Reproduction
Sexual and Asexual Reproduction methods
Reproduction is the process of creating offspring, either by sexual or asexual processes.
Organism Methods of reproduction
Animals Sexual reproduction:
Gametes are produced by parent
organisms through meiosis.
Each gamete contains half the necessary
number of chromosomes.
The make gamete fertilises the female
gamete by either internal fertilisation or
external.
Fusion of gametes results in the
production of a zygote, which contains a
combination of genetic material from
both parental organisms.
Plants Sexual reproduction (e.g., flowering
plants):
Flowers are the reproductive organs of
sexually reproducing plants.
As with animals, offspring are produced
by the fusion of two haploid gametes.
Male gametes (pollen) are transferred to
the female ovules. This process is called
pollination and can be assisted by wind
or insects.
After pollination, fertilisation occurs and
the ovules grow into seeds in a fruit,
which disperse once ripe. The seed is
then freed from the fruit.
Asexual reproduction (e.g., vegetative
reproduction):
Structural modifications to the stem or
roots of the plant results in the
production of new individuals, without
the need for production of seeds or
spores.
Advantages
Sexual reproduction:
Combination of
chromosomes increases
variation, which assists with
survival.
External fertilisation:
Large number of gametes
produced means more
offspring. It is also a
behavioural process which
does not require mating
rituals.
Internal fertilisation:
Increased likelihood of
fertilisation as egg and
sperm are in close
proximity, with increased
protection from the
environment leading to
higher survival rates of
offspring.
Sexual reproduction:
Creates a genetic diversity
within a species, leading to
higher levels of disease
resistance and a greater
ability to adapt to changing
conditions.
Asexual reproduction:
Offspring are clones of
parent plants, meaning
favourable traits are
effectively passed through
generation. This is
advantageous for farmers
to ensure the consistency in
their crops.
It is less energy intensive
than sexual reproduction,
meaning that the
population can increase
rapidly and exploit suitable
habitats quickly.
Disadvantages
Sexual reproduction:
Requires mating of two
organisms which is
dependant of syncing
fertility cycles, and the
production of offspring is
slower and less prolific that
asexual reproduction.
External fertilisation:
Species must produce large
numbers of gametes, which
requires extra energy. It
also requires a watery
environment.
Internal environment:
Fewer offspring are
produced, and it is more
difficult to bring males and
females into contact. There
is a higher risk of sexually
transmitted infections
passing between organisms
Sexual reproduction:
Can prevent favourable
genes from being passed to
offspring, which is not
possible for an isolated
organism.
Asexual reproduction:
Patholgens may spead
easily from parent
offspring. This reduction in
genetic diversity increases
the susceptibility of species
to new diseases, and
evolution is reduced due to
the lack of genetic
variation.
Fungi Sexual reproduction:
Plasmogamy: two genetically different
cells fuse together.
Karyogamy: the nuclei fuse.
Meiosis: gametes are generated which
produce spores that are distributed into
the environment.
Asexual reproduction:
Fragmentation: pieces of hyphae can
separate and become new colonies.
Budding: the nucleus divides and a bulge
formes in the side of the cell, which is
then split off by cytokinesis, and the bud
detaches itself from the mother cell.
Spores: mitosis produced genetically
identical cells to the parent, which are
distributed into the environment by wind
or vectors.
Bacteria Asexual reproduction (Binary Fission):
A singular cell divides into two identical
daughter cells. Begins with DNA
replication where the genetic information
of the bacteria is copied and divided in
two.
The cell elongates and splits into two,
producing daughter cells with identical
genomic information.
Protists Sexual reproduction:
For haploid protists, two haploid cells
fuse to form a zygote. Genetic material is
combined in a new, fused nucleus. The
zygote undergoes meiosis to form new
haploid cells.
For diploid protists, adult cells undergo
meiosis to produce 4 gametes. Gamete
fuse during fertilisation to form a diploid
zygote, which will grow into a diploid
adult.
Asexual reproduction:
Binary fission is the predominant
method.
Budding occurs when a new organism
grows from the body of the parent
organism to form a new colony.
Production of spores allows Asexual reproduction may
for offspring to be widely result in offspring which
distributed in the are only suited to one
environment, increasing habitat.
colonialisation. They can
also be produced easily in
large numbers.
Combination of both sexual
and asexual methods
means that fungi may
choose when and how to
propagate.
Asexual reproduction is fast
and not energy intensive,
so it can occur even when
the organism is under
stress.
Sexual reproduction
increases variability in
species.
Vary rapid (e.g., E. coli can Lack of genetic diversity in
replicate as fast as every 20 the resulting population
minutes in the right lowers change of organism
conditions), and only survival. However, this may
requires a single organism be overcome by high rates
in order to produce of mutation during DNA
offspring. replication, the Horizontal
Gene Transfer by plasmids,
which can be passed from
bacteria to bacteria
The ability for protists to Asexual reproduction can
reproduce sexually provides often be quite
an evolutionary advantage disadvantageous to host
over primitive, asexually organisms during
producing protists. pathogenesis.
Sexual reproduction allows Fast reproduction at little
for greater variation within energy cost to the protists
the species, as genes are make them more effective
mixed recombinantly. as disease causing agents.
Sexual reproduction

 Advantages:
o Variation in the population.
o Species better able to adapt to their environment.
o Disease events less likely to affect the entire population.
 Disadvantages:
o Large time and energy investment.
o Requires a mating partner.
o Fewer offspring produced.

Asexual reproduction

 Advantages
o Rapid population of an environment.
o No requirement for mates.
o Able to be enacted under external pressures (i.e., quick, and not energy intensive)
o No requirement for investment in care of offspring
 Disadvantages
o Lack of diversity.
o May result in large scale extinction events.
o Reduced ability to adapt to external pressures.

Fertilisation and implantation

Fertilisation is the fusion of gametes to initiate the development of a new organism. Implantation is
when a fertilised egg adheres to the wall of the uterus.

Female hormones

 Oestrogen controls the ovarian functioning (controls the development and functioning of the
female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics) fertility.
 Progesterone maintains pregnancy. A drop in progesterone stimulates menstruation –
produced in the ovaries and stimulates the secretion of milk in the mammary glands.
 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates the maturation of the follicles in the ovaries –
produced in the anterior pituitary gland, which discrete oestrogen.
 Luteinising hormone (LH) promotes final maturation of the follicle, ovulation and
development of the corpus luteum secretion of progesterone
Sexual reproduction begins with development of gametes. In females, this occurs in the ovaries,
where ovum are produced and released into the fallopian tubes. There is a 12–24-hour window after
release called ovulation, during which fertilisation, the fusion of the egg and a sperm cell, can be
successful. Once fertilisation has occurred, the zygote begins to divide and migrate from the fallopian
tubes into the uterus. Here, the now blastocyst embeds itself into the wall of the uterus, called the
endometrium. This is a nutrient-dense lining which will provide oxygen and nutrients to the growing
embryo. This occurs about 7 days after fertilisation, establishing the pregnancy.

- Gametes are formed through either oogenesis (meiosis where only one of the four eggs
survives) before the female is born or spermatogenesis (meiosis where all sperm cells
survive) throughout the life of the male.
- All of a female’s oocytes are produced before she is born, but they then need to mature
in the follicles. When the female reaches puberty, the oocytes completes meiosis I.
- At ovulation, the oocyte then completes meiosis II and grows bigger and full of nutrients,
becoming an ovum (mature egg) that is then released from the ovarian follicles.
- The follicle it came from becomes a corpus luteum, which releases ovarian hormones.

- Fertilization in all mammals is internal, occurring in the female reproductive tract (usually
the uterine tube). There is a five-day window after ovulation when this occurs.
- The sperm die in a variety of ways on the journey, but thousands still reach the ova.
- They break through the outer layer (corona radiata) with an acrosomal reaction and
enter the zona pellucida, where only one sperm can enter before the corona radiata
hardens and becomes impermeable. The sperm nucleus then fuses with the egg nucleus.
- Once a sperm fertilizes an ova, a series of chemical changes occur to ensure successful
zygote production.

- After fertilization the zygote divides into a morula (a 3-4 day old ball of cells) and then a
blastocyst (4-5 day old hollow ball of cells connected to the trophoblast).
- The trophoblast secretes enzymes to connect to the endometrium (uterine wall) and
develops into the placenta, while the connected blastocyst develops into a gastrula, then
an embryo. Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin (HCG) is produced (pregnancy test).
- By 8 weeks the embryo has grown enough to develop human features and be a foetus.
- The hormones that maintain pregnancy are produced by the pituitary and ovaries.

Hormone Function Production

Gonadotropin (GnRH)
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
Oestrogen
Progesterone
Triggers the release of FSH and LH Hypothalamus
Ensures the egg development Pituitary
Causes ovulation (egg release) Pituitary
Supports foetal growth, increases blood Ovary
flow and triggers positive feedback
Causes the regrowth of the uterine Ovary/Placenta
lining, inhibits FSH/LH and contractions

- Gestation is divided into three trimesters of three months each. The first trimester is just
cell division and differentiation, the second trimester is the formation of organs, and in
the third trimester the baby is fully formed and just needs to grow bigger.
- The process of childbirth is called parturition and occurs via positive feedback under
hormonal control. Positive feedback involves a response which amplifies the change.
- In the case of childbirth, foetal growth causes stretching of the uterine walls which is
detected by stretch receptors, triggering the release of hormones.

Hormone Function Production

Oestriol Inhibits progesterone production Placenta
Oxytocin Triggers ‘nurturing’ feelings, causes Pituitary
contractions, helps lactation
Prostaglandins Triggered by contractions, causes Foetus
contractions (positive feedback)
Endorphins Calming and pain relieving, allows the Pituitary
mother to ‘survive’ birth
Adrenalin and Noradrenalin Inhibits contractions (at low levels), spikes Adrenal glands
trigger foetal ejection reflex
Prolactin Central to breast milk production Pituitary
Model of DNA structure (Watson and Crick)

Deoxyribose nucleic acid, or DNA, is a double helical nucleic acid molecule which carries genetic
information, encodes as sequences or nucleotide bases. DNA is double stranded, composed of
stacked and complementarily bonded nucleotides. DNA is a double stranded, composed of stacked
and complementary bonded nucleotides.

A single nucleotide is a phosphate, bound to a deoxyribose sugar group, bound to a nitrogenous base
(either Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, or Cytosine). Nucleotides are phosphates bonded to a sugar,
forming a sugar-phosphate backbone. Inwardly facing nitrogenous bases are bonded C-G or A-T, by
hydrogen bonding. DNA strands are complementary and antiparallel.

1. Initiation: the enzyme helicase unwinds and separates complementary DNA strands by
breaking the hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous bases (causes a replication fork)
2. Elongation: small pieces of RNA called primers bind to the ends of the strands, signalling the
starting point of replication. DNA polymerase III binds to seperated DNA strands at primer
sites and begins to add new base pairs which are complementary to the strand.
3. Termination: DNA polymerase reaches the end of the DNA molecule, and the two identical
daughter strands have now been produced. Strands recoil into the double helix shape,
creating two new and beautiful DNA molecules. Nuclease enzymes essentially ‘proofread’
the double helix structure.
Mitosis

Cell division resulting in two identical daughter cells, with the same number and kind of
chromosomes as the parent cell.

Interphase

- Cell prepares itself for division.

- DNA replication occurs to produce two copies of each chromosome.
- 46 Chromosomes, 46 Chromatids.

Prophase

- Duplicated chromosomes condense.

- The mitotic spindle forms at either end of the dividing cell. These spindles are composed of
strands of micro-tubules which lengthen and shorten to pull chromatids apart.
- 46 Chromosomes, 96 Chromatids.

Prometaphase

- Nuclear envelope breaks down.

- Mitotic spindle begins to capture and organise the chromosomes.

Metaphase

- Pairs of condensed chromosomes (called sister chromosomes) line up along the equator of the
cell.

Anaphase

- Sister chromatids are drawn to opposite poles of the dividing cell by the mitotic spindle.
- Microtubules bind to chromatids at the kinetochore and begin to shorten, separating pairs from
each other.
- There is now only one copy of each chromosome at either end of the cell.

Telophase

- Two new nuclear envelopes begin to form around the seperated sister chromatids.
- 46 Chromosomes, 46 Chromatids

Cytokinesis

- Two daughter cells are seperated by the tightening of a ring of proteins around the middle of the
dividing parent cell – the two nuclei are squeezed apart.
- Cytokinesis occurs simultaneously to anaphase and telophase – the pinching of the cellular
membrane begins to happen as chromosomes are seperated and new nuclei are formed.

Meiosis

Interphase

- As with mitosis, DNA replication occurs to produce two copies of each chromosome.

Prophase I

- Chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope breaks down.

- Homologous chromosomes pair up, aligning next to each other along their full length.
- Crossing over occurs between homologous chromosomes. This is when segments of DNA at the
same time locus swap to create new gene combinations.

Metaphase I

- Homologous pairs (not individual chromosomes) line up along the equator of the separating cell.

Anaphase I

- Homologous pairs are seperated, pulled to opposite ends of the cell by the meiotic spindle.
- Sister chromatids remain attached.

Telophase I

- Chromosomes arrive at opposite ends of the cell.

- Two diploid daughter cells are formed by cytokinesis.

Prophase II

- Chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope breaks down.

Metaphase II

- Chromosomes line up along the equator of the dividing cells.

Anaphase II
- Sister chromatids are seperated by the spindle microtubules and are pulled towards opposite
poles of the cells.

Telophase II

- Cytokinesis splits the dividing cell into two new cells.

- Nuclear membranes form around each set of chromosomes.
- Four haploid daughter cells are formed, each containing half the number of chromosomes of the
parent cell.

Transcription and translation

Transcription: After DNA unzips, a gene’s DNA sequence is copied (transcribed) to make an RNA
molecule. The enzyme RNA polymerase builds an mRNA molecule by pairing nucleotides with
complementary bases on the non-coding strand (template strand). The info is transcribed in
codons/triplets (groups of three bases). The mRNA strand is the same as the coding strand except
uracil replaces thymine. The molecule begins to move away and transcription ends when the enzyme
reaches a stop codon. The introns (segment of a gene that doesn’t code for proteins) are removed,
leaving the exons (codes for proteins/polypeptides). The mRNA then moves out of the nucleus and
onto a ribosome.

Translation: The ribosomes move along the mRNA, attaching tRNA molecules by temporarily pairing
anticodons (correspond to codons) with corresponding codons, while another enzyme makes
peptide bonds between the amino acids (1 codon = 1 amino acid). The tRNA breaks off, leaving the
chain of amino acids—a polypeptide. The polypeptide may be joined by others, then it is folded into
its shape to form a protein.
Importance of mRNA and tRNA in transcription and translation.

mRNA is important to convey genetic information from DNA, serving as a messenger and specifying
the amino acid sequence of the DNA.

tRNA is important as it decodes an mRNA sequence into a polypeptide chain and then a protein.

Function and importance of polypeptide synthesis.

Polypeptide synthesis forms polypeptides that fold to form proteins. Proteins have many essential
roles within our cells. See ‘structure and function of proteins in living things).

Assess how genes and environment affect phenotypic expression.

Characteristics are determined by genes (by directly coding for certain characteristics and features,
e.g. eye colour) and the environment, depending on its various features that affect the organism,
such as food and water availability. E.g. two plants growing in environments with different quantities
of sunlight, moisture, and nutrients will result in different growth rates and yield.

Examples: The Himalayan Rabbit (low temperatures->black fur, high temperatures->brown fur), the
water buttercup (leaves above the water are broad and lobed, leaves under the water are thin and
finely divides)

Structure and function of proteins in living things.

- Primary structure: Chain of amino acids
- Secondary structure: Folded polypeptide -> forms structural proteins (bone, muscle, etc.)
- Tertiary structure: Complex, 3D shape -> forms hormones (chemical messengers) and enzymes
(catalyse chemical reactions)
- Quaternary structure: Made of 2+ polypeptides -> form haemoglobin (carries oxygen)
Genetic Variation - How can the genetic similarities and
differences within and between species compared?

Homologous chromosomes/alleles: Chromosomes come in pairs (one from father, one from mother)
called homologous pairs, containing equivalent sets of genes, allowing different alleles (alternate
forms of a characteristic) to exist. One allele is often recessive while one is dominant, and the
dominant one is usually expressed over the recessive one. (e.g. in Tt, T will be expressed). Mendel’s
pea plant experiments produced this model of inheritance.

Fertilisation: When sex cells (haploid number: 23 chromosomes each) fuse, they create a zygote
(diploid number: 46 chromosomes). Homologous chromosomes line up and separate at random
during meiosis, meaning that there are many possible gametes. Each gamete gets one of the four
chromatids shown below. Each gamete also represents an allele.

Crossing over: Occurs during prophase 1 of meiosis when homologous chromosomes pair up.
Maternal and paternal chromosomes of each pair may tangle together and exchange segments of
genes, making new gene combinations.
  Model the formation of new genotypes produced during meiosis
Interpreting autosomal, sex-linkage, co-dominance, incomplete dominance, and multiple alleles

Autosomal: Relating to chromosomes that aren’t sex chromosomes, e.g. in Mendel’s pea plants.
Each plant carries 2 genes for a characteristic, each an alternate form of the characteristic (like tall
and short). These genes are called alleles. One allele is dominant (T) and expressed over the other (t),
which is recessive. If the two alleles for a characteristic are the same, it is homozygous (TT, tt), if
different, it is heterozygous (Tt). Each parent passes one gene, so their offspring has two genes for
the characteristic. The rhesus system only has two alleles and is an example of dominant and
recessive alleles (Rh+ is dominant to Rh-).

Sex-linkage: Relating to sex chromosomes (like female XX and male XY). Thomas Morgan, through
fruit flies, found that sex chromosomes often carry only 1 gene instead of 2 because the Y
chromosome is smaller and has less genetic material, and doesn’t carry genes. Many recessive
conditions are mainly expressed in males because a male only inherits one gene for a characteristic
and it is always expressed, even if it is recessive, because he cannot inherit a dominant gene on his Y
to mask its effect. (see punnett squares)

Co-dominance: Two alleles are both dominant and both apparent in the phenotype. An example of
polygenic inheritance, where the inheritance of a characteristic is controlled by 2 or more genes.

Incomplete dominance: Two alleles blend together and show a blended effect in the phenotype (e.g.
white + red flower = pink flower)

Multiple alleles: When there are over two alleles for a characteristic. E.g. ABO blood groups (A and B
are dominant over O, A and B are co-dominant and = AB)

Blood group Genotype Antigens (are Antibodies (recognise

recognised by antigens for attack)
antibodies)
A IAi or IAIA A B

B IBi or IBIB B A
AB I AI B A+B None
O ii None A+B

Constructing/interpreting info from pedigrees and Punnett squares

- Punnett squares: Allows you to predict the phenotypes of the offspring of two parents, using the
genotypes of the parents.
- Pedigree charts: Show inheritance patterns and allows inheritance of genetic disorders to be
followed. Problems usually whether the condition is dominant or recessive and for the
genotypes of certain members.
- Rules: If two affected have an unaffected child, the trait is dominant. If two unaffected have an
affected child, the trait is dominant. If every affected person has an affected parent, the trait is
dominant.