝑥4
Procedure to draw signal flow graph from block diagram

Steps to draw signal flow graph from block diagram are:
1) Replace input and output signal by nodes.
2) Replace the summing point by nodes.
3) Replace all the takeoff points by nodes.
4) If the branch connecting summing point and take off point has unity gain,
combined and represented by a single node.
5) If there are more take-off points from the same signal, all take off points
combined and represented by a single node.
6) If the gain of the link connecting two summing points is one, the two summing
points combined and represented by a single node.
7) In summing point, if a signal is subtracted instead of addition, then multiply the
transmittance by −1 while representing in signal flow graph.
Example: Draw the signal flow graph for the block diagram shown below.
Solution:
Exercise: Construct the equivalent signal flow graph for the block diagram shown below.
3.6.3 Mason’s Gain formula
Mason’s gain formula is used for the determination of the overall transfer function of a system. It
is convenient and easy way of finding the relation between input and output variables from SFG.
Since high number of steps involved in block diagram reduction and time consuming, any complex
block diagram can be converted into signal flow graph and transfer function can be easily obtained
using Mason’s gain formula.
Mason’s gain formula is given by
1
𝑇= ∑ 𝑝𝑘 ∆𝑘
∆
𝑘
where 𝑘 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠

𝑝𝑘 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑘 𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ,
∆= 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ given by
∆= 𝟏 − (𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒔) +
(𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒏𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒐𝒖𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑𝒔) −
(𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒏𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒐𝒖𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑𝒔 + ⋯

∆𝑘 = ∆ part of graph not touching the 𝑘 𝑡ℎ forward path.
Non-touching loop: It is a subgraph forming loop (closed path) but does not touch the forward
path.
𝐶
Example: Find transfer function (𝑅) of the following signal flow graphs using Mason’s gain formula.
Solution:
The number of forward paths are 2
Forward path 1:
𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝟏 = 𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟐 𝑮𝟒 𝑮𝟓
Forward path 2:
𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝟐 = 𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟐 𝑮𝟑
he number of single loops are six.
Loop1:
L𝒐𝒐𝒑 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑳𝟏 = −𝑮𝟒 𝑮𝟓 𝑯𝟐

Loop2:
L𝒐𝒐𝒑 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑳𝟐 = −𝑮𝟐 𝑮𝟒 𝑮𝟓 𝑯𝟏

Loop3:
L𝒐𝒐𝒑 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑳𝟑 = −𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟐 𝑮𝟒 𝑮𝟓

loop4:
𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑳𝟒 = −𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟐 𝑮𝟓

Loop5:
𝑳𝒐𝒐𝒑 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑳𝟓 = −𝑮𝟐 𝑮𝟑 𝑯𝟏

Loop6:
𝑳𝒐𝒐𝒑 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑳𝟔 = −𝑮𝟑 𝑯𝟐

The number of two and more than two non-touching loops are zero.
Mason’s gain formula
∆k= ∆ for that part of graph which is not touching kth forward path.
∆1 = 1 − 0 = 1; ∆2 = 1 − 0 = 1, since all the loops are touching the two forward paths.
1
T (s ) = (p ∆ + p2 ∆2 )
∆ 1 1
𝐆𝟏 𝐆𝟐 𝐆𝟒 𝐆𝟓 + 𝐆𝟏 𝐆 𝟐 𝐆𝟑
𝐓(𝐬) =
𝟏 + 𝐇𝟐 𝐆𝟒 𝐆𝟓 + 𝐆𝟐 𝐆𝟒 𝐆𝟓𝐇𝟏 + 𝐆𝟏 𝐆𝟐 𝐆𝟒𝐆𝟓 + 𝐆𝟏 𝐆𝟐 𝐆𝟑 + 𝐆𝟐 𝐆𝟑 𝐇𝟏 + 𝐆𝟑 𝐇𝟐
𝐶
Exercise1.5: Find transfer function (𝑅) of the following signal flow graphs using Mason’s gain
formula.
𝟏 𝐆𝟏 𝐆𝟐 𝐆𝟑 𝐆𝟒
Answer: 𝐓(𝐬) = 𝐩𝟏 ∆𝟏=
∆ 𝟐+𝟐𝐆𝟒 +𝟐𝐆𝟑 𝐆𝟒 +𝐆𝟐 𝐆𝟑𝐆𝟒
Chapter Four: Time Domain Analysis of Control Systems
4.1 Introduction
The first step in analysing a control system was to derive a mathematical mode of the
system. Once such a model is obtained, various methods are available for the analysis of
system performance. Performance of a system is its response to an input signal.
• In designing a control system, we have to choose a system with better performance,

i.e., systems are to be compared by their response to particular test signal.
• The commonly used test input signals are those of step functions, impulse
functions, ramp functions, parabolic functions, sinusoidal functions.
Unit step function:
1 for t > 0
u(t) = {
0 else where
Unit Impulse Function:

1 for t = 0
δ(t) = {
0 elsewhere
Ramp Function:
t for t > 0
r(t) = {
0 elsewhere
Sinusoidal function:
𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡
The time response of a control system consists of two parts: the transient response and the steady-
state response.
1) Transient response
• The transient response of a system is a particular part of the time response of the
system which tends to zero as time increases.
• It goes from initial state to the final state.
2) Steady state response
• The steady state response of a system is a particular part of the time response of the
system which remains after the transient part has reached zero/die out.
• The total solution of a time response of a system 𝑦(𝑡) is the sum of the transient
response 𝑦𝑡𝑟 (t) and the steady state response 𝑦𝑠𝑠 (t).
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑦𝑡𝑟 (𝑡) + 𝑦𝑠𝑠 (𝑡)
lim 𝑦𝑡𝑟 (𝑡) = 0

𝑡→∞
lim 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑦𝑠𝑠 (𝑡)

𝑡→∞
4.2 Time Domain Transient Response Specifications

In many practical cases, the desired performance characteristics of control systems are
specified in terms of time domain quantities.
Systems with energy storage cannot respond instantaneously and will exhibit responses
whenever they are subjected to inputs or disturbances. Frequently, the performance
characteristics of a control system are specified in terms of the transient response of a unit
step input since it is easy to generate and is sufficiently drastic.
• In specifying the transient response characteristics of a control system to a unit step input,
it is common to specify the following.
1) Delay time (𝒕𝒅 ): It is the time required for the response to reach half of its final
value.
𝑦(𝑡𝑑 ) = 50%. 𝑟(𝑡) = 1⁄2 . 1 = 0.5
2) Peak time (𝒕𝒑 ): It is the time required for the response to reach the first peak of the
shoot.
𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
⃒𝑡 = 𝑡𝑝 = 0
𝑑𝑡
3) Rise time (𝒕𝒓 ): It is the time require for the response to rise from 10% to 90%, 5% to
95% or 0% to 100% of its final value. For under damped second order systems, the 0%
to 100% rise time is normally used. For over damped systems, the 10% to 90% rise
time is commonly used. For 0 to 100% rising
𝑦(𝑡𝑟 ) = 100%. 𝑟(𝑡) = 1.1 = 1 since 𝑟(𝑡) = 1
4) Settling time (𝒕𝒔 ): This is the time required by the response y(t) to reach and remain
within a certain range of its final value.
This range is usually from 2 to 5% of amplitude of the final value.
5) Maximum overshoot (𝐌𝐩): It is the maximum peak value of the response curve
measured from unity.
• It is the difference between the maximum value of the response and the final value
(the steady state response).
• The amount of maximum (percent) overshoot directly indicates the relative stability
of the system.
y(tp ) − y(∞)
Mp = ∗ 100%
y(∞)
Fig.4.1: Unit-step response curve showing 𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡𝑟 , 𝑡𝑝 , 𝑡𝑠 , and 𝑀𝑝 .
4.3 Analysis of First Order Systems

Consider a first order system shown by block diagram and simplified block diagram
below.
• Where, T − is time constant, determines how quickly the response move to steady
state. k − is the static gain, determine size of steady state response when input is
constant.
• For simplicity let k = 1, then input output relationship is,
Y(s) 1
=
R(s) Ts + 1
4.3.1 Unit-Step Response of First-Order Systems
Y(s) 1 1
= Ts+1 → Y(s) = Ts+1 R(s)
R(s)
1 1
But, R(s) = then Y(s) = (Ts+1)s
s
Expanding Y(s) into partial fractions gives

1 1 1 1
Y(s) = − = −
s Ts + 1 s s + 1⁄
T
Taking the inverse Laplace transform
1⁄ )𝑡
𝑦(𝑡) = 1 − 𝑒 −( 𝑇 for 𝑡 ≥ 0
From this equation, initially the output y(t) is zero and finally it becomes unity.
One important characteristic of such an exponential response curve y(t) is that at 𝑡 = 𝑇 the
value of y(t) is 0.632, or the response y(t) has reached 63.2% of its total change. That is,
T⁄ )
At t = T, y (T) = 1 − e−( T = 1 − e−1 = 0.632
For 2% of final value, the settling time can be derived as
y(ts ) = 0.98 ∗ r(t) = 0.98 ∗ 1 = 0.98
ts⁄
y(ts ) = 0.98 → 1 − e−( T) = 0.98 → ts ≈ 4T
For t ≥ 4T, the response reaches to its steady state value.
𝒕
Steady state response: 𝒚𝒔𝒔(𝒕) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏 − 𝒆−( ⁄𝑻)) = 𝟏
𝒕→∞ 𝒕→∞
−𝒕⁄ −𝒕⁄
Transient response: 𝒚𝒕𝒓 (𝒕) = 𝒚(𝒕) − 𝒚𝒔𝒔(𝒕) = (𝟏 − 𝒆 𝑻) −𝟏=𝒆 𝑻
Fig.4.2: unit step response of first order system.
4.3.2 Unit-Ramp Response of First-Order Systems
1 1
Y(s) = R(s) = 2
TS + 1 s (Ts + 1)
1
Since the Laplace transform of the unit-ramp function is 𝑅(𝑠) = 𝑠 2 . Expanding Y(s) into
partial fraction gives
1 T T2
Y(s) =
− +
s 2 s Ts + 1
Taking the inverse Laplace transform gives
−t
y(t) = t − T + Te ⁄T 𝑓𝑜𝑟 t ≥ 0
The transient response of y(t) can be obtained as
−t⁄ )
ytr(t) = lim y(t) = lim (t − T + Te T =0
t→∞ t→∞
−t⁄
From this limit only Te T will converges to zero as time tends to infinity.
−t⁄
→ 𝑦𝑡𝑟 (𝑡) = Te T
Steady state response:

−t⁄ −t⁄
𝑦𝑠𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝑦(𝑡) − 𝑦𝑡𝑟 (𝑡) = t − T + Te T − Te T =t−T
The error signal e(t) is then
−t⁄ −t⁄
e(t) = r(t) − y(t) = t − (t − T + Te T) = T(1 − e T)
At steady state the error signal will converges to T

−t⁄
lim e(t) = lim T(1 − e T) =T
t→∞ t→∞
The smaller the time constant T, the smaller the steady state error in ramp input.
Fig.4.3: Ramp response of first order system.
4.3.3 Unit-Impulse Response of First-Order Systems

For the unit-impulse input, R(s) = 1 and the output of first order system can be obtained as
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏⁄
𝒀(𝒔) = ( )
𝑹 𝒔 = = 𝑻
𝑻𝑺 + 𝟏 𝟏
(𝑻𝒔 + 𝟏) 𝒔 + ⁄
𝑻
𝟏 −𝒕⁄
→ 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝑻 𝒆 𝑻 for 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎
Fig.4.4: Impulse response of first order system.

Exercise 4.1: Find steady state and transient response.
4.4 Analysis of second order systems
Consider the standard the second order system with the closed-loop transfer function.
Y(s) ωn 2
G (s ) = = 2
R(s) s + 2ζωn s + ωn 2
Where the constants 𝜔𝑛 and ζ are called the undamped natural frequency and the
damping ratio of the system respectively.
G(s) can be also written in the form of the following
𝜔𝑛 2
𝐺 (𝑠 ) =
(𝑠 + ζ𝜔𝑛 + 𝜔𝑛 √ζ2 − 1)(𝑠 + ζ𝜔𝑛 − 𝜔𝑛 √ζ2 − 1)
The poles of G(s) are
𝑠1, 2 = −ζ𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 √ζ2 − 1 = −ζ𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 √(−1)(1 − ζ2 )
𝑠1, 2 = −ζ𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 √−1√(1 − ζ2 ) = −ζ𝜔𝑛 ± 𝑗𝜔𝑛 √(1 − ζ2 )
𝑠1, 2 = −𝜎 ± 𝑗𝜔𝑑
where 𝜎 = ζ𝜔𝑛 is damping constant or attenuation
𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 √(1 − ζ2 ) is damped natural frequency of the system.
Example4.1: RLC circuit
di(t)
vi (t) = Ri(t) + L + vo (t) (4.1)
dt
1
vo (t) = ∫ i(t)dt
C
dvo(t)
i(t) = C (4.2)
dt
Taking Laplace transform of Eq. (4.1) and (4.2) gives
vi (s) = RI(s) + LsI(s) + vo (s) (4.3)
I(s) = CSvo (s) (4.4)
Substituting Eq. (4.4) into Eq. (4.3) and rearranging will result the following transfer function.
𝐯𝐨 (𝐬) 𝟏⁄
= 𝐋𝐂
𝐑
𝐯𝐢 (𝐬) 𝐬𝟐 + 𝐬 + 𝟏⁄
𝐋 𝐋𝐂
When we comparing this result to the general second order system, we will got the following
results.
1 1 1
ωn 2 = → ωn = √ =
LC LC √LC
R R R R C
2ζωn = →ζ= = ∗ √LC = √
L 2Lωn 2L 2 L
The dynamic behaviour of the second order systems can then be described in terms of two
parameters ζ and 𝜔𝑛 .
• case1: If 0 < 𝜁 < 1, the closed loop poles are complex conjugates and lie in the left half
s-plane. The system is called under damped and the transient response is oscillatory.
• Case2: If 𝜁 = 0, the transient response does not die out.
• Case3: If 𝜁 = 1, the two poles are equal and the system is called critically damped.
• Case4: If 𝜁 > 1, the closed loop poles are negative real and unequal and the system is
called over damped.
4.4.1 Unit step response of second order systems
ω 2 1
C(s) = s(s2+2ζωn s+ω 2 where R(s) =
nn ) s
1 s+2ζωn
C(s) = s − s2 +2ζω 2
ns+ωn
1 s+ζωn nζω
C(s) = s − s2 +2ζω 2 − s2 +2ζω s+ω 2
ns+ωn n n
1 s+ζωn ζωn
C(s) = s − 2 2 2 −
(s+ζωn) +ωn (1−ζ ) (s+ζωn ) +ωn2 (1−ζ2 )
2
1 s+ζωn ζωn
C(s) = s − −
(s+ζωn)2 +(ωd )2 (s+ζωn )2+(ωd)2
Case1: undamped system (𝜻 = 𝟎)
1 s
C (s ) =
− 2
s s + ωn 2
In this case the poles of C(s) are zero and imaginary 𝑠 = ±𝑗𝜔𝑛 . If we expand C(s) in
partial fractions, we have
1 s
C (s ) = − 2
s s + ωn 2
1 s
∴ c(t) = L−1 {C(s)} = L−1 { − 2 } = 1 − cosωn t
s s + ωn 2
As we can observe from the above equation, the response c(t) is a sustained oscillation
with constant frequency 𝜔𝑛 and constant amplitude equal to 1. In this case the system is
called undamped.
Fig.4.5: unit step response of undamped second order system.

Case2: Under damped system (𝟎 < 𝜻 < 𝟏):
In this case the poles of 𝐺(𝑠) = 𝐶(𝑠)⁄𝑅(𝑠) are complex conjugate pair since 𝑠1, 2 = −𝜎 ±
𝑗𝜔𝑑 .
For a unit step input, the response C(s) can be written as
ωn 2
C (s ) =
s(s 2 + 2ζωn s + ωn 2 )
1 s + 2ζωn
C (s ) = − 2
s (s + 2ζωn s + ωn 2 )
1 s + 2ζωn
C (s ) = − 2
s (s + 2ζωn s + ζ2 ωn 2 − ζ2 ωn 2 + ωn 2 )
1 s + 2ζωn
C (s ) = − 2
s (s + 2ζωn s + ζ2 ωn 2 ) + ωn 2 (1 − ζ2 )
But s 2 + 2ζωn s + ζ2 ωn 2 = (s + ζωn )2 and ωn 2 (1 − ζ2 ) = ωd 2
1 s + ζωn + ζωn
C (s ) = −
s (s + ζωn )2 + ωd 2
1 s + ζωn ζωn ωd
C (s ) = − 2 2
−{ 2 2
}∗
s (s + ζωn ) + ωd (s + ζωn ) + ωd ωd
1 s + ζωn ζωn ωd ωd
C (s ) = − − { } ∗
s (s + ζωn )2 + ωd 2 ωd (s + ζωn )2 + ωd 2 ωd
𝑠 ω
But 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+ω 2} = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑑 𝑡 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2 +ωd 2 } = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑑 𝑡
d d
𝑠+ζωn ωd
𝐿−1 {(s+ζω 2 +ω 2
} = 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑑 𝑡 𝐿−1 {(s+ζω 2 +ω 2
} = 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑑 𝑡
n) d n) d
Then c(t) = L−1 {C(s)}

ζωn −ζω t
c(t) = 1 − e−ζωn tcosωd t − e n sinωd t
ωd
ζωn
c(t) = 1 − e−ζωn t {cosωd t + sinωd t}
ωn √(1 − ζ2 )
ζ
√(1 − ζ2 )
1
c(t) = 1 − {ζ𝑠𝑖𝑛ωd t + √(1 − ζ2 )cosωd t} e−ζωn t
√(1 − ζ2 )
√(1−𝜁2 )
Let 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝜁, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = √(1 − 𝜁2 ) → 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝜁
√(1−𝜁 2 )
Then 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 { }
𝜁
e−ζωn t
c(t) = 1 − {cosθsinωd t + sinθcosωd t}
√(1 − ζ2 )
e−ζωn t
c(t) = 1 − sin (ωd t + θ)
√(1 − ζ2 )
𝐞−𝛇𝛚𝐧 𝐭 √(𝟏−𝛇𝟐 )
∴ 𝐜(𝐭) = 𝟏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐝 𝐭 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝛇
) for 𝑡 ≥ 0.
√(𝟏−𝛇𝟐 )
Thus, when 0 < ζ < 1 we observe that the response c(t) is damped oscillation which tends to 1
as t → ∞. In this case, we say that the system is under damped.
lim c(t) = 1 = Css (t)
t→∞
The error signal for this system is
e−ζωn t
e(t) = r(t) − c(t) = 1 − (1 − sin(ωd t + θ)
√ (1 − ζ2 )
e−ζωn t
e(t) = sin (ωd t + θ)
√(1 − ζ2 )
This error signal exhibits a damped sinusoidal oscillation. At steady state (𝑡 → 𝜃), no error exists
between the input and output.
Fig.4.6: Unit step input response of under damped system for different damping ratio.
Case3: Critically damped system (𝜻 = 𝟏)
In this case the poles of 𝐺 (𝑠) = 𝐶(𝑠)⁄𝑅(𝑠) are real double pole −ωn . For unit step input
1
R(s) = , the response C(s) of critically damped case becomes
s
ωn 2 ωn 2
C (s ) = =
s(s 2 + 2ωn s + ωn 2 ) s(s + ωn )2
If we expand C(s) in partial fractions we have
1 1 ωn
C (s ) = − −
s (s + ωn ) s(s + ωn )2
c(t) = L−1 {C(s)} = 1 − e−ωn t − ωn te−ωn t
c(t) = 1 − e−ωn t (1 + ωn t), 𝑓𝑜𝑟 t ≥ 0.
Thus, when ζ = 1 we observe that the wave form of the response c(t) involves no oscillations,
asymptotically tends to 1 as t → ∞.
Fig.4.7: unit step response of second order critically damped system.
Case4: overdamped system (𝜻 > 𝟏)

In this case, the two poles of 𝐺 (𝑠) = 𝐶(𝑠)⁄𝑅(𝑠)are negative real and unequal s1, 2 = −σ ±
1
ωn √ζ2 − 1. For a unit-step input, R(s) = and C(s) can be written as,
s
ω 2
C(s) = s(s2 +2ζωn s+ω 2) proof after taking inverse Laplace transform it gives,
n n
ωn 𝐞−𝐬𝟏 𝐭 𝐞−𝐬𝟐 𝐭
𝐜( 𝐭 ) = 𝟏 + ( − )
𝟐√ζ2 − 1 𝐬𝟏 𝐬𝟐
Where s1 = ωn (ζ + √ζ2 − 1) and s2 = ωn (ζ − √ζ2 − 1)
➢ In this case, the two poles of 𝐺 (𝑠) = 𝐶(𝑠)⁄𝑅(𝑠)are negative real and unequal s1, 2 =
1
−σ ± ωn √ζ2 − 1. For a unit-step input, R(s) = and C(s) can be written as,
s
ω 2
C(s) = s(s2 +2ζωn s+ω 2) proof after taking inverse Laplace transform it gives,
n n
ωn 𝐞−𝐬𝟏 𝐭 𝐞−𝐬𝟐 𝐭
𝐜( 𝐭 ) = 𝟏 + ( − )
𝟐√ζ2 − 1 𝐬𝟏 𝐬𝟐
Where s1 = ωn (ζ + √ζ2 − 1) and s2 = ωn (ζ − √ζ2 − 1)

Figure 4.8-unit step response comparison for various pole locations in the 𝑠 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 of second
order system
For a desirable transient response of a second order system, the damping ratio must be between
0.4 and 0.8. The Small value of ζ (𝜁 < 0.4) yield excessive overshoot in the transient response,
and a system with large value of ζ ( 𝜁 > 0.8) responds sluggishly.
4.5 Transient response specification parameters of under-damped Second-Order

Systems
1) Rise time (𝐭 𝐫 ): Based up on the time required for the response to rise from 0% to 100%,
the rise time can be obtained from
c(t) = 100%r(t), where r(t) = u(t) = 1 for t ≥ 0
ζ
c(t) = 1 − e−ζωn t {cosωd t + sinωd t} for t ≥ 0
√(1−ζ2 )
Then at tr , c(t) = 1
→ c(t) = 1
ζ
→ 1 − e−ζωn 𝑡𝑟 {cosωd 𝑡𝑟 + sinωd 𝑡𝑟 } = 1
√(1−ζ2 )
ζ
→ e−ζωn 𝑡𝑟 {cosωd 𝑡𝑟 + sinωd 𝑡𝑟 } = 0
√(1 − ζ2 )
Since e−ζωn tr ≠ 0, the above equation can be simplified to

ζ
→ cosωd tr + sinωd tr = 0
√(1 − ζ2 )
√(1 − ζ2 )
→ sinωd tr = − cosωd tr
ζ
√(1−ζ2 )
→ tanωd tr = − but ωd = ωn √(1 − ζ2 ) and σ = ζωn
ζ
ωn √(1 − ζ2 ) ωd
→ tanωd tr = − =−
ζωn σ
ωd
→ ωd tr = tan−1 (− )
σ
1 ωd
→ tr = tan−1 (− )
ωd σ
π−β
→ tr =
ωd
For the smallest value of t r , ωd must be large.

2) Peak time (𝐭 𝐩 ): It can be obtained by differentiating c(t) with respect to time and letting
this derivate equal to zero.
Exercise 2.2: Proof that the peak time and delay time for second order underdamped system
are given by
π 1+0.7𝛇
tp = and td =
ωd ωn
3) Maximum overshoot (𝐌𝐩): the maximum overshoot occurs at the peak time. Assuming
that the final value of the response is unity, Mp can be obtained from
c(tp )−c(∞)
Mp = but c(∞) = 1
C(∞)
c(tp)−1 𝜋
→ Mp = = c(tp ) − 1 where 𝑡𝑝 = 𝜔
1 𝑑
𝜋⁄ ζ
→ Mp = 1 − e−ζωn ∗ 𝜔𝑑 {cosωd ∗ 𝜋⁄𝜔𝑑 + sinωd ∗ 𝜋⁄𝜔𝑑 } − 1
√ ( 1 − ζ2 )
𝜋⁄ ζ 𝜋⁄
→ Mp = −e−ζωn ∗ 𝜔𝑑 {cos𝜋 + sin𝜋} = −e−ζωn ∗ 𝜔𝑑 (−1 + 0)
√(1 − ζ2 )
𝜎
𝜋⁄ −( )𝜋
→ Mp = e−ζωn ∗ 𝜔𝑑 =𝑒 ωd
The maximum percent overshoot is

𝜎
−( )𝜋
Mp = 𝑒 ωd ∗ 100%
4) Settling time (𝐭 𝐬 ): For an underdamped second order system, the transient responses are
obtained from.
ζ
√(1 − ζ2 )
The settling time corresponding to a 2% or 5% tolerance may be measured from the
determinant factors that can lead the response to the steady state value. The determinant
factors of c(t) for settling are
1 − e−ζωn t
For 2% tolerance for 5% tolerance
𝟏 − 𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖 𝟏 − 𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓
𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
𝟒 𝟑
𝒕𝒔 = 𝜻𝝎 𝒕𝒔 = 𝜻𝝎
𝒏 𝒏
Exercise 4.3
1) Find the time response of the following system for unit step input
C(s) 25 C(s) 20
a) = s2 +7s+25 b) = s2 +7s+25
R(s) R(s)
C(s) 50
2) For a system having = , find its time response specifications and the
R(s) s2 +7s+25
expression for the output for unit step input.
𝑑2 𝑦(𝑡) 5𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
3) For a system given by + + 16𝑦(𝑡) = 9𝑟(𝑡), where y(t) is the output and
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑟(𝑡) is the input. Determine,
a) Time response specifications.
b) Time response of the system for unit step input.
𝑘
4) A system has 𝐺 (𝑠) = 𝑠(𝑇𝑠+1) with unity feedback when k and T are constant. Determine
the factor by which k should be multiplied to reduce the overshoot from 85% to 35%.
4.6 Stability of control systems
4.6.1 Definition of stability
Stability implies that small change in system input or small change in system initial
condition or small change in system parameter do not produce large change in system
output.
4.6.2 Analysis of stability
4.6.2.1 By using the location of the pole in the complex plane
The stability of a linear closed-loop system can be determined from the location of the
closed-loop poles in the s-plane. If any of these poles lie in the right-half s-plane, the system
is unstable.
If any poles lie in the right-half s-plane, then with increasing time they give rise to the
dominant mode, and the transient response increases monotonically or oscillates with
increasing amplitude. For such a system, as soon as the power is turned on, the output may
increase with time.
If no saturation takes place in the system and no mechanical stop is provided, then the
system may eventually be subjected to damage and fail since the response of a real physical
system cannot increase indefinitely.
Therefore, closed-loop poles in the right-half s-plane are not permissible in the usual linear
control system.
If all closed-loop poles lie to the left-half s-plane (𝑗𝜔 axis), the system is stable. For such
a system the transient response eventually reaches equilibrium.
Whether a linear system is stable or unstable is a property of the system itself and does not
depend on the input or driving function of the system. The poles of the input, or driving
function, do not affect the property of stability of the system, but they contribute only to
steady-state response terms in the solution.
Thus, the problem of absolute stability can be solved readily by choosing no closed-loop
poles in the right-half s-plane, including the 𝑗𝜔 axis (closed-loop poles on the 𝑗𝜔 axis will
yield oscillations, the amplitude of which is neither decaying nor growing with time).
Note: All closed-loop poles lie in the left-half s-plane does not guarantee satisfactory
transient-response characteristics. If dominant complex-conjugate closed-loop poles lie
close to the 𝑗𝜔 axis, the transient response may exhibit excessive oscillations or may be
very slow.
Therefore, to guarantee fast, yet well-damped, transient response characteristics, it is

necessary that the closed-loop poles of the system lie in a particular region in the complex
plane, such as the region bounded by the shaded area shown in Fig.4.9.
Fig.4.9: Region in the complex plane satisfying the conditions 𝜁 > 0.4 and 𝑡𝑠 < 4⁄𝜎 .
4.6.2.2 By using Routh’s stability criterion
The most important problem in linear control systems concerns stability. Most linear
closed-loop systems have closed-loop transfer functions of the form
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑏0 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 + 𝑏𝑚
=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑎0 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛
where the a's and b's are constants and 𝑚 ≤ 𝑛.
Routh's stability criterion, enables us to determine the number of closed-loop poles that lie
in the right-half s-plane without having to factor the denominator polynomial. This stability
criterion applies to polynomials with only a finite number of terms.
The procedure in Routh's stability criterion is as follows:
1) Write the denominator polynomial in s in the following form:
𝑎0 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛 = 0
where the coefficients are real quantities. We assume that 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0; that is, any
zero root has been removed.
2) The necessary but not sufficient condition for stability is that all the coefficients of the
denominator of transfer function should present and all have a positive sign. (If all a's are
negative, they can be made positive by multiplying both sides of the equation by -1).
If any of the coefficients are zero or negative in the presence of at least one positive
coefficient, there is a root or roots that are imaginary or that have positive real parts. In
this case, the system is not stable.
3) If all coefficients are positive, arrange the coefficients of the polynomial in rows and
columns according to the following pattern:
The process of forming rows continues until we run out of elements. (The total number of
rows is 𝑛 + 1.) The coefficients 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , and so on, are evaluated as follows until the
remaining ones are all zero.
The same pattern of cross-multiplying the coefficients of the two previous rows is
followed in evaluating the c's, d's, e's, and so on. That is,
This process is continued until the nth row has been completed. The complete array of
coefficients is triangular.
Routh's stability criterion states: the number of roots of the denominator of transfer function
with positive real parts is equal to the number of changes in sign of the coefficients of the
first column of the array.
The necessary and sufficient condition that all roots of the denominator of transfer function
lie in the left-half s plane is that all the coefficients of the denominator should be positive
and all terms in the first column of the array have positive signs.
Example 4.2: Investigate the stability of a system with characteristics polynomials
a) s 4 + 2s 3 + 3s 2 + 4s + 5 = 0
b) P(s) = s 4 + s 3 + s 2 + 2s + 4
c) P(s) = s 3 + s 2 + 2s + 1
Solution: a) All the coefficients are positive numbers.
Forming the array
2∗3−1∗4 2∗5−1∗0
b1 = = 1, b2 = =5
2 2
𝑏1 ∗4−2∗b2 1∗4−2∗5
c1 = = = −6
𝑏1 1
𝑐1 ∗b2 −b1∗0 −6∗5−1∗0

d1 = = =5
𝑐1 −6
Therefore
Special Cases
There are two cases in which the Routh criterion, as it has been presented above cannot be
applied. For these two cases certain modifications are necessary so that the above
procedure is applicable.
Case1: A zero element in the first column of the Routh array
In this case the Routh array cannot be completed because the element below the zero
elements in the first column will become infinite. To overcome this difficult,
Method1: If a first-column term in any row is zero, but the remaining terms are not zero
or there is no remaining term, then the zero term is replaced by a very small positive number
𝜖 and the rest of the array is evaluated.
Method2: we multiply the characteristics polynomial p(s) with a factor (𝑠+𝑎), where 𝑎>0
and −𝑎 is not the root of p(s). The conclusions regarding stability of the new polynomial
𝑝̂ (𝑠) = (𝑠 + 𝑎)𝑝(𝑠) are obviously the same as those of the original polynomial p(s).
Example 4.3: consider the following equation
𝑝(𝑠) = 𝑠 4 + 2𝑠 3 + 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 4
Construct the Routh array as,
Method1: Replace the zero term by a very small positive number 𝜖 and then evaluate the rest
of the array.
There are two sign changes of the coefficients in the first column. It shows that p(s) has two
8
roots in the right half complex plane and therefore the system is unstable (lim ∈ − ∈ = −𝑣𝑒).
∈→0
Method2: If we multiply the polynomial p(s) by the factor (𝑠 + 1), we have,

p̂(s) = (s + 1)p(s) = s 5 + 3s 4 + 3s 3 + 3s 2 + 6s + 4
Next construct the Routh array
According to the above Routh array, one observes that the polynomial p̂(s) and p(s) have two
roots in the right half complex plane and therefore the system with characteristics polynomial
P(s) is unstable.
Case2: A zero row in the Routh array
In this case the Routh array cannot be completed, because in computing the rest of the
elements that follow zero rows, indeterminate form 0⁄0 will appear. To overcome this
difficulty:
1) Form the auxiliary polynomial q(s) of the row which precedes the zero row.
2) Take the derivative of q(s) with respect to s and replace the zero row with the coefficients
of q̇ (s).
3) Complete the construction of the Routh array in the usual manner.
Example 4.4: investigate the stability of a system with characteristic polynomial
𝑝(𝑠) = 𝑠 4 + 3𝑠 3 + 4𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 3
Solution: construct the Routh array as follow,
Since the row 𝑠 1 of the Routh array involves only zeros, it is clear that the Routh array cannot be
completed. At this point form auxiliary polynomial 𝑞(𝑠) = 3𝑠 2 + 3 of the row 𝑠 2 . Taking the
derivative of q(s), 𝑞̇ (𝑠) = 6𝑠. The replace the zero row (i.e., 𝑠 1) with the coefficient of 𝑞̇ (𝑠) and
complete the Routh array in the usual manner to yield
Since the first column of the new Routh array doesn’t have sign change the system is stable.
Relative Stability Analysis: Routh's stability criterion provides the answer to the question of
absolute stability. In many practical cases this is not sufficient.
We usually require information about the relative stability of the system.
• Absolute stability: Indicates stability or unitability of a system under consideration.
• Relative stability: Indicates how close a system is to instability.
Routh's stability criterion is of limited usefulness in linear control system analysis mainly because
it does not suggest how to improve relative stability or how to stabilize an unstable system.
It is possible, however, to determine the effects of changing one or two parameters of a system
by examining the values that cause instability.
Example 2.5: Let us determine the range of ‘k’ such that the system with characteristic
polynomial
p(s) = s 4 + s 3 + 2s 2 + s + 2k is stable.
Solution:
For the system to be stable all elements of the first column of Routh array must have the same
sign. Hence there must be 2𝑘 > 0 and 1 − 2𝑘 > 0
𝑘 > 0 and 𝑘 < 0.5
Hence the system is stable for 0 < 𝑘 < 0.5
Exercise 4.4:
1) Determine the stability of a system with closed loop transfer function:
1 1
a) G(s) = 2s5 +3s4 +2s3 +3s2 +2s+1 c) G(s) = 2s5 +7s4 +6s3 +42s2 +8s+56
10 1
b) G(s) = s5 +2s4 +3s3 +6s2 +5s+3 d) G(s) =
s3 +5s2 +6s+30
10
2) For a unity feedback system with 𝐺 (𝑠) = 𝑠(𝑠+1)(𝑠+2) determine the stability using Routh
criterion.
𝑠+6
3) For a unity feedback system given below with 𝐺 (𝑠) = 𝑠(𝑠+1)(𝑠+3) determine the range of
k that makes the system stable.
4) Investigate the stability of the given closed loop control system by using Routh criterion.
4.7 Steady State Errors Analysis
Consider the control system with the open-loop transfer function given by:
k(Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) … (Tm s + 1)
G(s)H(s) =
s N(T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) … (Tp s + 1)
It involves the term s N in the denominator, representing a pole of multiplicity N at the

origin. The system is classified based on the number of integrations indicated by the open-
loop transfer function. A system is called type 0, type 1, type 2, . . . , if N = 0, N = 1, N =
2, . . . , respectively.
As the type number is increased, accuracy is improved; however, increasing the type
number aggravates the stability problem.
Steady-State Errors:
Consider the system shown in block diagram below
The error is given by,

E(s) = R(s) − H(s)C(s), C(s) = G(s)E(s)
E(s) = R(s) − H(s)G(s)E(s)
1
E(s) = 1+H(s)G(s) R(s)
By using final value theorem, the steady state error is
1
ess = lim e(t) = lim SE(s) = lim 𝑆 × × R(s)
t→∞ s→0 s→0 1 + H(s)G(s)
i) The steady-state error of the system for a unit-step input is
1 1 1
ess = lim SE(s) = lim 𝑆 × × =
s→0 s→0 1 + H(s)G(s) 𝑆 1 + H(0)G(0)
The static position error constant kp , is defined by
kp = lim H(s)G(s) = H(0)G(0)

s→0
Thus, the steady-state error in terms of the static position error constant kp , is given by
1
ess =
1 + kp
For a type 0 system,

k(Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) …
kp = lim =k
s→0 (T1s + 1)(T2 s + 1) …
For a type 1 or higher system,

k(T s+1)(T s+1)…
kp = lim sN(Ta s+1)(Tb s+1)… = ∞ for N ≥ 1
s→0 1 2
For a unit-step input, the steady-state error 𝑒𝑠𝑠 , may be summarized as follows:
1
ess = 1+k, for type 0 systems
ess = 0, for type 1 or higher systems

ii) The steady-state error of the system with a unit-ramp input is,
1 1 1
ess = lim SE(s) = lim 𝑠 × × 2 = lim
s→0 s→0 1 + H(s)G(s) s s→0 s + sH(s)G(s)
1 1
ess = lim = lim
s→0 s + sH(s)G(s) s→0 sH(s)G(s)
The static velocity error constant kv is defined by

kv = lim sH(s)G(s)
s→0
Thus, the steady-state error in terms of the static velocity error constant kv , is given by
1
ess =
kv
For a type 0 system
sk(Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) …
kv = lim =0
s→0 (T1s + 1)(T2 s + 1) …
For a type 1 system

sk(Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) …
kv = lim =k
s→0 𝑠(T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) …
For type 2 or higher system

sk(T s+1)(T s+1)…
kv = lim 𝑠 𝑁(Ta s+1)(Tb s+1)… = ∞, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑁 ≥ 2
s→0 1 2
The steady-state error ess , for the unit-ramp input can be summarized as follows:
ess = ∞, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 type 0 system
1
ess = k, for type 1 system
ess = 0, for type 2 and higher system

iii) The steady-state error of the system with a unit-parabolic input (acceleration input)
is
1 1 1 1
ess = lim 𝑠 × × 3 = lim 2 2
= lim 2
s→0 1 + H(s)G(s) s s→0 𝑠 + 𝑠 H(s)G(s) s→0 𝑠 H(s)G(s)
𝑡2
, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑟(𝑡) = { 2
0, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
The static acceleration error constant ka , is defined by
ka = lim s 2 H(s)G(s)
s→0
The steady-state error in terms of ka is then

1
ess =
ka
s 2 k(Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) …
ka = lim =0
s→0 (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) …

s 2 k(Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) …
ka = lim =0
s→0 𝑠(T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) …

s 2 k(Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) …
ka = lim 2 =k
s→0 𝑠 (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) …
For a type 3 or higher system,

s2 k(Ta s+1)(Tb s+1)…
ka = lim = ∞, for 𝑁 ≥ 3
s→0 𝑠 𝑁 (T1 s+1)(T2 s+1)…
Thus, the steady-state error for the unit parabolic input is summarized as
ess = ∞, for type 0 and 1 systems
1
ess = 𝑘, for type 2 systems
ess = 0, for type 3 and higher systems

Table 4.1: Summary (Steady-State Error in Terms of Gain k)
Exercise 5.5
1) Identify the type of system given below
k(1+3s) 5s+1
a) G(s) = and H(s) = s2 +6s+7
s2
k(1+3s)
b) G(s) = and H(s) = 1
𝑠
4
c) G(s) = 𝑠 2 +6𝑠+7 and H(s) = s + 3
𝑘(𝑠+4)
2) For a system having 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐻 (𝑠) = 𝑠(𝑠 3+5𝑠2+6𝑠), find
a) Type of the system

b) Error coefficient
c) Error due to parabolic input
3) Find the error coefficient for the system given by block diagram.
CHAPTER FIVE: ROOT LOCUS ANALYSIS
5.1 Introduction
The basic characteristics of the transient response of closed loop system is closely related
to the location of closed loop poles.
The change of system parameter changes the location of closed loop poles. If parameter
adjustment alone does not yield a desired result, addition of a compensator to the system
will be necessary.
Note: The parameter is usually the gain, but also other variable of open loop transfer
function may be used. Unless stated the gain of open loop transfer function is the parameter.
The Routh criterion determine whether the system is stable or unstable. But it has certain
drawbacks.
1) It does not give sufficient information about the relative stability of the system,
𝑖. 𝑒. amount of overshoot, settling time and etc.
2) It doesn’t help much in design problems in which designer is required to achieve the
desired performance specification by varying one or more parameters.
Roots of characteristic equation of a given system migrate on complex plane (s-plane) as

one of design parameter is adjusted.
The locus of this migration is known as root locus. Once the locus is obtained, one can
select the poles on the root locus which meet the desired specification and can obtain
adjustable design parameter.
The root locus for the system defined as the path of the closed-loop poles as the gain k is
varied from zero to infinity.
In other ways, it is a graphical method of plotting the locus of poles in s-plane as the design
parameter of the system is varied (usually open loop system gain k which varies from 0 to
∞).
5.2 Root-locus plots for negative feedback Systems
5.2.1 Angle and Magnitude Conditions
Consider the negative feedback system shown in Figure 5.1. below

Fig.5.1.
The closed-loop transfer function is

C(s) G(s)
=
R(s) 1 + H(s)G(s)
The characteristic equation for this closed-loop system is
1 + H(s)G(s) = 0 ⇒ H(s)G(s) = −1
Angle condition:
∠𝐻(𝑠)𝐺 (𝑠) = ±180°(2𝑘 + 1), 𝑘 = 0, 1,2, …
Magnitude condition:
|H(s)G(s)| = 1
The values of s that fulfill both the angle and magnitude conditions are the roots of the
characteristic equation, or the closed-loop poles.
A locus of the points in the complex plane satisfying the angle condition alone is the root
locus.
The roots of the characteristic equation (the closed-loop poles) corresponding to a given
value of the gain can be determined from the magnitude condition. Then the root loci for
the system are the loci of the closed-loop poles as the gain k is varied from zero to infinity.
Let consider characteristic equation of nth order system.
k ∏m
i=1(s+zi )
1 + H(s)G(s) = 0, let H(s)G(s) = ∏n
j=1(s+pj )
𝑘 ∏𝑚
𝑖=1(𝑠 + 𝑧𝑖 )
1+ 𝑛 =0
∏𝑗=1(𝑠 + 𝑝𝑗 )
𝑛 𝑚
∏(𝑠 + 𝑝𝑗 ) + k ∏(𝑠 + 𝑧𝑖 ) = 0
𝑗=1 𝑖=1
𝑛 𝑚
1
∏(𝑠 + 𝑝𝑗 ) + ∏(𝑠 + 𝑧𝑖 ) = 0
𝑘
𝑗=1 𝑖=1
i) When k = 0, the roots (poles) of characteristic equation will be system open loop poles.
𝑛
∏(𝑠 + 𝑝𝑗 ) = 0
𝑗=1
ii) When 𝑘 → ∞, the roots (poles) of characteristic equation will be system open loop
zeros.
𝑚
∏(𝑠 + 𝑧𝑖 ) = 0
𝑖=1
It can be concluded that as 𝑘 varies from 0 to ∞ the loci of the roots of characteristic
equations begins at open loop poles (k = 0) and terminates at open loop system zeros (k →
∞).
Note that to begin sketching the root loci of a system by the root-locus method we must
know the location of the poles and zeros of G(s)H(s).
The angle of the complex quantities originating from the open-loop poles and open-loop
zeros to the test point ‘s’ are measured in the counterclockwise direction.
k(s+z1 )
Example: H(s)G(s) = (s+p )((
1 s+p2 ))((s+p3 ))((s+p4))
∠H(s)G(s) = ϕ1 − θ1 − θ2 − θ3 − θ4
k|s + z1 | 𝑘𝐵1
|H(s)G(s)| = =
|s + p1 ||s + p2 ||s + p3 ||s + p4 | 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3 𝐴4
where A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 , and B1 are the magnitudes of the complex quantities s + p1 , s +
p2 , s + p3 , s + p4 and s + z1 respectively as shown in figure 5.2 below.
Fig.5.2: (a) and (b) Diagrams showing angle measurements from open-loop poles and
open-loop zero to test point 𝑠.
5.3 General rules for construction of root loci
1) Locate poles and zeros of H(s)G(s) on the s-plane.
•The root locus branches start from open-loop poles (when k = 0) and terminate at
open-loop zeros (finite zeros or zeros at infinity).
• The root loci are symmetrical about real axis of the s-plane, because the complex
poles and complex zeros occur only in conjugate pair.
• The number of branches is equal to the order of characteristic polynomial
(number of poles of open loop transfer function).
• The number of branches terminating at infinity equals to the difference between
number of poles and number of zeros (𝑛 − 𝑚). Where n-number of finite poles and
m-number of finite zeros.
2) Determine the root loci on real axis.
• All point on real axis lies on root locus, if the sum of poles and zeros on the real
axis to the right of test point is an odd number.
• The complex conjugate poles and zeros of the open loop transfer function have no
effect on the location of root loci.
3) Determine asymptotes of root loci. Angle of asymptotes is given by:
±180°(2q+1)
ϕA = , q = 0, 1, 2, … , (n − m − 1)
n−m
Where n- number of finite poles of H(s)G(s) and m-number of finite zeros of

H(s)G(s).
4) Determine centroid(𝐶𝛿 ): It is the point of intersection of asymptotes with real axis. It is
given by
𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑯(𝒔)𝑮(𝒔) − 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒔 𝑯(𝒔)𝑮(𝒔)
𝑪𝜹 =
𝒏−𝒎
5) Find the break away and break in points.
𝑑𝑘
Point at which multiple roots of characteristic equation occur and solution of = 0.
𝑑𝑠
Break-away point: The point at which root locus comes out of real axis.
Break-in point: The point at which root locus enters the real axis.
6) Determine the angle of departure (angle of arrival) of the root locus from complex poles
(at a complex zeros).
The angle of departure from complex open-loop pole is given by
𝜙𝑝 = ±180°(2𝑞 + 1) + 𝜙, 𝑞 = 0, 1, 2, …
Where 𝜙 is the net angle contribution to this pole by all other open loop poles and zeros.
The angle of arrival at complex open-loop zero is given by
𝜙𝑧 = ±180°(2𝑞 + 1) − 𝜙, 𝑞 = 0, 1, 2, …
Where 𝜙 is the net angle contribution to this zero by all other open loop poles and zeros.
7) Find the points where the root locus may cross the imaginary axis (intersection of root
locus with imaginary axis). It is obtained using Routh criterion.
8) Open-loop gain k at any point 𝑠0 on root locus is given by
∏|(s0 + pi )|
k=
∏|(s0 + zj )|
Note: Slight change in pole-zero configuration may cause significant change in root locus
configuration.
• In pole-zero cancellation, to obtain the complete set of closed-loop poles, we must
add cancelled poles of 𝐻(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠) to those closed-loop poles obtained from the
root-locus plot of 𝐻(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠).
• If the number of open-loop poles exceeds the number of finite zeros by three or
more, there is a value of gain k beyond which the root loci enter the right half of
s-plane and the system become unstable.
Note: A particular problem may be to determine a pair of dominant complex conjugate

closed-loop poles with a given damping ratio (ζ).
If s1 is one of the such a pair points, then
• s1 must be on the root loci.

• The line joining s1 to the origin must make an angle β = ± cos −1 𝜁 with negative
real axis.
Thus, s1 can be determined as the intersection of root loci with a ray (straight line) from
the origin making an angle of 𝛽 with negative real axis. Once s1 , is determined, the
corresponding gain k can be determined by magnitude condition.
Example:
Sketch root locus of a unity feedback system having open loop transfer function given by
k
G (s) = and determine the gain at a point s = −1.
s(s+2)(s+3)
Solution: Open-loop poles are 𝑠 = 0, − 2 & − 3 and there is no open-loop zeros.

Number of root locus branches are three since 𝑛 = 3. The three branches of root locus
originates from open loop poles at 𝑠 = 0, − 2 & − 3 when 𝑘 = 0 and terminates at
infinity.
All point on real axis between 0 & − 2, between −3 & − ∞ lie on root locus for which
number of open-loop poles and zeros to the right of test point are 1 & 3 respectively.
The three root locus branches proceed to infinity and do so along asymptotes with angle
180°(2q+1)
ϕA = n−m
, q = 0, 1, 2
180°(2q+1)
ϕA = 3
= 60°, 180° & 300°
Centroid:
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠) − 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠)
𝐶𝛿 =
𝑛−𝑚
(0 − 2 − 3) − (0) −5
𝐶𝛿 = = = −1.667
3−0 3
dk
Break away point of root locus = 0,
ds
C(s) k
= 3 2
R(s) s + 5s + 6s + k
s 3 + 5s 2 + 6s + k = 0 → k = −(s 3 + 5s 2 + 6s)
dk
= −(3s 2 + 10s + 6) = 0 → s = −2.5485 & − 0.7847
ds
The point −2.5485 is not on root locus. Therefore, break away point is −0.7847 which is
on root locus.
Intersection of root locus with imaginary axis
s 3 + 5s 2 + 6s + k = 0
s3 1 6 0
s2 5 k 0
30−k
s1 a = b=0
5
s0 c=k
30−k
To find maximum gain considers > 0&k > 0
5
∴ 0 < 𝑘 < 30
To find point of intersections considers 𝑠 2 row when 𝑘 = 30
5𝑠 2 + 𝑘 = 0 → 5𝑠 2 + 30 = 0 → 𝑠 = ±√−6 = ±𝑗2.449
𝑘 = |𝑠(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 3)| = |−1(−1 + 2)(−1 + 3)| = 2 0r

𝑘 = |𝑠||𝑠 + 2||𝑠 + 3| = |−1||−1||−2| = 2
Example: Sketch the root locus for a unity feedback system with open loop transfer
𝑘
function 𝐺 (𝑠) = 2
𝑆(𝑠 +8𝑠+32)
Solution:
Open loop poles are 𝑠 = 0, − 4 + 𝑗4 & − 4 − 𝑗4 and there is no open loop zeros.
Number of root locus branches are three since 𝑛 = 3. The three branches of root locus
originates from open loop poles at 𝑠 = 0, − 4 + 𝑗4 & − 4 − 𝑗4 when 𝑘 = 0 and
terminates at infinity when 𝑘 → ∞.
All point on real axis between −∞ & 0 lie on root locus since there is one pole to the
right of this.
Asymptotes angle of branches
180°(2q+1)
ϕA = , q = 0, 1, 2
n−m
180°(2q + 1)
ϕA = = 60°, 180° & 300°
3
centroid
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠) − 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠)
𝐶𝛿 =
𝑛−𝑚
(0 − 4 − 4) − (0) −8
𝐶𝛿 = = = −2.667
3−0 3
dk
Break away point of root locus ds = 0,
C(s) k
= 3
R(s) s + 8s 2 + 32s + k
s 3 + 8s 2 + 32s + k = 0 → k = −(s 3 + 8s 2 + 32s)
dk −8 ± 𝑗4√2
= −(3s 2 + 16s + 32) = 0 → s =
ds 3
The points are not on the root locus. Therefore, there is no break away point.
Angle of departure of root locus from a complex open loop pole are
𝜙𝑝 = 180° + 𝜙
Angle of departure at 𝑝2
𝜙𝑝2 = 180° + 𝜙
𝜙 = 𝜙𝑧 − (𝜙𝑝1 + 𝜙𝑝3 + 𝜙𝑝4 + ⋯ )
But not include at a pole we are find departure angle (𝜙𝑝2 ).
since there is no zero, ϕz = 0

ϕp1 = 135° & ϕp3 = 90
ϕ = ϕz − (ϕp1 + ϕp3 ) = 0 − (135° + 90°) = −225°
ϕp2 = 180° + ϕ = 180° + (−225°) = −45°
Angle of departure at p3
ϕp3 = 180° + ϕ
ϕ = ϕz − (ϕp1 + ϕp2 ), ϕp1 = 45° & ϕp2 = 90°
ϕ = ϕz − (ϕp1 + ϕp2 ) = 0° − (45° + 90°) = −135°
ϕp3 = 180° + ϕ = 180° + (−135°) = 45°

Intersection of root locus with imaginary axis
s 3 + 8s 2 + 32s + k = 0
s3 1 32 0
s2 8 k 0
256−k
s1 a = b=0
8
s0 c=k
256−k
To find maximum gain considers >0&k >0
8
∴ 0 < 𝑘 < 256

To find point of intersections considers 𝑠 2 row when 𝑘 = 256
8𝑠 2 + 𝑘 = 0 → 8𝑠 2 + 256 = 0 → 𝑠 = ±√−32 = ±𝑗5.657

5.4 Control Systems Design by the Root-Locus Method
5.4.1 Introduction
Compensation is the modification of the system dynamics to satisfy the given

specifications.
The design by the root-locus method is based on reshaping the root locus of the system by
adding poles and zeros to the system's open-loop transfer function and forcing the root loci
to pass through desired closed-loop poles in the s plane.
For system compensation, first step is to adjust the gain, but in many practical case only
adjusting gain not give satisfactory performance. So, redesign or addition of a suitable
device is called compensation to obtain the desired performance.
A device inserted into the system for the purpose of satisfying the specifications is called
a compensator.
In building a control system, proper modification of the plant dynamics may be a simple
way to meet the performance specifications. But this not be possible in many practical
situations because the plant may be fixed and may not be modified.
Compensation of control system reduced to design of a filter whose characteristics tend to
compensate for the undesirable and unalterable characteristics of the plant.
The root-locus method is a graphical method for determining the locations of all closed-
loop poles from knowledge of the locations of the open-loop poles and zeros as some
parameter (usually the gain) is varied from zero to infinity.
Effects of the Addition of Poles and zeros:
Addition of a pole to the open-loop transfer function has the effect of pulling the root locus
to the right, tending to lower the system’s relative stability and to slow down the settling
of the response.
Fig.5.4: Root-locus plot of system, (a) single-pole, (b) two-pole (c) three-pole
Addition of a zero to the open-loop transfer function has the effect of pulling the root locus
to the left, tending to make the system more stable and to speed up the settling of the
response.
Fig.5.5: Root-locus plot of system, (a) three-pole system; (b), (c), and (d) root-locus plots
showing effects of addition of a zero to three-pole system.
5.4.2 Lead Compensation
There are many ways to realize continuous-time (or analog) lead compensators, such as
electronic networks using operational amplifiers, electrical RC networks, and mechanical
spring-dashpot systems. Consider electronic circuit using operational amplifiers as shown
in Figure 5.6.
Figure 5.6 Electronic circuit

The transfer function for this circuit
1
Eo(s) R2 R 4 R1 C1 s + 1 R 4 C1 s + ⁄R1 C1 Ts + 1
= = = kc α
Ei (s) R1 R 3 R2 C2 s + 1 R 3 C2 s + 1⁄ αTs + 1
R 2 C2
s + 1⁄T
= kc (5.1)
s + 1⁄αT
R C
Where, T = R1 C1 , αT = R2 C2 and kc = R4 C1
3 2
R C R C R C R R
𝛼 = R2 C2, kc α = R4 C1 × R2 C2 = R2 R4
1 1 3 2 1 1 1 3
R2 R4
This network has a dc gain kc α =
R1 R3
From Equation (5.1), the network is a lead network if R1 C1 > R2 C2 or 𝛼 < 1. It is a lag
network if R1 C1 < R2 C2 .
Fig.5.7: Pole-zero Configurations (a) lead network (b) lag network

Procedures for designing a lead compensator by the root-locus method
Consider the system shown in Figure 5.8
Fig.5.8: Control system.

1) Determine the desired location for the dominant closed-loop poles from the performance
specifications.
2) By drawing the root-locus plot of the uncompensated system (original system), ascertain
whether or not the gain adjustment alone can yield the desired closed-loop poles. If not,
calculate the angle deficiency 𝜙.This angle must be contributed by the lead compensator if
the new root locus is to pass through the desired locations for the dominant closed-loop
poles.
3) Assume the lead compensator 𝐺𝑐 (𝑠) to be
Ts+1 s+1⁄T
𝐺𝐶 (𝑠) = kc α αTs+1 = kc s+1 , (0 < 𝛼 < 1)
⁄αT
where α and T are determined from the angle deficiency. kc is determined from the
requirement of the open-loop gain.
4) If static error constants are not specified, determine the location of the pole and zero of the
lead compensators so that the lead compensator will contribute the necessary angle ϕ. If
no other requirements are imposed on the system, try to make the value of α as large as
possible. A larger value of α generally results in a larger value of kv , which is desirable.
5) Determine the open-loop gain of the compensated system from the magnitude condition.
Example: Consider the system shown in Figure5.9

The damping ratio of the closed-loop poles is 0.5.The undamped natural frequency of the
closed – loop poles is 2 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐.The static velocity error constant is 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1.
It is desired to modify the closed-loop poles so that an undamped natural frequency 𝜔𝑛 =
4 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 is obtained, without changing the value of the damping ratio 𝜁 = 0.5. Design
lead compensator in the feedforward path.
Solution:
The desired locations of the closed-loop poles are:
s = −2 ± j2√3
4
The root-locus plot of the feedforward transfer function G(s) = s(s+2) is as shown in Figure
5.10.
Fig.5.10: Root-locus plot.
The closed-loop transfer function is
C(s) 4 4
= 2 =
R(s) s + 2s + 4 (𝑠 + 1 + 𝑗√3)(𝑠 + 1 − 𝑗√3)
Find the sum of the angles at the desired location of one of the dominant closed-loop poles
with the open-loop poles and zeros of the original system, and determine the necessary
angle 𝜙 to be added so that the total sum of the angles is equal to 180°(2𝑘 + 1). The lead
compensator must contribute this angle 𝜙 . (If the angle 𝜙 is quite large, then two or more
lead networks may be needed rather than a single one). So, the angle of 𝐺(𝑠) at desired
closed-loop pole is
4
∠ | = −210°
𝑠(𝑠 + 2) 𝑠=−2+2𝑗√3
Thus, to force the root locus to go through the desired closed-loop pole, the lead
compensator must contribute ϕ = 30° at this point.
If the original system has the open-loop transfer function 𝐺(𝑠), then the compensated
system will have the open-loop transfer function
s + 1⁄T
𝐺𝑐 (𝑠)𝐺 (𝑠) = (kc ) 𝐺(𝑠)
s + 1⁄αT
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, the compensator

Ts+1 s+1⁄T
𝐺𝐶 (𝑠) = kc α αTs+1 = kc s+1 , (0 < 𝛼 < 1)
⁄αT
There are many possible values for T and 𝛼 that will yield the necessary angle
contribution at the desired closed-loop poles.
Determine the locations of the zero and pole of the lead compensator.
Draw a horizontal line passing through point P, the desired location for one of the
dominant closed-loop poles (as line PA) and also draw a line connecting point P
and the origin.
Bisect the angle between the lines PA and PO, by line PB. Draw two lines PC and
𝜙
PD that make angles with the bisector PB.
2
The intersections of PC and PD with the negative real axis give the necessary locations for
the pole and zero of the lead networks as shown in Figure 5.11 below.
The compensator thus designed will make point P a point on the root locus of the
compensated system.
Fig.5.11. Determination of zero and pole of lead network

Determine the zero and pole of lead compensator from figure 5.12.
Fig.5.12: Root-locus plot of compensated system.

Zero at: 𝑠 = −2.9, Pole at: 𝑠 = −5.4
1 1 0.185
T = 2.9 = 0.345 and αT = 5.4 = 0.185 𝛼 = 0.345 = 0.537
The open-loop transfer function of the compensated system becomes

s + 2.9 4 s + 2.9
Gc (s)G(s) = kc =k
s + 5.4 s(s + 2) s(s + 2)(s + 5.4)
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, k = 4kc
s + 2.9
|k || =1
s(s + 2)(s + 5.4) 𝑠=−2+𝑗2√3
18.7
𝑘 = 18.7 ⇒ 𝑘𝑐 = = 4.68, 𝑘𝑐 𝛼 = 2.51
4
s + 2.9 4 18.7(s + 2.9)

G c (s ) G (s ) = k c =
s + 5.4 s(s + 2) s(s + 2)(s + 5.4)
The lead compensator, therefore, has the transfer function
0.345s + 1 𝑠 + 2.9
Gc (s) = 2.51 = 4.68
0.185s + 1 𝑠 + 5.4
If lead compensator is designed from electronic circuit using operational amplifiers as shown
in Figure 5.6 above, then the parameters values are determined from
𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑅2 𝑅4 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠 + 1 0.345s + 1
= = 2.51
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑠 + 1 0.185s + 1
Arbitrarily choosing, C1 = C2 = 10μF and R3 = 10 kΩ
Fig.5.13: Lead compensator

The static velocity error constant kv , is obtained from the expression
𝑠18.7(𝑠 + 2.9)
kv = lim sGc (s)G(s) = lim = 5.02𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1
s→0 s→0 𝑠(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 5.4)
Third closed-loop pole of the designed system is found by dividing the characteristic equation by
the known factors as follows:
𝑠(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 5.4) + 18.7(𝑠 + 2.9) = (𝑠 + 2 + 𝑗2√3)(𝑠 + 2 + 𝑗2√3)(𝑠 + 3.4)
The third pole at 𝑠 = −3.4 close to s = −2.9 , the effect on transient response is relatively small.
Note: This pole and zero of compensator is not unique, there many combinations that will yield
30° phase lead but different value of α and kv .
5.4.3 Lag Compensation
The configuration of the electronic lag compensator using operational amplifiers is the
same as that for the lead compensator shown in Figure 5.6, if we choose, 𝑅2 𝐶2 > 𝑅1 𝐶1 .
The transfer function of the lag compensator is given by
Ts+1 1
s+ ⁄
GC (s) = k̂c β βTs+1 = k̂ c s+1 T (5.2)
⁄βT
R C R C
Where, T = R1 C1 , βT = R2 C2 , β = R2 C2 > 1 and k̂c = R4C1
1 1 3 1
For compensation of the system that exhibits satisfactory transient-response characteristics but
unsatisfactory steady-state characteristics increase in open loop gain is required without changing
appreciably the root locus in the neighborhood of the dominant closed-loop poles. This can be
accomplished if a lag compensator is put in cascade with the given feedforward transfer function.
To avoid an appreciable change in the root loci, the angle contribution of the lag network should
be limited to a small amount, say 5.
➢ To assure this, we place the pole and zero of the lag networks relatively close together
and near the origin of the s plane.
➢ The main negative effect of the lag compensation is that the compensator zero that will be
generated near the origin creates a closed-loop pole near the origin. This closed-loop pole
and compensator zero will generate a long tail of small amplitude in the step response, thus
increasing the settling time.
Design Procedures for Lag Compensation by the Root-Locus Method:
Consider designing lag compensators for the system shown in Figure 5.14 below.
Fig.5.14: Control system
1) Draw the root-locus plot for the uncompensated system whose open-loop transfer function
is 𝐺(𝑠). Based on the transient-response specifications, locate the dominant closed-loop
poles on the root locus.
2) Assume the transfer function of the lag compensator to be
𝐓𝐬 + 𝟏 𝐬 + 𝟏⁄𝐓
̂ 𝐜𝛃
𝐆𝐂(𝐬) = 𝐤 ̂
= 𝐤𝐜
𝛃𝐓𝐬 + 𝟏 𝐬 + 𝟏⁄𝛃𝐓
Then the open-loop transfer function of the compensated system becomes Gc (s)G(s).
3) Evaluate the particular static error constant specified in the problem.
4) Determine the amount of increase in the static error constant necessary to satisfy the
specifications.
5) Determine the pole and zero of the lag compensators that produce the necessary increase
in the particular static error constant without appreciably altering the original root loci.
6) Draw a new root-locus plot for the compensated system. Locate the desired dominant
closed-loop poles on the root locus.
7) Adjust gain k̂ c , of the compensator from the magnitude condition so that the dominant
closed-loop poles lie at the desired location (k̂c , will be approximately 1).
Example: Consider the system shown in Figure 5.15

The damping ratio of the dominant closed-loop poles is ζ = 0.491. The undamped natural
frequency of the dominant closed-loop poles is 0.673 rad⁄sec.
The static velocity error constant is 0.53 sec −1 . It is desired to increase the static velocity error
constant kv to about 5 sec −1 without appreciably changing the location of the dominant closed-
loop poles. Undamped natural frequency of compensated system is 𝜔𝑛 = 0.631 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 and
damping ratio ζ remain the same.
Deign a lag compensator in cascade with the given feedforward transfer function to meet
the given specification.
Solution:
1.06
The root locus plot of the system with open-loop transfer function 𝐺 (𝑠) = is
𝑠(𝑠+1)(𝑠+2)
The dominant closed-loop poles a

s = 0.3307 ± j0.5864
The closed-loop transfer function becomes
C(s) 1.06
=
R(s) s(s + 1)(s + 2) + 1.06
1.06
=
(s + 0.3307 − j0.5864)(s + 0.3307 + j0.5864)(s + 2.3386)
To increase the static velocity error constant by a factor of about 10, let us choose β = 10.
Place the zero and pole of the lag compensator at s = −0.05 and s = −0.005, respective1y.
The transfer function of the lag compensator becomes
𝑠 + 0.05
𝐺𝑐 (𝑠) = 𝑘̂𝑐
𝑠 + 0.005
The open-loop transfer function of the compensated system then becomes
𝑠 + 0.05 1.06 𝑘 (𝑠 + 0.05)
𝐺𝑐 (𝑠)𝐺 (𝑠) = 𝑘̂𝑐 =
𝑠 + 0.005 𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2) 𝑠(𝑠 + 0.005)(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)
where, 𝑘 = 1.06𝑘̂𝑐
Since damping ratio kept the same, the new dominant closed-loop poles are:
𝑠 = −031 ± 𝑗0.55
The open-loop gain 𝑘 is
𝑠(𝑠 + 0.005)(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)
𝑘=| | |𝑠=−031+𝑗0.55 = 1.0235
(𝑠 + 0.05)
Then the lag compensator gain 𝑘̂𝑐 is

1.0235
𝑘̂𝑐 = = 0.9656
1.06
Thus, the transfer function of the lag compensator designed is
𝑠 + 0.05 20𝑠 + 1
𝐺𝑐 (𝑠) = 0.9656 = 9.656
𝑠 + 0.005 200𝑠 + 1
The two other closed-loop poles for the compensated system are found as follows:
s3 = −2.326 & s4 = 0 − 0549
Chapter Five: Frequency Response Analysis
6.1 Introduction
Frequency response is concerned with the steady-state response of a system to a sinusoidal

input of fixed amplitude and varying the frequency over a certain range.
If stable, linear, time-invariant system subjected sinusoidal input signal, the steady-state output
will also be a sinusoidal signal of the same frequency, but with possibly different magnitude and
phase angle of the input signal.
p(s) p(s)
Let G(s) = =( , and
q(s) s+s1 )(s+s2)…(s+sn )
𝐱(𝐭) = 𝐀 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 −is sinusoidal input signal and y(t) − is sinusoidal output signal.
Y(s) Aω
= G(s) ⇒ Y(s) = G(s)X(s), X(s) = s2 +ω2
X(s)
Aω
Y(s) = G(s)X(s) = G(s)
s2 + ω2
k k̅
Y(s) = + partial fraction of G(s)term
+⏟
s + jω s − jω
⏟ due to transfer function
due to input ↑
↑ transient response
steady state response (yss ) (it will die out as time increases
so we can neglect it)
For a stable system, s1 , s2 , … , sn have negative real parts. Therefore, as time approaches
infinity, the terms e−s1 t, e−s2 t , … , e−sn t approach zero.
k ̅
k
Yss (s) = s+jω + s−jω were, k̅ − complex conjugate of k.
AωG(s) AG(−jω) A|G(jω)| −jϕ

k = (s + jω) |s=−jω = − = e
(s + jω)(s − jω) 2j 2j
Since, G(−jω) = |G(−jω)|e∠G(−jω) = |G(jω)|e−∠G(jω) = |G(jω)|e−jϕ and
Imaginary part of G(jω)
ϕ = ∠𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = tan−1 [ ]
Real part of G(jω)
AωG(s) AG(jω) A|G(jω)| ∠G(jω) A|G(jω)| jϕ
k̅ = (s − jω) |s=jω = = e = e
(s + jω)(s − jω) 2j 2j 2j
AG(−jω) AG(jω)
k k̅ − 2j 2j
Yss (s) = + = +
s + jω s − jω s + jω s − jω
A ∠G(−jω) A
− 2j |G(−jω)|e | ( )| ∠G(jω)
2j G jω e
= +
s + jω s − jω
A A A A
− 2j |G(−jω)|e−jϕ |G(jω)|ejϕ − |G(jω)|e−jϕ | ( )| jϕ
2j 2j 2j G jω e
Yss (s) = + = +
s + jω s − jω s + jω s − jω
A|G(jω)| A|G(jω)|
Yss (t) = [−e−jϕ 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 + ejϕ 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ] = [−𝑒 −𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ϕ) + 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ϕ) ]
2j 2j
𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ϕ) −𝑒 −𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ϕ)
Yss (t) = A|G(jω)| [ ] = A|G(jω)| sin(𝜔𝑡 + ϕ),
2𝑗
Yss (t) = B sin(𝜔𝑡 + ϕ), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, B = A|G(jω)|
Fig.5.1: Input and output sinusoidal signals.
Where, ϕ − phase shift angle between input and output, ω −Oscillation frequency and
A and B − are magnitudes of input and output respectively.
A positive phase angle is called phase lead while negative phase angle is called phase lag.
➢ Consider the network given by
1
s+T
1
G (s) =
1
s+T
2
For the sinusoidal input, x(t) = k sin ωt

a) Find the steady state output.
b) Determine whether this network is a lead network or lag network.
Solution:
1
j𝜔+ T2 (1+j𝜔T1 ) T2 √1+𝑇 21 𝜔2
T1
G(j𝜔) = 1 = , |G(j𝜔)| = ,
j𝜔+ T1 (1+j𝜔T2 ) T1 √1+𝑇 2 1 𝜔2
T2
ϕ = ∠𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = tan−1 (𝜔T1 ) − tan−1 (𝜔T2 )

T2 √1+T2 1 ω2
a) yss (t) = k sin(ωt + tan−1 (ωT1 ) − tan−1 (ωT2 ))
T1 √1+T2 1 ω2
b) IF T1 > T2 , then tan−1 (ωT1 ) > tan−1 (ωT2 ), so the network is lead network. Lag
network if T1 < T2 .
Advantages of frequency response analysis
• Can infer performance and stability from same plot.
• Design process is independent of system order (number of poles).
• When the transfer function for a component is unknown, the frequency response can be
determined experimentally and an approximate expression for the transfer function can be
obtained from the graph of the experimental data.
• Graphical techniques (analysis/synthesis) are quite simple.
• Nyquist stability criterion enables one to investigate both the absolute and relative
stabilities of linear closed-loop systems from a knowledge of their open-loop frequency-
response characteristics.
6.2 Presenting Frequency-Response Characteristics in Graphical Forms
There are three commonly used representations of sinusoidal transfer functions:

1) Bode diagram or logarithmic plot
2) Nyquist plot or polar plot
3) Log-magnitude-versus-phase plot (Nichols plots)
Bode diagrams or logarithmic plot
Bode diagram consists of two graphs:
Plot of the logarithm of the magnitude of a sinusoidal transfer function and plot of the phase
angle. Both are plotted against the frequency on a logarithmic scale.
In the logarithmic representation, the curves are drawn on semi-log paper, using the log
scale for frequency and the linear scale for either magnitude (in decibels dB) or phase
angle (in degrees).
The main advantages of using Bode Diagram are:
a) Multiplication of magnitudes can be converted into addition.
b) A simple method for sketching an approximate log-magnitude curve is available.
c) It is based on asymptotic approximations.
d) The experimental determination of a transfer function can be made simple if frequency-
response data are presented in the form of a Bode diagram.
The sinusoidal transfer function is given by
𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = 𝐺 (𝑠)|𝑠=𝑗𝜔
The basic factors that very frequently occur in an arbitrary open-loop transfer function
𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)H(j𝜔):
• Constant gain 𝑘
• Integral or derivative factors (i.e., pole or zero at origin) (𝑗𝜔)±
• First order factor (i.e., simple pole or zero) (1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑇)±
±
𝜔2 𝑗2𝜁𝜔
• Quadratic factor (i.e., quadratic pole or zero) (1 − 𝜔 2+ )
𝑛 𝜔𝑛
Once we become familiar with the logarithmic plots of these basic factors, it is possible to utilize
them to construct a composite logarithmic plot for any general form of 𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)H(j𝜔) by sketching
the curves for each factor and adding individual curves graphically, because adding the logarithms
of the gains corresponds to multiplying them together.
Example: Consider the open-loop transfer function with unity feedback given by
k(T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) … (Tn s + 1)
G (s ) =
(p1 s + 1)(p2 s + 1) … (pn s + 1)
The sinusoidal transfer function is given by
k(jT1 𝜔 + 1)(jT2 ω + 1) … (jTn ω + 1)
𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = 𝐺 (𝑠)|𝑠=𝑗𝜔 =
(𝑗p1 ω + 1)(jp2 ω + 1) … (jpn ω + 1)
|𝑘 ||jT1 𝜔 + 1||jT2 𝜔 + 1| … |jTn 𝜔 + 1|
|𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)| =
|j𝑝1 𝜔 + 1||j𝑝2 𝜔 + 1| … |j𝑝n 𝜔 + 1|
|G(jω)||dB = 20 log k + 20 log|jT1 ω + 1| + 20 log|jT2 ω + 1| + … + 20 log|jTn ω + 1| −
20 log|jp1 ω + 1| − 20 log|jp2 ω + 1| − ⋯ − 20 log|jpn ω + 1|
ϕ(jω) = tan−1 k + tan−1 (T1 ω) + tan−1 (T2 ω) + ⋯ + tan−1 (Tn ω) − tan−1 (p1 ω) −
tan−1 (p2 ω) − ⋯ − tan(pn ω)
Bode plot of constant gain 𝒌: Assume unity feedback system

➢ Open-loop transfer function G(s)H(s) = G(s) = k ⇒ G(jω) = k
|𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)||𝑑𝐵 = 20 log|𝑘 | = 20 log 𝑘 and 𝜙 (𝑗𝜔) = 0°, as 𝜔 varies from 0 to ∞.
Fig.6.2: Bode plot of constant gain 𝑘, (a) Magnitude plot and (b) phase plot.
Bode plot of Derivative or Integra factors (zero or pole at origin) (𝒋𝝎)± : Assume unity
feedback system
Consider open-loop transfer function G(s) = s ⇒ G(jω) = j𝜔
|𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)||𝑑𝐵 = 20 log|𝜔 | = 20 log 𝜔 and 𝜙(𝑗𝜔) = 90°, as 𝜔 varies from 0 to ∞.
If 𝜔 = 0.1, |𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)||𝑑𝐵 = −20 𝑑𝐵⁄𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒
If 𝜔 = 1, |𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)||𝑑𝐵 = 0
If 𝜔 = 10, |𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)||𝑑𝐵 = 20 𝑑𝐵⁄𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒
1 1
Consider open-loop transfer function G(s) = 𝑠 ⇒ G(jω) = 𝑗𝜔
1
|𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)||𝑑𝐵 = 20 log = −20 log 𝜔 and 𝜙(𝑗𝜔) = −90°, as 𝜔 varies from 0 to ∞.
√𝜔2
If 𝜔 = 0.1, |𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)||𝑑𝐵 = 20 𝑑𝐵⁄𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒

If 𝜔 = 1, |𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)||𝑑𝐵 = 0
If 𝜔 = 10, |𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)||𝑑𝐵 = −20 𝑑𝐵⁄𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒
1
Fig.6.3: Bode diagram of (a) 𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = 𝑗𝜔, (b) 𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = 𝑗𝜔
In Bode diagrams, frequency ratios are expressed in terms of octaves or decades. An octave is a
frequency band from ω1 to 2ω1 and decade is a frequency band from ω1 to 10ω1 , where ω1 , is
any frequency value.
1
The slopes of the log-magnitude curves for the factors j𝜔 and are 20 𝑑𝐵⁄𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒 and
j𝜔
−20 𝑑𝐵⁄𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒 respectively.
1 𝑛
Note: If the transfer function contains the factor (j𝜔 )𝑛 and (j𝜔 ) , the log magnitude becomes,
respectively,
1
20 log|(j𝜔 )𝑛 | = 20n log|j𝜔| = 20𝑛 log 𝜔 𝑑𝐵 and 20 log |( | = −20n log|j𝜔| =
j𝜔 )𝑛
−20𝑛 log 𝜔 𝑑𝐵
1 𝑛
The slopes of the log-magnitude curves for the factors (j𝜔 )𝑛 and ( ) are 20𝑛 𝑑𝐵⁄𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒 and
j𝜔
−20𝑛 𝑑𝐵⁄𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒 respectively.
Bode plot of First order factor (zero or pole on real axis) (𝟏 + 𝒋𝝎𝑻)± : Assume unity
feedback system.
Consider open-loop transfer function G(s) = (Ts + 1) ⇒ 𝐺 (jω) = (1 + jωT)
|G(jω)||dB = 20 log|1 + jωT| = 20 log √1 + T 2 ω2
For ωT ≪ 1 (ω → 0), |G(jω)||dB = 20 log √1 = 20 log 1 = 0 dB
For ωT = 1 (ω = 1⁄T), |G(jω)||dB = 20 log √2 = 0 dB but exact value is 𝟑 𝒅𝑩

ω = 1⁄T − is corner frequency or break frequency. It is frequency at which the two asymptotes
meet. It is low frequency and high frequency expression.
For ωT = 10 (ω = 10⁄T), |G(jω)||dB = 20 log √101 = 20 𝑑𝐵⁄𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒
For ωT ≫ 1 (ω ≫ 1⁄T), |G(jω)||dB = 20 log ωT dB
ωT
𝜙(𝑗𝜔) = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 (ωT)
1
For ωT ≪ 1, 𝜙(𝑗𝜔) = tan−1 (0) = 0°
For ωT = 1, 𝜙 (𝑗𝜔) = tan−1 (1) = 45°
For ωT ≫ 1, 𝜙(𝑗𝜔) = tan−1 ∞ = 90°
1 1
Consider open-loop transfer function G(s) = (Ts++1) ⇒ 𝐺 (jω) = (1+jωT)
1 1
|G(jω)||dB = 20 log | | = 20 log = −20 log √1 + T 2 ω2 𝑑𝐵
1 + jωT √1 + T 2 ω2
For ωT ≪ 1 (ω → 0), |G(jω)||dB = −20 log √1 = −20 log 1 = 0 dB
For ωT = 1 (ω = 1⁄T), |G(jω)||dB = −20 log √2 = 0 dB but exact value is −𝟑 𝒅𝑩

ω = 1⁄T − is corner frequency or break frequency. It is frequency at which the two
asymptotes meet. The low frequency and high frequency expression.
Cut off frequency (corner frequency or break frequency) is the frequency at which the
magnitude of closed loop system is 3 𝑑𝐵 less than its maximum.
For ωT = 10 (ω = 10⁄T), |G(jω)||dB = −20 log √101 = −20 𝑑𝐵⁄𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒

For ωT ≫ 1 (ω ≫ 1⁄T), |G(jω)||dB = −20 log ωT dB
ωT
𝜙(𝑗𝜔) = − tan−1 ( ) = − tan−1 (ωT)
1
For ωT ≪ 1, 𝜙(𝑗𝜔) = − tan−1 (0) = 0°
For ωT = 1, 𝜙 (𝑗𝜔) = − tan−1 (1) = −45°
For ωT ≫ 1, 𝜙(𝑗𝜔) = − tan−1 ∞ = −90°
Fig.6.4: Log-magnitude curve, together with the asymptotes, and phase-angle curve of, (a)
1
𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = (1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑇), (b) 𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = ( )
1+𝑗𝜔𝑇
±
𝝎𝟐 𝒋𝟐𝜻𝝎
Bode plot of quadratic Factors (complex zero pair or complex pole pair) (𝟏 − 𝟐 + ) :
𝝎𝒏 𝝎𝒏
Assume unity feedback system.
𝑗𝜔 𝑗𝜔 2 𝜔2 𝑗2𝜁𝜔
Consider second order zero 𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = 1 + 2𝜁 (𝜔 ) + (𝜔 ) = 1 − 𝜔 2 +
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝜔𝑛
• If 𝜁 > 1, this quadratic factor can be expressed as a product of two first-order factors with
real poles. If 𝟎 < 𝜻 < 𝟏 , this quadratic factor is the product of two complex conjugate
factors.
• The magnitude and phase of the quadratic factor depend on both the corner frequency and
the damping ratio.
• Damping ratio determine magnitude resonant peak. It is large for small value of ζ.
𝜔2 𝑗2𝜁𝜔 𝜔 2𝜁𝜔 2 2 2
|G(jω)||dB = 20 log |1 − 2 +
| = 20 log √(1 − ( ) ) + ( ) 𝑑𝐵
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
𝜔 2
For 𝜔 → 0 (𝜔 ≪ 𝜔𝑛 ⇒ (𝜔 ) ≪ 1), |G(jω)||dB = 20 log √1 = 20 log 1 = 0 𝑑𝐵
𝑛
𝜔 2 𝜔 4
For high frequency 𝜔 ≫ 𝜔𝑛 , 4𝜁2 (𝜔 ) ≪ (𝜔 ) because 𝜁 is very low.
𝑛 𝑛
𝜔 4 𝜔
|G(jω)||dB = 20 log √( ) = 40 log 𝜔 (this the straight line of slope 40 𝑑𝐵⁄𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒.
𝜔𝑛 𝑛
corner frequency is 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑛 , |G(jω)||dB = 0 dB.
2𝜁𝜔
𝜔𝑛
𝜙(𝑗𝜔) = tan−1 ( )
𝜔 2
1 − (𝜔 )
𝑛
0
For 𝜔 → 0, 𝜙(𝑗𝜔) = tan−1 ( ) = 0°
1
𝜔 2𝜁 2𝜁
For 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑛 (𝜔 = 1), 𝜙(𝑗𝜔) = tan−1 (1−1) = tan−1 ( 0 ) = tan−1 (∞) = 90°
𝑛
𝜔
For → ∞, 𝜙(𝑗𝜔) = 180°
𝜔𝑛
𝜔
For 𝜔 > 1, 𝜙(𝑗𝜔) − is becomes negative. Thus, after this, the angle contribution
𝑛
obtained by adding 180° on the resulting negative angle.
This is applicable if roots of quadratic is complex conjugate (0 < 𝜁 < 1) otherwise
factorize roots and treat separately as simple factor.
1 1
Consider second order zero 𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = 𝑗𝜔 𝑗𝜔 2
= 𝜔2 𝑗2𝜁𝜔
1+2𝜁( )+( ) 1− 2+
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
1 𝜔 2 2 2𝜁𝜔 2
|G(jω)||dB = 20 log | 𝜔2 𝑗2𝜁𝜔
| = −20 log √(1 − ( ) ) + ( 𝜔 ) 𝑑𝐵
1− 2+ 𝜔𝑛 𝑛
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
𝜔
For 𝜔 ≪ 1, |G(jω)||dB = −20 log √1 = −20 log 1 = 0 𝑑𝐵
𝑛
𝜔 𝜔 2 𝜔 4
For high frequency 𝜔 ≫ 𝜔𝑛 (𝜔 ≫ 1), 4𝜁2 (𝜔 ) ≪ (𝜔 ) because 𝜁 is very low.
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝜔 4 𝜔
|G(jω)||dB = −20 log √( ) = − 40 log 𝜔 (this the straight line of slope
𝜔𝑛 𝑛
−40 𝑑𝐵⁄𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒. Corner frequency is 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑛 , |G(jω)||dB = 0 dB.
2𝜁𝜔
𝜔𝑛
𝜙(𝑗𝜔) = − tan−1 ( 𝜔 2
)
1−( )
𝜔𝑛
0
For 𝜔 → 0, 𝜙(𝑗𝜔) = tan−1 (1) = 0°
𝜔 2𝜁 2𝜁
For 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑛 (𝜔 = 1), 𝜙(𝑗𝜔) = − tan−1 (1−1) = − tan−1 ( 0 ) = − tan−1 (∞) = −90°
𝑛
𝜔
For → ∞, 𝜙(𝑗𝜔) = −180°
𝜔𝑛
𝜔
For > 1, 𝜙(𝑗𝜔) − is becomes positive. Thus, in such case the angle contribution
𝜔𝑛
obtained by subtracting 180° from this positive 𝜙(𝑗𝜔) angle.
This is applicable only if the roots of quadratic are complex conjugate.
𝜔
Example: 𝜔 = 2, 𝜁 = 0.3, 𝜙(𝑗𝜔) = − tan−1 (−0.4) = 21.8°. Thus, the actual angle is
𝑛
21.8° − 180° = −158.2°
−40 𝑑𝐵⁄𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒
Fig.6.5: Log-magnitude curve, together with the asymptotes, and phase-angle curve of, (a)
𝜔2 𝑗2𝜁𝜔 1
𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = 1 − 𝜔 2 + , (b) 𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = ( )
𝜔2 𝑗2𝜁𝜔
𝑛 𝜔𝑛 1− 2 +
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
General Procedures for Plotting Bode Diagrams

First rewrite the sinusoidal transfer function 𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)𝐻(𝑗𝜔) as a product of basic factors
discussed above.
Then identify the corner frequencies associated with these basic factors.
Finally, draw the asymptotic log-magnitude curves with proper slopes between the corner
frequencies.
The exact curve, which lies close to the asymptotic curve, can be obtained by adding proper
corrections.
Similarly, the phase-angle curve of 𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)𝐻(𝑗𝜔) can be drawn by adding the phase-angle
curves of individual factors.
Example:
1) Draw the Bode diagram for the following transfer function:
10(𝑠 + 4)
𝐺 (𝑠 ) =
(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 10)
Solution:
𝑗𝜔
10(𝑗𝜔+4) 10×4( +1) 2(𝑗0.25𝜔+1)
4
𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = 𝐺 (𝑠)|𝑠=𝑗𝜔 = (𝑗𝜔+2)(𝑗𝜔+10) = 𝑗𝜔 𝑗𝜔 = 2×10(𝑗0.5𝜔+1)(𝑗0.1𝜔+1)
2×10( +1)( +1)
2 10
Constant: 𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = k = 2 , |𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)|𝑑𝐵 = 20 log 2 = 6.02 dB
Zero: 𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = 𝑗0.25𝜔 + 1, |𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)|𝑑𝐵 = 20 log √1 + (0.25𝜔)2

For 𝜔 → 0, |𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)|𝑑𝐵 = 0 dB
For 𝜔 = 4, |𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)|𝑑𝐵 = 20 log √1 + (0.25 × 4)2 = 20 log √2 = 3 dB

𝜔 = 4 − is corner frequency
1 1
Pole: 𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = 𝑗0.5𝜔+1 and 𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = 𝑗0.1𝜔+1, |𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)|𝑑𝐵 = −20 log √1 + (0.5𝜔)2
and |𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)|𝑑𝐵 = −20 log √1 + (0.1𝜔)2
For 𝜔 → 0, both of them are |𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)|𝑑𝐵 = 0 dB
𝜔 = 2 and 𝜔 = 10 are their corner frequency respectively.
The overall magnitude is given by
|𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)|𝑑𝐵 = 20 log 2 + 20 log √1 + (0.25𝜔)2 − 20 log √1 + (0.5𝜔)2

− 20 log √1 + (0.1𝜔)2
𝜙(𝑗𝜔) = tan−1 0 + tan−1 0.25𝜔 − tan−1 0.5𝜔 − tan−1 0.1𝜔
100(𝑠+1)
2) Draw the Bode Diagram for the transfer function: 𝐺 (𝑠) = 𝑠 2+110𝑠+1000
100(𝑠+1) 100(𝑠+1)
Solution:𝐺 (𝑠) == 𝑠 2+110𝑠+1000 = (𝑠+10)(𝑠+100)
100(𝑗𝜔+1) 100(𝑗𝜔+1) (𝑗𝜔+1)

𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = 𝐺 (𝑠)|𝑠=𝑗𝜔 = = 𝑗𝜔 𝑗𝜔 = 0.1
(𝑗𝜔+10)(𝑗𝜔+100) 10×100( +1)( +1) (𝑗0.1𝜔+1)(𝑗0.01𝜔+1)
10 100
Constant: 𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = k = 0.1 , |𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)|𝑑𝐵 = 20 log 0.1 = −20 dB
➢ Zero: 𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = 𝑗𝜔 + 1, |𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)|𝑑𝐵 = 20 log √1 + (𝜔)2

For 𝜔 → 0, |𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)|𝑑𝐵 = 0 dB
For 𝜔 = 1, |𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)|𝑑𝐵 = 20 log √1 + (0.25 × 4)2 = 20 log √2 = 3 dB

1 1
➢ Pole: 𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = (𝑗0.1𝜔+1) and 𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = (𝑗0.01𝜔+1), |𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)|𝑑𝐵 =
−20 log √1 + (0.1𝜔)2 and |𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)|𝑑𝐵 = −20 log √1 + (0.01𝜔)2
𝜙(𝑗𝜔) = tan−1 0 + tan−1 𝜔 − tan−1 0.1𝜔 − tan−1 0.01𝜔 (deg)

120𝑠2
3) Draw the Bode Diagram for the transfer function: 𝐺 (𝑠) = (𝑆+3)(𝑆+6)
100𝑠2
Solution:𝐺 (𝑠) =
(𝑆+3)(𝑆+6)
100(𝑗𝜔)2 100(𝑗𝜔)2 −𝜔2

𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = 𝐺 (𝑠)|𝑠=𝑗𝜔 = (𝑗𝜔+3)(𝑗𝜔+6) = 𝑗𝜔 𝑗𝜔 = 50⁄9 𝑗𝜔 𝑗𝜔
3×6( +1)( +1) ( +1)( +1)
3 6 3 6
Constant: 𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = k = 50⁄9 , |𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)|𝑑𝐵 = 20 log(50⁄9) = 14.9 dB

➢ Zero: 𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = −𝜔2 , |𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)|𝑑𝐵 = 20 log|−𝜔2 | = 20 log 𝜔2 = 40 log 𝜔
For 𝜔 → 0.1, |𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)|𝑑𝐵 = −40 dB
For 𝜔 = 1, |𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)|𝑑𝐵 = 20 log 1 = 0 dB
1 1 𝜔2
➢ Pole: 𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = 𝑗𝜔 and 𝐺 (𝑗𝜔) = 𝑗𝜔 , |𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)|𝑑𝐵 = −20 log √1 + and
( +1) ( +1) 9
3 6
𝜔2
|𝐺 (𝑗𝜔)|𝑑𝐵 = −20 log √1 +
36

𝜔 𝜔
𝜙(𝑗𝜔) = 180° − tan−1 ( ) − tan−1 ( )
3 6
➢ The bode plot is given as follow:
Exercise 4.1: Draw the bode diagram of the following transfer functions
10(s+3)
a) G(s) = s(s+2)(s2 +s+2)
10(s+4)
c) G(s) = (s+2)(s+10)
s(s+2)
e) G(s) = (s+2)(s2 +4s+3)
Exercise 4.2: Give your own examples and show clearly how the transfer function is
obtained from bode plot of the system.
6.3Frequency domain specifications
Resonant peak (𝑴𝒓 ): It is the peak (Maximum) value of |G(jω)|.

Mr = |G(jω)||ω=ωr
Resonant frequency (𝝎𝒓 ): It is the frequency at which the magnitude of the frequency response
𝑑
has peak value for the first time. It can obtain from |G(jω)|𝜔=𝜔𝑟 = 0
𝑑𝜔
Bandwidth (𝝎𝒃 ): It is the range of frequencies over which, the magnitude of |G(jω)| drops to
1 1
70.7% (−3 𝑑𝐵 𝑜𝑟 2). It can obtain from |G(jω)|𝜔=𝜔𝑏 = 2 = 0.707
√ √
Cut-off rate: It is the slop of the log-magnitude curve near the cut off frequency.
Gain margin (𝑮𝒎 ): The value of gain to be added to system in order to bring the system to the
verge of instability.
The factor by which the gain |G(jω)|𝑑𝐵 increases without making the system unstable
(The gain required to lift magnitude curve to 0𝑑𝐵).
It can be obtained from the bode plot by
• Locate phase crossover frequency (𝜔𝑝𝑐 ) on bode plot.
• Determine, 𝐺𝑚 = |G(jω)|𝑑𝐵 |𝜔=𝜔𝑝𝑐
Large gain margin is better stability.
Phase crossover frequency or critical frequency (𝝎𝒑𝒄) is the frequency at which phase curve
crosses −180° axis.
Phase margin (𝐏𝐦): Additional phase lag to be added at the gain crossover frequency in order to
bring the system to the verge of instability.
The factor by which the phase in degree can be increased without making the system
unstable.
It can be obtained from bode plot by
• Locate gain crossover frequency (𝜔𝑔𝑐 ) on bode plot.
• Calculate, ϕ(jω)|ω=ωgc
Pm = 180° + ϕ(jω)|ω=ωgc
Gain crossover frequency (𝝎𝒈𝒄 ) is the frequency at which |G(jω)|𝑑𝐵 curve crosses 𝜔 −axis
(0 𝑑𝐵 axis or |G(jω)| = 1).
Consider the transfer function of the second order closed-loop control system as
Y(s) ω2 n 1
G (s ) = = 2 =
R(s) s + 2ξωn s + ω2 n s2 2ξ𝑠
+ +1
ω2 n ωn
1
G(j𝜔) = 𝐺(𝑠)│𝑠=𝑗𝜔 =
ω2 2ξ𝜔
(1 − 2 ) + j( )
ω n ωn
1
|𝐺(𝑗𝜔)| =
2 2 2
√(1 − ω2 ) + (2ξ𝜔)
ω n ωn
Drive the resonant frequency (𝜔𝑟 ), resonant peak (𝑀𝑟 ) and bandwidth (𝜔𝑏 ).
2 −1⁄2
𝑑 𝑑 ω2 2ξ𝜔 2
|G(jω)|𝜔=𝜔𝑟 = 0 ⇒ [(1 − 2 ) + ( ) ] │𝜔=𝜔𝑟 = 0
𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝜔 ω n ωn
𝜔
For simplicity let, 𝑢 = ω
n
d ωr
[(1 − u2 )2 + (2ξu)2 ]−1⁄2 │u=ur = 0, where ur =
du ωn
1
− [(1 − u2 )2 + (2ξu)2 ]−3⁄2 [2(1 − u2 )(−2u) + 2(2ξu)(2ξ)]│u=ur = 0
2
1
− [(1 − u2 )2 + (2ξu)2 ]−3⁄2 [4u(u2 − 1 + 2ξ2 )]│u=ur = 0
2
[(1 − u2 )2 + (2ξu)2 ]−3⁄2 − can not be zero
4ur (u2 r − 1 + 2ξ2 ) = 0 → ur = √1 − 2ξ2

ωr
ur =
ωn
ωr = ωn ur = ωn √1 − 2ξ2
1 1
Mr = |G(jω)||ω=ωr = |ω=ωr = ,
2 2
2 2ξ𝜔 2 2 2ξω 2
√(1− ω2 ) +( ω ) √(1− 𝜔2 𝑟 ) +( ω r)
ω n n ω n n
Substituting for ωr = ωn √1 − 2ξ2 gives,

𝟏
𝑴𝒓 = for 0 ≤ 𝜉 ≤ 0.707 and 𝑴𝒓 = 1 for, 𝜉 > 0.707
𝟐𝝃√√𝟏−𝝃𝟐
1 1 1
|G(jω)||ω=ωb = = 0.707 ⇒ |ω=ωb =
√2 2 2 2 √2
√(1 − ω2 ) + (2ξ𝜔 )
ω n ωn
2
1 1 𝜔2 𝑏 2ξωb 2 ωb
= ⇒ (1 − ) +( ) = 2, 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑏 =
2 2 2 √2 ω2 n ωn ωn
√(1−𝜔2 𝑏 ) +(2ξωb )
ω n ωn
(1 − u2 b )2 + (2ξub )2 = 2 ⇒ u4 b + (4ξ2 − 2)u2 b − 1 = 0, 𝑙𝑒𝑡 u2 b = x

x 2 + (4ξ2 − 2)x − 1 = 0 ⇒ x = 1 − 2ξ ± √4ξ4 − 4ξ2 + 2
Considering only positive value of x
x = 1 − 2ξ + √4ξ4 − 4ξ2 + 2
u2 b = x ⇒ ub = √1 − 2ξ + √4ξ4 − 4ξ2 + 2
ωb
ub =
ωn
∴ ωb = ωn √1 − 2ξ + √4ξ4 − 4ξ2 + 2
Exercise 4.3: A unity feedback system has the forward transfer function given by
400
G(s) = s(s+6)
a) Draw the bode diagram and locate ωgc & Pm .
b) Determine ωn , ξ, ωr , Mr & ωb.
6.4Bode Stability Criterion
➢ The system is stable if the magnitude of 𝐺(𝑗𝜔) at phase crossover frequency (𝜔𝑝𝑐 ) is
negative (i.e., additional gain is required to bring |𝐺(𝑗𝜔)| to 0 𝑑𝐵). This means if gain
margin is positive the system is stable and if the gain margin is negative (i.e., the magnitude
of 𝐺(𝑗𝜔) is positive) the system is unstable.
➢ If the phase margin is positive then the system is stable otherwise unstable.
➢ For the system to be stable both gain margin and phase margin needs to be greater than
zero.
Bode Stability Requirement
For a given open-loop transfer function (𝐻(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠)), the closed-loop system is stable if the
following conditions are met.
Open-loop transfer function is strictly proper (more poles than zeros).
Minimum Phase System: has no poles located on or to the right of the imaginary axis, except of
a single pole at the origin.
Assume that the open-loop frequency response has only a single-phase crossover frequency and a
single gain crossover frequency.
Consider the bode diagram shown in Figure 6.6 below
Fig.6.6: a) Stable system b) Unstable system

50
Exercise 4.4: For a unity feedback system with forward transfer function 𝐺 (𝑠) =
𝑠(0.4𝑠+1)
a) Find the gain crossover frequency (𝜔𝑔𝑐 ) and phase margin (𝑃𝑚 ),
b) Find ωn , ξ, ωr , Mr & ωb
6.5Control Systems Design by Frequency Response

6.5.1 Introduction
Control system design require to design the whole controller to satisfy the system requirement.
Compensation of control system require to design part of the controller with known structure.
Compensation is the procedure of controller design to satisfy system requirements.
The closed-loop system has the function of self-tuning. By selecting a particular value of
the gain k, some single performance requirement may be meet, but sometimes it is not
possible to meet more than one performance requirement.
So, we need additional methods in order to satisfy all system requirements.
Frequency Response Based compensator design
Main idea is by inserting the compensator, the Bode diagram of the original system is altered to
achieve performance requirements.
There are two basic requirements in compensator design:
a) Time domain criteria:
The transient-response performance is usually most important. The time domain transient-
response performance is specified in terms of overshoot, settling time, rising time, steady-state
error.
b) Frequency domain criteria:
In the frequency-response approach, we specify the transient-response performance in an indirect
manner.
The transient-response performance of open-loop frequency domain criteria is specified in terms
of gain crossover frequency, phase margin, gain margin and static error constants (they give the
steady-state accuracy).
The transient-response performance of closed-loop frequency domain criteria is specified in terms
of resonant peak magnitude (they give a rough estimate of the system damping), resonant
frequency and bandwidth (they give a rough estimate of the speed of transient response).
To design compensator three elements are required. These are: Original system, Performance
requirement and Compensation device.
Based on particular situation there are different type of compensation to be used.
i. Lead compensation
ii. Lag compensation
iii. Lag-Lead compensation
Each requirement relates to a different region of the frequency axis in the Bode diagram.
The steady-state error relates to the magnitude at low frequency (far below gain crossover
frequency).
The medium-frequency region (the region near the −1+𝑗0 point) of the locus indicates relative
stability and the transient response requirement relates to higher frequency region (far above gain
crossover frequency).
Lead compensation essentially yields an appreciable improvement in transient response
and a small change in steady-state accuracy. It may accentuate high-frequency noise
effects.
Lag compensation on the other hand, yields an appreciable improvement in steady-state
accuracy at the expense of increasing the transient-response time. It will suppress the
effects of high-frequency noise signals.
Lag-lead compensation combines the characteristics of both lead compensation and lag
compensation.
6.5.2 Lead Compensation
A lead compensator is given by the following transfer function

𝑇𝑠 + 1 𝑠 + 1⁄𝑇
𝐺𝑐 (𝑠) = 𝑘𝑐 𝛼 = 𝑘𝑐 , (0 < 𝛼 < 1)
𝛼𝑇𝑠 + 1 𝑠 + 1⁄𝛼𝑇
where α is called the attenuation factor of the lead compensator.
It has a zero at s = − 1⁄T and a pole at s = − 1⁄αT.
Lead compensator is basically a high-pass filter (high frequencies are passed, but low
frequencies are attenuated).
The primary function of the lead compensator is to reshape the frequency-response curve to
provide sufficient phase-lead angle to offset the excessive phase lag associated with the
components of the fixed system. Consider the system shown in Figure 4.12 below.
The procedure for designing a lead compensator by the frequency-response approach are
stated as follows:
1) Assume the following lead compensator:
Ts + 1 s + 1⁄T
( )
Gc s = k c α = kc , (0 < α < 1)
αTs + 1 s + 1⁄αT
Ts+1
Define, k = kc α, then Gc (s) = k αTs+1
The open-loop transfer function of the compensated system is

Ts+1 Ts+1 Ts+1
Gc (s)𝐺(𝑠) = k αTs+1 G(s) = αTs+1 kG(s) = αTs+1 𝐺1 (s), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐺1 (s) = kG(s)
Determine gain 𝐤 to satisfy the requirement on the given static error constant.
2) Using the gain 𝐤 determined, draw a Bode diagram of 𝐺1 (j𝜔) = kG(j𝜔), the gain
adjusted but uncompensated system. Evaluate the phase margin.
3) Determine the necessary phase-lead angle to be added to the system. Add an additional
5° to 12° to the phase-lead angle required, because the addition of the lead compensator
shifts the gain crossover frequency to the right and decreases the phase margin.
1−α
4) The maximum phase angle contributed by the compensator is given by sin ϕm = 1+α ,
1
at frequency ωm = T
√α
Select this frequency as the new gain crossover frequency at which the magnitude of the
uncompensated system G1 (jω) is equal to −20 log(1⁄√α). From this determine the
attenuation factor α.
5) Determine the corner frequencies of the lead compensator as follows:
Zero of lead compensator: ω = 1⁄T and Pole of lead compensator: ω = 1⁄αT
6) Using the value of 𝐤 determined in step 1 and that of 𝛂 determined in step 4, calculate
k
constant 𝐤 𝐜 from kc = α
7) Check the gain margin to be sure it is satisfactory. If not, repeat the design process by
modifying the pole-zero location of the compensator.
Example: Consider a unity feedback system shown below with open-loop transfer function given
by
4
𝐺 (𝑠 ) =
𝑠(𝑠 + 2)
Design a lead compensator for the system so that the static velocity error constant kv is
20 sec −1 the phase margin is at least 50°, and the gain margin is at least 10 dB.
Solution: The compensated system has open-loop transfer function.
Ts + 1 4 Ts + 1 4k Ts + 1
G c ( s )G (s ) = k c α × = × = G (s ), k = k c α
αTs + 1 s(s + 2) αTs + 1 s(s + 2) αTs + 1 1
Ts+1 4k
Step1 kv = lim sGc (s)G(s) = lim s G1 (s) = lim sG1 (s) = lim s = 2k = 20 → k =
s→0 s→0 αTs+1 s→0 s→0 s(s+2)
10
Step2: Using k = 10, draw the Bode diagram and calculate phase margin.
4k 40 4k 40 20
G1 (s) = s(s+2) = s(s+2), then G1 (jω) = s(s+2) = jω(jω+2) = jω(j0.5ω+1)
20
= 1 → ω = 6.17 rad⁄sec − frequency at which |G1 (jω)|dB = 0 or |G1 (jω)| = 1
ω√1+(0.5ω)2
Pm = 180° + (−90° − tan−1 (0.5ω))│ω=6.17 = 17.96°

Step3: The maximum phase lead required is approximately
ɸ𝑚 = 50° − 17.96° + 5° = 37.04°
1−𝛼 1−sin ɸ𝑚 1−sin 37.04°
Step4: sin ɸ𝑚 = →𝛼= = = 0.248
1+𝛼 1+sin ɸ𝑚 1+sin 37.04°
➢ The new gain crossover frequency is obtained at

|G1 (j𝜔)|𝑑𝐵 = 20 log √𝛼 or |G1 (j𝜔)| = √𝛼
20
∴ = √𝛼 = √0.248 → 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑚 = 8.85 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜔√1 + (0.5𝜔)2
Step5: Determine the corner frequencies of the lead compensator
1 1 1
𝜔𝑚 = →T= = = 0.227
𝑇√𝛼 𝜔𝑚√𝛼 8.85√0.248
1
∴ Zero of lead compensator: ω = 1⁄T = 0.227 = 4.41 and
1
Pole of lead compensator: ω = 1⁄αT = 0.248×0.227 = 17.76
k 10
Step6: k = kc α → kc = α = 0.248 = 40.32
Thus, the transfer function of the compensator becomes

Ts + 1 s + 1⁄T 0.227s + 1 s + 4.41
G c (s ) = k c α = kc = 10 = 40.3
αTs + 1 s + 1⁄αT 0.0563s + 1 s + 17.76
The compensated system has the following open-loop transfer function:
s + 4.41 4
Gc (s)G(s) = 40.3 ×
s + 17.76 s(s + 2)
Comments on phase lead compensation
1) Increase the open-loop phase margin. This improves the relative stability.
2) Yields a higher gain crossover frequency which means higher bandwidth which means a
reduction in settling time.
3) The open-loop (and usually the closed-loop) bandwidths are increased. It is beneficial for
fast response. But it may cause problems if noise exists at the higher and unattenuated
frequencies.
4) Take no effect on the steady-state performance.
6.5.3 Lag compensation

A lag compensator is given by the following transfer function
Ts + 1 s + 1⁄T
G c (s ) = k c β = kc , (β > 1)
βTs + 1 s + 1⁄βT
In the complex plane, a lag compensator has a zero at s = − 1⁄T and a pole at s = − 1⁄βT.
Lag compensator is essentially a low-pass filter. The primary function of a lag compensator
is to provide attenuation in the high frequency range to give a system sufficient phase
margin.
The procedure for designing a lag compensator by the frequency-response approach are
stated as follows:
1) Assume the following lag compensator:
Ts + 1 s + 1⁄T
G c (s ) = k c 𝛽 = kc , (𝛽 > 1)
βTs + 1 s + 1⁄𝛽T
Ts+1
Define, k = kc 𝛽, then G c (s ) = k
𝛽Ts+1

Ts+1 Ts+1 Ts+1
Gc (s)𝐺(𝑠) = k 𝛽Ts+1 G(s) = 𝛽Ts+1 kG(s) = 𝛽Ts+1 𝐺1 (s), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐺1 (s) = kG(s)
Determine gain k to satisfy the requirement on the given static velocity error constant.
2) Draw a Bode diagram of 𝐺1 (j𝜔) = kG(j𝜔), if the gain-adjusted but uncompensated
system 𝐺1 (j𝜔) = kG(j𝜔) does not satisfy the specifications on the phase and gain
margins, then find the frequency point where the phase angle of the open-loop transfer
function is equal to −180° plus the required phase margin.
The required phase margin is the specified phase margin plus 5° to 12° (addition of 5° to
12° compensates for the phase lag of the lag compensator) and choose this frequency as
the new gain crossover frequency.
3) Determine the attenuation necessary to bring the magnitude curve down to 0 dB at the new
gain crossover frequency. Noting that this attenuation is −20 log β, determine the value of
β.
4) Determine the two corner frequencies
Zero of lag compensator: ω = 1⁄T and Pole of lag compensator: ω = 1⁄βT
To prevent detrimental effects of phase lag due to the lag compensator, the pole and zero
of the lag compensators must be located substantially lower than the new gain crossover
frequency. Therefore, choose the corner frequency 𝜔 = 1⁄T (zero of the lag compensator)
1 octave to 1 decade below the new gain crossover frequency.
If the time constants of the lag compensator do not become too large, the corner frequency
𝜔 = 1⁄T may be chosen 1 decade below the new gain crossover frequency).
Notice that we choose the compensator pole and zero sufficiently small. Thus, the phase
lag occurs at the low-frequency region, so that it will not affect the phase margin.
5) Using the value of 𝐤 determined in step 1 and that of β determined in step 3, calculate
constant 𝐤 𝐜 from
k
kc =
β
The phase lag at new gain crossover frequency 𝜔𝑔𝑐 is given by
(𝛽 − 1)𝑇𝜔𝑔𝑐
ɸ(𝑗𝜔) = tan−1 (𝛽𝑇𝜔𝑔𝑐 ) − tan−1 𝑇𝜔𝑔𝑐 = 2
1 + 𝛽(𝑇𝜔𝑔𝑐 )
Substitute
10
𝑇𝜔𝑔𝑐 =
𝛽
10
(𝛽 − 1)𝑇𝜔𝑔𝑐 (𝛽 − 1)
𝛽 −1 [
ɸ(𝑗𝜔) = 2 = 2 = tan 0.1(𝛽 − 1)]
1 + 𝛽(𝑇𝜔𝑔𝑐 ) 10
1+𝛽(𝛽)
Example: Consider a unity feedback system shown below with open-loop transfer
function given by
1
𝐺 (𝑠 ) =
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(0.5𝑠 + 1)
Design a lag compensator for the system so that the static velocity error constant kv is
5 sec −1 the phase margin is at least 40°, and the gain margin is at least 10 dB.
Solution: The compensated system has open-loop transfer function.

Ts + 1 1 Ts + 1 k
G c (s )G (s ) = k c β × = ×
βTs + 1 𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(0.5𝑠 + 1) 𝛽Ts + 1 𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(0.5𝑠 + 1)
Ts + 1
= G (s )
βTs + 1 1
k = kc β and 𝛽 > 1
Ts+1 k
Step1: kv = lim sGc (s)G(s) = lim s βTs+1 G1(s) = lim sG1 (s) = lim s 𝑠(𝑠+1)(0.5𝑠+1) =
s→0 s→0 s→0 s→0
k=5 →k=5
Step2: Using k = 5, draw the Bode diagram and calculate phase margin.
5 5 5
G1 (s) = 𝑠(𝑠+1)(0.5𝑠+1), then G1 (jω) = 𝑠(𝑠+1)(0.5𝑠+1) = jω(jω+1)(𝑗0.5𝜔+1)
5
= 1 → ω = 1.8 rad⁄sec using Matlab − frequency at which
ω√1+𝜔2√1+(0.5ω)2
|G1 (jω)|dB = 0 or |G1(jω)| = 1
Pm = 180° + (−90° − tan−1 (𝜔) − tan−1 (0.5ω))│ω=1.8 = −13°

Noting that the addition of a lag compensator modifies the phase curve of the Bode
diagram, we must allow 5° to 12° to the specified phase margin to compensate for the
modification of the phase curve.
Since the frequency corresponding to a phase margin of 40° is 0.7 rad/sec, the new gain
crossover frequency must be chosen near this value.
The required phase margin is
𝑃𝑚 = −13° + 53° + 12° = 52°
At this phase margin 𝜔 = 0.464 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
The phase angle of the uncompensated open-loop transfer function is ɸ(𝑗𝜔) = −128° at
𝜔 = 0.464 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐. Choose this as new gain crossover frequency.
|G1 (j𝜔)|│ = 19.545 𝑑𝐵
𝜔𝑔𝑐 =0.464
Step3: To bring the magnitude curve down to 0 𝑑𝐵 at this new gain crossover frequency,
the lag compensator must give the necessary attenuation, which in this case is
−19.545𝑑𝐵 ≅ −20 𝑑𝐵.
20 log 1⁄𝛽 = −19.545 → 𝛽 = 9.5 ≅ 10
Step4: To avoid overly large time constants for the lag compensator, we shall choose the
corner frequency ω =1/T (which corresponds to the zero of the lag compensator) to be
0.1 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐.
The other corner frequency, which corresponds to the pole of the lag compensator, is then
determined as 𝜔 = 1⁄𝛽𝑇 = 1⁄10 × 10 = 0.01 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐.
Step5:
k 5
kc = β = 10 = 0.5
Thus, the transfer function of the lag compensator is
Ts + 1 s + 1⁄T 10𝑠 + 1 𝑠 + 0.1

G c (s ) = k c 𝛽 = kc =5 = 0.5
βTs + 1 s + 1⁄𝛽T 100𝑠 + 1 𝑠 + 0.01

𝑠 + 0.1 1 5(10𝑠 + 1)
Gc (s)G(s) = 0.5 × =
𝑠 + 0.01 𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(0.5𝑠 + 1) 𝑠(100𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 1)(0.5𝑠 + 1)
Comments on phase lag compensation
1) Phase lag compensator is a low-pass filter. It changes the low-frequency part to reduce gain
crossover frequency. The phase is of no consequence around the gain crossover frequency.
2) Be able to amplify the magnitude of low-frequency part, and thus reduce the steady-state
error.
3) Resonance peak is reduced, and the system is more stable.
4) Reduce the gain crossover frequency, and then reduce the bandwidth. The rising time is
increased. The system response slows down.
6.5.4 Lag-Lead Compensation
The design of a lag-lead compensator by the frequency-response approach is based on the

combination of the design techniques discussed under lead compensation and lag
compensation.
A lag-Lead compensator are given by the following transfer function:
(𝑻𝟏 𝒔 + 𝟏)(𝑻𝟐 𝒔 + 𝟏) (𝒔 + 𝟏⁄𝑻 ) (𝒔 + 𝟏⁄𝑻 )
𝟏 𝟐
𝑮𝒄 (𝒔) = 𝒌𝒄 = 𝒌𝒄 , 𝜷>𝟏
𝑻𝟏 𝜷 𝟏
( 𝒔 + 𝟏) (𝜷𝑻𝟐 𝒔 + 𝟏) (𝒔 + ⁄𝑻 ) (𝒔 + ⁄𝜷𝑻 )
𝜷 𝟏 𝟐
The phase lead portion of the lag-lead compensator (the portion involving 𝑇1) alters the
frequency-response curve by adding phase-lead angle and increasing the phase margin at
the gain crossover frequency.
The phase-lag portion (the portion involving 𝑇2) provides attenuation near and above the
gain crossover frequency and thereby allows an increase of gain at the low-frequency range
to improve the steady-state performance.
Questions
1. Define the following:
a) System c) Control system
b) Controller d) disturbance
2. What are the differences between open – loop and closed – loop control system?
3. What do you mean by open – loop control system? Give examples of open – loop control
system. What are the advantages and disadvantages of open – loop control system?
4. Give examples and the main advantages of closed – loop system
5. What is transfer function?
6. What is the effect of feedback on time constant of a control system?
7. Define static error constant
8. Define sensitivity
9. What do you mean by stability, absolute stability, and conditional stability?
10. State the effect of addition poles and zeros to the open – loop transfer function.
11. Find the transfer function of the network shown in Fig.
Figure ..
12. Find the transfer function of a system represented by the differential equation
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑2𝑥
+ 3 + 4𝑦 = 2 + 6𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦(𝑡) − 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥(𝑡) − 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
13. The transfer function of a system is given by
4𝑠 + 1
𝐺 (𝑠 ) = 2
𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 3
Find the differential equation of the system having input 𝑥 (𝑡)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑦(𝑡)
14. For a control system having 𝐺 (𝑠) = 𝐾/𝑠(1 + 0.1𝑠) and feedback gain 𝐻(𝑠) = 0.1.
Determine the following:
i) Value of gain K for the system to have damping ratio of 0.5
ii) The unit step response of the system for this value of gain K
15. The open loop transfer function of unity feedback system is given by
100
𝐺 (𝑠 ) =
(1 + 0.1𝑠)(𝑠 + 10)
Determine 𝐾𝑝 , 𝐾𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾𝑎
16. Calculate the sensitivity of the closed – loop system shown in Fig with respect to a
forward path transfer function and feedback path transfer function at 𝜔 = 1.3𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
17. The impulse response of a system is 𝑒 −5𝑡 . Determine the transfer function of the system.
18. Investigate the stability of a system with characteristic polynomial
𝑝(𝑠) = 𝑠 4 + 3𝑠 3 + 4𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 3
19. Determine the range of ‘k’ such that the system with characteristic polynomial
p(s) = s 4 + s 3 + 2s 2 + s + 2k is stable.
20. The open – loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system is given by
𝐺 (𝑠) = 𝐾/𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(1 + 0.1𝑠)
Determine the gain crossover frequency and phase crossover frequency from the Bode
plot. Find the value of 𝐾 for which the gain crossover frequency is 5𝑎𝑟𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
21. The transfer function is defined for

a) Linear and time – variant system
b) Linear and time – invariant system
c) Nonlinear and time – variant system
d) Nonlinear and time – invariant system
e) All
22. The transfer function of a system is used to study its
a) Steady state behavior only
b) Transient state behavior only
c) Transient and steady state
d) Transient state and partly steady state
23. The transfer function of a system is defined as the ratio of its output to input in
a) Fourier Transform b) Laplace Transform
c) Z Transform d) (a) and (b)
24. With negative feedback, the system gain and stability

a) Decreases, increases c) Increases, increases
b) Increases, decreases d) Decreases, decreases
25. A positive feedback signal improves the performance of control system
a) True b) False
26. The transfer function of a system for negative feedback is given by
𝐶 (𝑠 ) 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) 𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
a) ( ) = ( ) ( )
c) 𝑅(𝑠) = 1− 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)
𝑅 𝑠 1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠) 𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
b) = d) =
𝑅(𝑠) 1+𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) 𝑅(𝑠) 1+𝐻(𝑠)
27. It is given that 𝐺 (𝑠) = 𝐾/(𝑠 2 (1 + 𝑇𝑠)) and the system is operated in a closed – loop
with unit feedback. The order and type of the closed – loop system are
a) 2 and 3 b) 3 and 4
c) 3 and 0 d) 4 and 0
28. The transfer function 𝐶(𝑠)/𝑅(𝑠) of the given system is equal to
11 11
a) c)
𝑠 2 +𝑠 +11 𝑠 2 +11𝑠 +11
11 11
b) d)
𝑠 2 +12𝑠 +11 𝑠 2 +2𝑠 +11
29. The pole – zero plot shown below represents a/an
a) PID controller c) Lag – lead compensator

b) PD controller d) PI controller
30. Differentiators are not used in a system due to
a) Large noise and saturation in the amplifier
b) Huge size and cost
c) Large resistance and inductance
d) None
31. Which of the following system provides excellent transient and steady – state response
a) Proportional action
b) Proportional + differential action
c) Proportional + integral action
d) Proportional + integral + differential action
32. If some pole of a system liens on the imaginary axis, the system is
a) Absolutely stable c) Marginally stable
b) Conditionally stable d) Unstable
33. The main cause of absolute instability is
a) Error detector where the two signals are compared
b) Parameters of the controlled system
c) Parameters of the uncontrolled system
d) Parameters of the controlling system
34. The characteristic equation of a unity feedback system is given by 𝑠 3 + 𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 4 = 0.
The system
a) Has one pole in the RH 𝑠 − c) Exhibits oscillatory nature
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒. d) Is asymptotically stable
b) Has no pole in the RH 𝑠 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
35. Phase lag network
a) Maintains constant velocity gain
b) Increase system stability
c) Decreases bandwidth
d) All
36. In a lag network, the inductor is used due to its
a) High reactance c) High cost
b) Time delay and hysteresis loss d) Large size
37. If poles are added in a transfer function it will cause
a) Lag compensation c) Lead compensation
b) Lag – lead compensation
38. To increase the bandwidth of a control system, we may use

a) Phase lag compensator
b) Phase lead compensator
c) Phase lag – lead compensator
References
1. K. Ogata “Modern Control Engineering” 5th edition
2. Smarajit Ghosh “control Systems Theory and Application
3. Richard C. Dorf and Robert H. Bishop “Modern Control System” 11th edition
4. S. Hasen Saeed “Control Systems” 7th edition

Introduction To Control System

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Introduction To Control System

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Wollo University

Kombolcha Institute of Technology

Introduction to Control System Exit Exam Module

1.2 Examples of Control Systems

1. Water level control

3. Fluid flow control

4. Temperature control of an electric furnace

To describe control systems, some basic terminologies must be defined.

1.4 Types of Control System

Layout of closed-loop/feedback/control system

Block diagram of temperature control system

• The systems are complicated in design and hence costlier.

Advantages of the Laplace transform method:

Review of Complex Variables and Complex Functions

G(s) = Gx + jGy , Since s = σ + jω

The magnitude of G(s) is |G(s)| = √Gx 2 + Gy 2

Angle of G(s) is θ = tan−1 (Gy ⁄Gx ).

𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝐹 (𝑠) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Where 𝐿 is Laplace transform operator and 𝑠 complex variable.

Inverse Laplace transform is also an integral transform.

In solving linear, time-invariant, differential equations by the Laplace transform method,

2.2 Properties of Laplace Transform

𝐿{𝑐1𝑓1 (𝑡) + 𝑐2𝑓2 (𝑡)} = 𝑐1𝐹1 (𝑠) + 𝑐2 𝐹2 (𝑠)

2) Laplace transform of a derivative of a function 𝐟(𝐭)

For nth derivative of f(t)

= 𝑠 𝑛 𝐹 (𝑠) − 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑓 (0) − 𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑓̇ (0) − ⋯ − 𝑓 (𝑛−1) (0)

3) Laplace transform of the integral of a function

Where, 𝑓 ′(0) = [∫ 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡]|𝑡=0

4) Translated function {𝐟(𝐭 − 𝛂)𝐮(𝐭 − 𝛂) 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝛂 ≥ 𝟎}

𝐿{𝑓 (𝑡 − 𝛼 )𝑢(𝑡 − 𝛼 )} = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑠 𝐹(𝑠) for 𝛂 ≥ 0

𝐿{𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝐹(𝑠 + 𝛼)

6) Change of time scaling

7) Final value theorem

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝒔𝑭(𝒔)

8) Initial value theorem

lim 𝒇(𝒕) = lim 𝒔𝑭(𝒔)

9) Complex differentiation theorem

ẍ + 3ẋ + 2x = 0, x(0) = a, ẋ (0) = b

where a and b are constants.

[s 2 X(s) − sx(0) − ẋ (0)] + [3(sX(s) − x(0))] + 2X(s) = 0

[s 2 X(s) − as − b] + [3(sX(s) − a)] + 2X(s) = 0

∴ x(t) = (2a + b)e−t − (a + b)e−2t

1) Solve the following differential equation.

y − 2ÿ + ẏ − 2 = e−t , ÿ (0) = ẏ (0) = y(0) = 0

i. The Laplace transform of ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡.

ii. The final value of ∫ 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡.

i. Block diagrams ii. Signal flow graphs

3.2 Classical Mathematical Modeling Techniques of a Dynamic System

3.2.1 Differential equation

• The oldest way of a time domain system description.

• It is a description of frequency domain.

𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

1) Write the differential equation for the system.

Exercise: Find zeros and poles of the following transfer functions.

d3 y(t) d2 y(t) s+2

Consider the following

3.3 Mathematical models of electrical systems

Linear time invariant electric Network

where 𝑉 is voltage and 𝑖 is current.

i. Inverting amplifier iii. Differential amplifier

3.4 Mathematical models of mechanical systems

Linear time invariant mechanical system

Where D is the damping coefficient.