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Cognitive Radio – An Enabler
for Internet of Things
RIVER PUBLISHERS SERIES IN COMMUNICATIONS

Series Editors
ABBAS JAMALIPOUR MARINA RUGGIERI
The University of Sydney University of Rome Tor Vergata
Australia Italy

JUNSHAN ZHANG
Arizona State University
USA

Indexing: All books published in this series are submitted to Thomson Reuters Book
Citation Index (BkCI), CrossRef and to Google Scholar.

The “River Publishers Series in Communications” is a series of comprehensive aca-

demic and professional books which focus on communication and network systems.
The series focuses on topics ranging from the theory and use of systems involving
all terminals, computers, and information processors; wired and wireless networks;
and network layouts, protocols, architectures, and implementations. Furthermore,
developments toward new market demands in systems, products, and technologies
such as personal communications services, multimedia systems, enterprise networks,
and optical communications systems are also covered.
Books published in the series include research monographs, edited volumes,
handbooks and textbooks. The books provide professionals, researchers, educators,
and advanced students in the field with an invaluable insight into the latest research
and developments.
Topics covered in the series include, but are by no means restricted to the
following:

• Wireless Communications
• Networks
• Security
• Antennas & Propagation
• Microwaves
• Software Defined Radio

For a list of other books in this series, visit www.riverpublishers.com

 Cognitive Radio – An Enabler
for Internet of Things

S. Shanmugavel
Professor, National Engineering College
Kovilpatti, India

M. A. Bhagyaveni
Professor, College of Engineering, Guindy
Anna University, Chennai, India

R. Kalidoss
Professor, Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering
Chennai, India
Published, sold and distributed by:
River Publishers
Alsbjergvej 10
9260 Gistrup
Denmark

River Publishers
Lange Geer 44
2611 PW Delft
The Netherlands

Tel.: +45369953197
www.riverpublishers.com

ISBN: 978-87-93519-40-4 (Hardback)

978-87-93519-39-8 (Ebook)

©2017 River Publishers

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of
the publishers.
 Contents

Preface xi

Acknowledgements xiii

List of Figures xv

List of Tables xix

List of Abbreviations xxi

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Features and Application of IoT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Enabling Technologies and Protocols for IoT . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 RFID and Near-Field Communication (NFC) . . . . 4
1.2.2 M2M Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.3 Naming and Addressing Schemes for IoT . . . . . . 6
1.2.4 Data Storage and Analysis Techniques . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.5 Cognitive Radio for IoT and M2M . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Requirement and Challenges of IoT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.1 Heterogeneity Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.2 Flexible, Dynamic and Efficient Networking
and Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.3 Self-Organization, Re-Configurability
and Automaticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.4 Energy Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.5 Cooperative and Ambient Intelligence . . . . . . . . 10

2 Software Defined Radio 13

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Definition of SDR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

v
vi Contents

2.2.1 Software Controlled Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.2.2 Software Defined Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Levels of SDR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 SDR Waveform Portability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5 SDR Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.5.1 SDR Interoperability Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.5.2 SDR Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.6 Software Radio Functional Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.6.1 The Software Radio Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.7 Classes of Software Defined Radio (SDR) . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.8 Software Communications Architecture (SCA) . . . . . . . 22
2.8.1 SCA Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.8.2 COBRA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.8.3 SCA Compliance and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3 Cognitive Radio 25
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2 Understanding of Cognitive Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3 Cognitive Radio Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.4 Cognitive Radio Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.4.1 Primary and Secondary Users . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.5 Cognitive Radio Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.6 Types of Cognitive Radios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.6.1 Procedural CRs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.6.2 Ontological CRs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.7 Cognitive Radio Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.7.1 Infrastructure (Centralized) CRNs . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.7.2 Ad-hoc Mode CRNs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.8 How Cognitive Radio Empowers Internet of Things . . . . . 33
3.9 Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.9.1 Spread Spectrum Primary Users . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.9.2 Hidden Node/Sharing Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.9.3 Sensing Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.9.4 Other Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4 Next Generation Networks 37

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.2 Classical Hypothetical Analysis of Spectrum Sensing . . . . 38
4.3 Transmitter Detection (Non-Cooperative Detection) . . . . . 41
 Contents vii

4.4 Matched Filter Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

4.5 Energy Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.6 Cyclostationary Feature Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.7 Cooperative Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.8 Interference Based Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.9 Neyman Pearson Fusion Rule for Spectrum Sensing
in Cognitive Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.10 Bayesian Approach for Spectrum Sensing . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.11 Optimal Spectrum Sensing by Using Kullback Leibler
Divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.11.1 System Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.11.2 Spectrum Sensing Using KLD . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.12 Spectrum Sensing Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

5 Cognitive Radio for Upper Layers 57

5.1 Spectrum Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.1.1 Spectrum Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.2 Spectrum Decision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.2.1 Challenges Faced by Spectrum Management . . . . 59
5.3 Spectrum Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.3.1 Spectrum Handoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.4 Spectrum Mobility Challenges in xG Networks . . . . . . . 62
5.5 Spectrum Sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.6 Overview of Spectrum Sharing Techniques . . . . . . . . . 64
5.7 Inter-network Spectrum Sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.8 Centralized Inter-Network Spectrum Sharing . . . . . . . . 67
5.9 Distributed Inter-Network Spectrum Sharing . . . . . . . . . 68
5.10 Challenges to Spectrum Sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.10.1 Common Control Channel (CCC) . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.10.2 Dynamic Radio Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.10.3 Spectrum Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.11 Upper Layer Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.11.1 Routing Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.12 Transport Layer Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.13 Cross-Layer Challenges in Spectrum Management . . . . . 73
5.14 Cross-Layer Challenges in Spectrum Handoff . . . . . . . . 73
5.15 Cross-Layer Challenges in Spectrum Sharing . . . . . . . . 74
5.16 Cross-Layer Challenges in Upper Layers . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.17 MIMO Cognitive Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
viii Contents

6 Standards for Cognitive Radio IEEE 802.22 Wireless Regional

Area Network 79
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.2 IEEE 802.22 Wireless Regional Area Network . . . . . . . . 80
6.2.1 Importance of IEEE 802.22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.2.2 Topology of IEEE 802.22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.2.3 Service Capacity and Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.3 Physical Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6.4 MAC Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.4.1 Super Frame Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.5 Sensing in IEEE 802.22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.6 IEEE 802.22 Spectrum Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.7 Turnaround Time Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.8 Modified Duplex Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.9 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.9.1 Representation of the Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.9.2 Performance of the Modified Duplex System . . . . 90
6.9.3 Variation in the Number of Users . . . . . . . . . . 91
6.10 Methodology for Idle Time Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.11 CTS Interference in IEEE 802.22 Wran Networks . . . . . . 93
6.12 CTS Interfrence Mitigation in IEEE 802.22
Wran Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.12.1 System Model and Its Elements . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.13 Interference Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.13.1 Desired Cell in Uplink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.13.2 Desired Cell in Downlink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.14 Location Based Duplex Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.14.1 Mathematical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.15 Performance Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.15.1 CDF for Varying Inner Cell Radii . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.15.2 Variation of the Inter-Cell Distance . . . . . . . . . 104
6.15.3 Variation in the Number of Users . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.15.4 Single User in the Desired Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

7 MATLAB Programs for Spectrum Sensing Technqiues 109

7.1 Energy Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.2 Matched Filter Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7.3 Cyclostationary Feature Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.4 Co-Operative Spectrum Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
 Contents ix

7.5 Introduction & Specifications of USRP . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

7.6 USRP B200/B210 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.7 Experiment-Detection of Spectrum Holes Using USRP . . . 127
7.8 Experiment: Spectrum Sensing Using WARP . . . . . . . . 128

Bibliography 133

Index 141

About the Authors 145

 Preface

Communication technology is facing new challenges today from Internet of

Things (IoT) model. These challenges arise due to the need to connect numer-
ous heterogeneous objects. New radio technologies and network architectures
require designs that can take care of several devices of the future having
connectivity demands. Radio communications require exclusive adaptation
by the frequency spectrum allocation to suit efficient spectrum utilization
which takes into consideration new bandwidth and application requirements.
Pursuit of innovative research directions based on the use of opportunistic
radio resource utilization such as the ones based on Cognitive Radio (CR)
technology is necessary. This is meant for efficiency and reliability.
Cognitive Radio is an enabler communication technology for IoT. The
focus is currently on investigation of adaptation of the CR technology in
objects of small size with the objective of minimizing wireless interference and
also to ensure the concept of “always connected”. The capabilities of cognitive
radio have reached an advanced stage. They include features like spectrum
sensing, knowledge of environment, learning and self adapting. These allow
maintenance of efficient communication in a manner that means seizing
of opportunities CR technology has the ability of automatic detection and
learning from the radio environment. It can also adopt the transmission para-
meters in real-time share the wireless spectrum in a multi-dimensional manner,
in space, time, frequency, modulation mode, which eventually improves
spectrum efficiency. Cognitive Radio and Cognitive Radio Networking (CRN)
are taken as key IoT enabling technologies. Their integration with future IoT
architectures and services is expected to empower the IoT paradigm. With
this in mind, we make a survey of Cognitive Radio approaches and challenges
posed for M2M and IoT.
This book is designed for post graduate students in engineering and
research scholars working in advanced wireless communication techniques.
Chapter Organization
The text comprises seven chapters: Chapter 1 introduces Internet of things and
its importance in the next generation wireless networks. The enabler for IoT is

xi
xii Preface

cognitive radio. Software defined radio is a fundamental platform for devel-

opment of CR. SDR and its architecture features are outlined in Chapter 2.
Chapter 3 deals with cognitive radio and its types. The basic process involved
in cognitive radio is spectrum sensing. Various types of spectrum sensing are
discussed in Chapter 4.
The other important operations of cognitive radio are spectrum man-
agement, spectrum mobility and spectrum sharing, Chapter 5 outlined these
topics. Upper layer and cross layer issues are also discussed in detail. The first
standard for cognitive radio is IEEE 802.22 Wireless regional area network
standard. Chapter 6 starts with the functional model of IEEE 802.22 followed
by turnaround time and cross time slot issues in IEEE 802.22. The solutions
for the shortcoming are explained with various simulation results.
Chapter 7 focus a various experimental operations in SDR and CR platform
using MATLAB, WARP and USRP architecture model. The users will be able
to develop and simulate their own algorithm using real time wireless model.
 Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Professor Huseyin Arslan of the University of South

Florida, who consented to review our book and the River Publication team
for their valuable insights and suggestions, which have greatly contributed to
significant improvements of this text.

xiii
 List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Internet of Things. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Figure 1.2 Evolution of Cognitive Radio. . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 2.1 Block diagram of an ‘Ideal’ software
defined radio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Figure 2.2 Functional model of a software radio
communication system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Figure 2.3 Software radio parameter space. . . . . . . . . . . 21
Figure 3.1 Cognitive cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Figure 3.2 Overview of spectrum in CR environment. . . . . . 29
Figure 3.3 Primary user occupancy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Figure 3.4 Presence of secondary user. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Figure 3.5 Suppression of secondary user. . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Figure 3.6 Illustration of hidden primary user problem. . . . . 35
Figure 4.1 Next generation network communication
functionalities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Figure 4.2 Basic concept of spectrum sensing. . . . . . . . . . 38
Figure 4.3 Spectrum sensing techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Figure 4.4 Matched filter detection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Figure 4.5 Energy detector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Figure 4.6 Cyclostationary feature detection. . . . . . . . . . 44
Figure 4.7 Cooperative sensing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Figure 4.8 Observation space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Figure 4.9 Cognitive radio network for spectrum sensing. . . . 51
Figure 5.1 Overview of spectrum sharing techniques. . . . . . 64
Figure 5.2 Inter-network spectrum sharing. . . . . . . . . . . 67
Figure 5.3 General MIMO system model. . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Figure 5.4 Basic two-antenna MIMO system
incorporated in CR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Figure 6.1 Topology of IEEE 802.22. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Figure 6.2 TV band occupancy over time and frequency. . . . 83

xv
xvi List of Figures

Figure 6.3 Channel bonding scheme illustrating1 (top),

two (middle), and three TV channels (bottom). . . . 84
Figure 6.4 Super frame structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Figure 6.5 Time/frequency structure of a MAC frame. . . . . . 86
Figure 6.6 Data transmission by conventional TDD. . . . . . . 88
Figure 6.7 Data transmission by modify duplex technique. . . 89
Figure 6.8 Representation of the cells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Figure 6.9 Performance of modified duplex and TDD
systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Figure 6.10 Representation of 20 and 100 users. . . . . . . . . 92
Figure 6.11 CDF v/s SIR for a variable number of users. . . . . 93
Figure 6.12 Illustration of cross time slot interference. . . . . . 94
Figure 6.13 Cross time-slot interference problem. . . . . . . . . 94
Figure 6.14(a) Tier by tier architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Figure 6.14(b) WRAN system model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Figure 6.15 Interference when desired cell is in UL. . . . . . . 97
Figure 6.16 Illustration when desired cell in DL. . . . . . . . . 98
Figure 6.17 Location based duplex system. . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Figure 6.18 Worst case scenario in TDD based WRAN. . . . . 100
Figure 6.19 Interference avoidance in LBD system. . . . . . . . 101
Figure 6.20 Representation of the cells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Figure 6.21 Performance of LBD and TDD systems. . . . . . . 103
Figure 6.22 CDF v/s SIR for varying inner cell radius. . . . . . 104
Figure 6.23 Inter cell distance variation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Figure 6.24 CDF v/s SIR for a variable number of users. . . . . 106
Figure 6.25 TDD v/s LBD for a single user. . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Figure 6.26 Variable inner cell radiuses for a single cell. . . . . 107
Figure 6.27 Performance comparison of LBD Vs virtual
cell concept. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Figure 6.28 Desired cell in UL/adjacent cell in DL in
LBD system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Figure 7.1 Pd Vs Pfa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Figure 7.2 Plot for SNR vs Pd. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Figure 7.3 Pd vs pfa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Figure 7.4 SNR vs Pd. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Figure 7.5 a) BPSK modulation b) Received signal with noise
c) FFT of received signal d) Cross correlation
of received signal with cosine signal. . . . . . . . . 121
Figure 7.6 SNR vs Pd. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
 List of Figures xvii

Figure 7.7 Pf vs Pd. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

Figure 7.8 Pfa vs Pmd. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Figure 7.9 Block diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Figure 7.10 FM signal in frequency domain. . . . . . . . . . . 128
Figure 7.11 Three basic steps to the simple spectrogram. . . . . 129
Figure 7.12 Waveforms of I&Q during no active traffic. . . . . 129
Figure 7.13 Spectrogram of no active traffic. . . . . . . . . . . 130
Figure 7.14 Waveforms of I&Q during active traffic. . . . . . . 130
Figure 7.15 Spectrogram of active traffic. . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
 List of Tables

Table 6.1 IEEE 802.22 standard specification parameters . . . 82

Table 6.2 Simulation parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Table 6.3 SIR values of TDD and modified duplex system . . . 91
Table 6.4 System parameters with respect to BS EIRP . . . . . 99
Table 6.5 Simulation parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Table 6.6 SIR values of TDD and LBD system . . . . . . . . . 103

xix
 List of Abbreviations

3GPP third Generation Partnership Project

ADC analog to digital converters
aMS Adjacent Mobile Station
AWGN additive white Gaussian model
BD Bayesian detector
BS base station
CCC Common Control Channel
CDF Cumulative distribution function
COBRA Common Object Request Broker Architecture
CogNets Cognitive networks
COTS commercial off-the-shelf
CPE consumer premise equipments
CR Cognitive Radio
CRN Cognitive Radio Network
CSCC common spectrum coordination channel
CSMA carrier sense multiple accessing
DAC digital-to-analog converters
DC-MAC decentralized cognitive MAC
DDC Digital Down Converter
dMS Desired Mobile Station
D-QDCR QoS based dynamic channel reservation
DS downstream
DSAN dynamic spectrum access Networks
DSL digital subscriber loop
DSP digital signal processing
DUC Digital Up Converter
ED energy detector
FCC Federal Communications Commission
FDD Frequency Division Duplex
GLRT Generalized likelihood ratio test
IERC European Research Cluster on the Internet of Things

xxi
xxii List of Abbreviations

INFOSEC information security

IoT Internet of Things
ISR ideal software radio
JTRS Joint Tactical Radio System
KL Kull back-Leibler
LAN local area network
LOS line-of-sight
LRT likelihood ratio test
M2M Machine to Machine
MAC medium access control
MLE maximum likelihood estimates
NFC Near- Field Communication
NP Neyman-Pearson
OMG Object Management Group
PD performance of detector
PD probability of detection
PDF probability density functions
PDR programmable digital radios
PFA probability of false alarm
P-MP point to multipoint
PU primary users
QoS quality of service
RFID Radio Frequency Identification
RKRL Radio Knowledge Representation Language
RTO retransmission timeout
RTT round trip time
SCA Software Communications Architecture
SCH super frame control header
SDH synchronous digital hierarchy
SDR Software Defined Radio
SNR signal-to-noise ratio
SU Secondary users
TDD Time Division Duplex
TRANSEC transmission security
TS test sample
TVWS TV whitespaces
UCS Urgent Coexistence Situation
UHD USRP Hardware Drive
UP upstream
 List of Abbreviations xxiii

URI Uniform Resource Identifier

USRP Universal Software Radio Peripheral
WARP Wireless open Access Research Platform
WISP Wireless Internet Service Providers
WRAN wireless regional area network
WSN wireless sensor networks
xG Next generation
 1
Introduction

On some future date, strange, and incredible things may happen. Curtains
are up on the instruction of our alarm clock. Other breath taking things that
happen at the initiative of the alarm clock are: the coffee maker knows when
to make coffee; the car melts the snow that has gathered overnight. Other
things that happen are our refrigerator texts our grocery lists, our washing
machine announces the completion of laundering, and our doctors update
their prescriptions with the use of data beamed from tiny sensors attached to
our bodies. These are not figments of imagination or just wishful thinking
or fantasies. We can bet on these happening, becoming a reality, through
Internet of Things (IoT) which is certain to enable communication with
each other, developing their own intelligence. Cisco systems have predicted
that, by 2020, the Internet will have more than 50 billion connected things
including televisions, cars, kitchen appliances, surveillance cameras, smart
phones, utility meters, cardiac monitors, thermostats and almost everything
that touches our imagination. Cisco projects a profit of US $14.4 billion for the
IoT technology globally in the next decade, with IoT connecting our things of
everyday use (e.g., keys, refrigerators, and washing machines), pets, energy
grids, health care facilities, transportation systems etc., to the Internet. This is
illustrated in Figure 1.1.

1.1 Features and Application of IoT

The IoT has caught up the attention of common people and researchers
alike, conjuring up the vision of connecting many things in this world. This
will surely transform our ability to interact with real world objects, process
information, and enable our decision making capability with savings in time
and money. IoT means the next phase of internet wherein everything will
be seen. The number of objects that get connected to the internet is growing
exponentially day by day. The penetration of connected things is expected to

1
2 Introduction

Figure 1.1 Internet of Things.

reach 2.7% of the total by 2020 from 0.6% in 2012. There are forecasts that, by
2020, everyone will get connected to at least two things. The emerging M2M
(Machine to Machine) technology will eventually accelerate the growth of
IoT technologies which connect machines, devices and objects to the internet,
transforming them into “intelligent” assets. 11.6 billion-this is the number
of mobile connected devices by 2020, including M2M modules. This will
outstrip the world’s population which is extrapolated as 7.8 billion. The global
projection of M2M connections is 604 millions in 2015 going to a staggering
3.1 billion by 2020. M2M traffic flows would form a big slice of the entire
Internet traffic in the coming years. Manufacturing and health care will be the
largest IoT market segments according to market specific surveys. Oil and gas
will be leading sub-segment of manufacture together with the energy section,
mobility, and transportation. In the sphere of consumer applications, home
automation items (smart thermostats, security systems and refrigerators) will
dominate the market in the next few years.
A good momentum on IoT standardization and IoT workshops is witnessed
today. This facilitates interoperability testing events which help reaching
consensus on the development of IoT standards. IoT is a popular expression
in the computing industry. It is seen in the marketing campaigns of major
 1.2 Enabling Technologies and Protocols for IoT 3

networking companies like Cisco and microprocessor giants like Intel. It has
also figured in International Conferences like “Internet of Things” world forum
with a view to ensure successful IoT deployment, IETF working groups like
6Lo, ROLL, 6TiSCH are in the process of developing standards that can
enable seamless integration of low-power wireless networks into the internet
through solutions for address segment and routing. Simultaneously, the third
Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) is on the move for providing support
to M2M applications on 4G mobile networks like UMTS, LTE/LTE-A. The
objective is to facilitate embedding of M2M communications in the future 5G
systems.
The application of IoT products will be all pervasive and will manifest
all perceivable areas ranging from smart phones and going up to smart cities.
Education, manufacture, healthcare, mining, oil and gas, energy, commerce,
transportation, surveillance, infrastructure, supply chain, logistics- the seg-
ment or area-IoT products will be there. Opportunities for the use of IoT will be
infinite. Its realization will manifest in more and more devices coming within
the fold of IoT. This phenomenal development will owe it to the availability
of tiny, low power and low cost devices, as for example, sensors, actuators,
RFID tags, low power tiny computers. The world will also witness advanced
technologies and protocols, as for example, M2M, WSN, RFID, Cognitive
radio, IPV6, GLOWPAN).
The IPv6 protocol is the new version of IP with a large address space
(2128 addresses). It would have the ability to provide identification/address for
almost all objects worldwide. M2M communication and other similar featured
technologies will help implementation and deployment of IoT applications.
Efficiency and reliability will be the features with wireless networks and wire-
less sensor networks (WSNs) that can enable communication of data to and fro
from “things”. Potential users will also be able to develop their own application
software due to the availability of a large number of development platforms.
Interoperate protocol stacks and open standards for practical realization of IoT
will also benefit by the standardized bodies.

1.2 Enabling Technologies and Protocols for IoT

An enormous potential for diverse applications in day to day life through IoT is
clearly seen. Advanced technologies and protocols that have emerged recently
have provided support to this. An overview of these has been the subject
matter of a recent survey. This section seeks to make a review of the existing
key technologies that include RFID and WSN. These technologies support
4 Introduction

not only the provision of IoT services but also the M2M technologies that
have come up enabling direct connectivity to the “machines” to the internet,
transforming them into “intelligent” assets with ability to communicate.
This section also provides a brief discussion on the schemes involving naming
and addressing for IoT and also the techniques for data storage and analysis
supporting the IoT vision.

1.2.1 RFID and Near-Field Communication (NFC)

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is expected to provide a solution to
ensure availability of M2M and IoT communication for everyone, with focus
on economy, keeping the cost low. Tags fixed to or incorporated into physical
objects to enable their identification help realization of RFID. Each RFID tag
comprises a microchip attached to an antenna. It can be read through radio
waves in almost every spectrum band despite RFID using unlicensed bands
mostly. RFID enables wireless access to data (e.g., identification numbers)
stored on microchips, using radio waves. This way, RFID tags do the role of
electronics bar codes that enable automatic identification of things to which
they are attached. Currently, RFID tags are finding use in retail and supply
chain management, access control, transportation and electronic passports.
With the advent of the recent advances in RFID technology, cheaper tags for
monitoring applications in IoT (e.g., for monitoring temperature and location)
are available today. The size of RFID systems is growing enormously to
thousands of tags for various applications. Applications include transmission
collusions, such as tag-to-tag collisions, reader-to-tag collisions, and reader-
to-reader collisions which may occur in situations where there are many
readers and tags in close vicinity. Anti-collision protocols provide solutions
to problems arising out of collision helping improvement in performance.
RFID is considered as a key technology which can accelerate the formation
of IoT. The most recent use of RFID technology is seen in the form of near-
field communication (NFC) supporting electronic payments. RFID standard
provides the base or foundation on which NFC technology is built. NFC is
a short-range communication standard wherein devices have the ability to
engage in radio communication among themselves when in contact or brought
into close proximity to one another. With the introduction of smartphones that
include NFC transceivers, phones can read passive NFC tags which can store
a URI (Uniform Resource Identifier) while still being small, thin, inexpensive
and attachable to almost anything. A matter of interest is the Apple’s recent
introduction of NFC support in its iphone6 – a device that facilitates wireless
payments using Apple Pay.
 1.2 Enabling Technologies and Protocols for IoT 5

Apple has also introduced NFC chips in the Apple Watch. Besides, there
are plans to continue the use of NFC in devices that would see introduction
at a future date. This will glorify NFC into becoming a key IoT enabler there
by proving to be a remarkable health in Apple’s cap.
Wireless sensor network (WSN) has some unique features like being
autonomous and easily deployable. These have provided WSN the status
of being another key enabling technology for IoT deployment. Sensor net-
works can cooperate with the RFID system and enable efficient tracking
and collection of information on position, movement, temperature etc., In
addition, technological advances of recent origin in low power integrated
circuits and wireless communications have helped in getting efficient, low cost,
low power miniature devices which can be used in remote sensing applications.
As a result, there is the possibility of collection, processing, analysis and
dissemination of information gathered in a wide variety of environments in
IoT through sensor networks that consist of a large number of smart sensors. As
against this, there are a few limitations that WSN suffers from. These include
resource constraints in terms of computing and power, with the requirement of
appropriate action, to ensure effective use of WSN technology. In the backdrop
of IoT, research issues in WSN that require study include low cost routing
discovery and energy conservation.
Untuned radios can achieve a throughput comparable to a tuned network.
This is possible through the use of network coding in WSNs. Some examples of
employment of the network coding scheme in WSNs are those for dealing with
the multipath problem in sensor networks and for efficient data dissemination,
storage and collection in WSNs. However, this requires scalability in the
network coding algorithm and also stability for a large scale WSN deployment.
There should also be consideration of a dynamic network topology and routing
features of WSN. Complexity of intermediate nodes in a resource limited
WSN network is seen through network coding. It also results in additional
transmission delay which is rather inadvisable for real time applications.
Hence, there is need for further study for network coding in WSN and IoT.

1.2.2 M2M Technologies

M2M technologies of recent origin act as a key enabling technology for
the pragmatic realization of IoT. They provide connectivity between devices
all over along with the ability of autonomous communication without
human intervention. With IoT in the background, addition of the human
element to machine interaction makes the scope of M2M applications wider.
6 Introduction

M2M communications have the potential for transforming the day to day life
through enabling of smart homes, smart grids, smart transportation, smart
buildings and smart cities. M2M connections are known to be an integral part
of IoT vision.
On the whole, M2M communications are expected to grow to 3.4 billion
globally by 2024. But, several issues require investigation for the growth of
M2M-IoT. One such issue is the fragmentation created by multiple proprietary
M2M solutions which do not have interoperability with other M2M systems or
solutions. One M2M is the worldwide initiative for interoperability of M2M
and IoT devices and applications. Its objective is to develop specifications
for a common M2M service layer platform which builds on the existing IoT
and web standards, defining at the same time, specifications for protocols
and service API’s. Another M2M specification provides a framework for
supporting applications and services like smart grid, connected car, home
automation, public safety and health. A third M2M is known for its recent
publication of its Release 1 standards which provide specifications for enabling
optimized M2M interworking and developing a platform for M2M and
IoT devices and applications. Recent advances and the spread of M2M
technologies have helped development of several M2M platforms, like, for
instance, the open MTC platform which is a prototype implementation of
the M2M middleware which has provision for a standard-compliant platform
for developing M2M and IoT applications as its objective. One more M2M
defines the specification for interoperability of IoT platforms at the service
layer. But, many implementation details are open, despite the provision of
details of functionality, protocols and API’s of platforms. Among such details
are lack of scalability, availability and deployment aspects of the IoT platforms
that implement these services. There is also another issue which is the limited
availability of the wireless spectrum as M2M expansion requires additional
spectrum. The number of M2M devices is constantly on the increase. This has
triggered a large number of connected devices, visualized for the IoT, creating
a major challenge manifested by spectrum capacity. The TV whitespaces
(TVWS) hand down a solution for M2M, simultaneously fitting well with
the operation of M2M nodes with features of low speed and low duty-cycle.

1.2.3 Naming and Addressing Schemes for IoT

Dealing with the problems involved in M2M and IoT is very important as their
success relies very much on the ability to identify devices/things in a unique
manner. Identification of all connected devices is imperative and this can
be accomplished by their unique identification, location and functionalities.
 1.2 Enabling Technologies and Protocols for IoT 7

This enables exclusive identification of billions of devices and, additionally,

control remote devices through the internet. Any exclusive scheme dealing
with the problems should have features like uniqueness, reliability, persistence
and scalability. IoT has varied network technologies and system architectures
which make it a heterogeneous paradigm. It is this that makes integration of the
different types of networks an important issue in IoT. The IP protocol provides
an empirical solution (in the form of IP based network) for communication
technology for the wireless network technologies in vogue including WiFi,
IEEE 802.15.4, and RFID.
The new version of IP i.e IPv6 has a larger address space and mobility
feature. It enables interconnection of everything and every network node. It
also provides a solution for communication between different systems featur-
ing a global unified address allocation and routing. However, investigation of
several issues such as IPv6 header compression, mobility, security and QoS
is required for the use of IPv6 addressing in the backdrop of IoT. IPv6 should
consider QoS and real time requirements for IoT real time applications.

1.2.4 Data Storage and Analysis Techniques

The IoT paradigm has the feature of generating voluminous data, with need
for innovative methods for data storage and analysis and energy conservation.
With the rise in energy consumption, there is need for data centres to
replace new ways of energy conservation, for example, data centres that
run on harvested energy and are centralized, providing energy efficiency
and reliability. Storage and intelligent use of data are imperative for smart
monitoring and actuation in Iot. This in turn requires the development
of artificial intelligence algorithms (centralized or distributed) and fusion
algorithms to enable analysis of the gathered data. More than this, the most
updated machine learning methods, genetic algorithms, neural networks, and
other artificial intelligence techniques are imperative for effective automated
decision making. As a general rule, novel intelligent systems with features like
interoperability, integration and adaptive communications are appropriate for
IoT communications coming up. A centralized infrastructure for supporting
storage and analysis is also important for IoT.

1.2.5 Cognitive Radio for IoT and M2M

The prevailing and emerging technologies include Wi-Fi/IEEE 802.11,
HSDPA, LTE/LTE-A, 5G, ZigBee, Z-Wave, Bluetooth Low Energy 4.0 and
8 Introduction

other IEEE 802.15.4 standards. These are known to implement IoT appli-
cations, and operate in non-licence ISM bands that are getting congested.
This phenomenon has given rise to new challenges that have the objective of
dealing with the management and usage of spectrum resources for efficient
and effective utilization of IoT, which holds at promise of being a part of
the future interest, covering almost the entire gamut of domains, industry
and sector. It can generate enormous wireless access data including M2M
communication as also machine to human communication. Any indifference
to this problem will result in the emergence of a situation witnessing paucity
of spectrum recourses that will become a bottleneck for the development
of IoT in the future. It will mean a high priority to ensure availability of
adequate spectrum for handling the traffic involving billions of new wireless
nodes that are getting connected to the internet. CR technology will provide
benefit to IoT by enabling additional efficient radio spectrum usage. IoT is
becoming a reality. This would indicate continuously increasing demands
for spectral resources that would lead to overcrowding of ISM bands. At
the same time, there are indications of spectrum utilization measurements
in many unused or underused licensed bands over space and time, as for
example, spectrum bands for TV broadcasting resulting in huge spectrum
wastage.
This has triggered regulatory agencies such as Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) for opening licensed bands to unlicensed/secondary users
through use of CR. It is well know that CR, as an improving technology, has the
capability of improving spectrum usage and reducing spectrum scarcity which
are exposed to the hazard of exploiting underused spectral resources through
reuse of the unused spectrum as an opportunity. Traversing similar lines, IEEE
has been the emerge for IEEE 802.22 WRAN working group for development
of a standard for a Cognitive radio based network for secondary access in TV
white space (TVWS) known for their non-interfering nature and opportunistic
attitude. The research community has considered CR for the management of
dynamic radio spectrum as, for example, in ISM bands and as secondary users
in unused TV bands. In addition, several leading organizations like Motorola,
Philips, Qualcomm are making huge investments for development of CR
technology of late, the European Research Cluster on the Internet of Things
(IERC) has provided a duration for the standardization of IoT technologies.
An IERC project, viz., RERUM is on the job of adapting CR on the IoT
devices.
 1.3 Requirement and Challenges of IoT 9

1.3 Requirement and Challenges of IoT

1.3.1 Heterogeneity Issues
IoT applications are in a wide range on the basis of design, deployment,
mobility cost, size, resources, energy, heterogeneity, communication modality,
infrastructure, network topology, coverage, connectivity, network size, life-
time, etc., they introduce complexities in the development of IoT applications
in ways more than one. An amalgam of software and hardware platform is
not adequate for offering support to the entire design space. This brings in the
need for the use of heterogeneous systems. Inter operability and heterogeneity
related issues are causing great concern. There is also the problem of having
to manage the devices of different hues including unique characteristics of
a wide variety. In addition to this, there is the presence of heterogeneous
technologies of various shades connecting the objects to the network. Such
technologies have given rise to the need for exploring synergies with potential
for dealing with functionalities like intelligent connectivity for smart objects.
New models of communication technologies are needed for dealing with
heterogeneity issues, technologies that can provide environment discovery,
self-organization, and self-management capabilities.

1.3.2 Flexible, Dynamic and Efficient Networking

and Communication
Many IoT applications need higher QoS in combination with adaptability and
re-configurability features. But, there are of a large number of heterogeneous
sensing devices of small size used in such applications. Management of such
devices is not possible through use of conventional tools. There is also the
importance of plug and play objects with self-discovery, self-configuration,
and automatic software deployments. Such importance is from the end user’s
point of view. Networking should have the capability to support multi-hops. It
should be dynamic and efficient too. Radio communications need adaptation of
frequency spectrum allocation for efficient spectrum usage taking into account
new bandwidth and application requirements. A static spectrum allocation for
different applications does not ensure efficiency.

1.3.3 Self-Organization, Re-Configurability and Automaticity

Specific ability and resources are necessary for smart objects for their
reconfiguration. A transparent insertion of objects in the environment with-
out any external action is needed for reconfigurability. Ability to scan the
10 Introduction

environment, detection of neighbouring objects and sub reconfiguration are

the essential requisites for objects. There is also the ability of nodes to
play different roles in accordance with situation and capabilities, as for
example, as a relay or leader that can control a sub network or collect
and steer information. A significant challenge is in the area of implemen-
tation of reconfigurability and flexibility, with a low energy budget at the
same time.

1.3.4 Energy Efficiency

IoT has objects of a wide variety including low power sensors; smart phones
etc., with variegated power consumption profiles. Energy efficient designs
and communication need dealing with for a longer duration of IoT objects as
also for a “green” design. Energy management should have the adaptability
to different ways of opportunistic energy harvesting and scavenging. The
need for energy communication arises due to the communication part being
the main source of power consumption. There is also the requirement for a
communicating object to have adequate processing power to ensure efficient
energy management. This leads to the need for designing energy optimization
and management algorithms to consider the low processing capabilities seen
in some of the IoT devices.

1.3.5 Cooperative and Ambient Intelligence

Intelligence tools with capability of ambient and cooperative intelligence are
used in IoT. There is also the need for intelligent distributed agents which can
perform many management functions in a decentralized fashion, with local
dealing with simple situations with good response. Granting the presence of
cooperation and communication among neighbors, smart objects can enhance
their knowledge of local environment and make coordinated decisions within
the ambit of a network. Smart interfacing between the digital and the real
world needs intelligence for a system with ability to sense the real world, to
communicate information, to process raw information into a meaningful one
and act on it too.
Evolution of CR involves three main steps. The first step is the soft-
ware defined radio (SDR) that provides support to its implementation.
Figure 1.2 explains the evolution of CR from software defined radio to
cognitive radio. This cognitive concept can be extended to Cognitive networks
 1.3 Requirement and Challenges of IoT 11

Figure 1.2 Evolution of Cognitive Radio.

(CogNets), which comprise three parts viz., SDR, CR and CogNets with
the feature of highlighting the capabilities provided by each. The upcoming
Chapter 2 describes the fundamental concepts associated with SDR and its
architecture.
 2
Software Defined Radio

2.1 Introduction
Following the incorporation of the times software was incorporated into radio
and radio technologies, the main goal of radio developments has been software
defined radio or software radio. The complete configuration of radio using
software, ability to change the configuration at a particular instant to enable
the use of software as a common access platform have been the key objectives
of SDR. Re-configuration of radio using software depending on the scope
of operation, change of roles or up-gradation of radio have been the subject
matter for research for many years past.
The Joint Tactical Radio System is one such system in which one waveform
from a plethora of waveforms can be selected and communication carried
out. Feasibility of this system becomes an accomplishment through use
of a common hardware platform by simple reconfiguration and reload of
the radio. The distinction and popularity of this particular application in
military can be attributed to its capacity to ensure communication between
troops from different countries in a common platform i.e., coalition style
operations.
On the commercial front, the SDR can find application in cellular networks,
subject to frequent changes in standards. This facilitates smooth transition
from one standard to another through reconfiguring the system using soft-
ware instant any contact with the hardware platform. Migrations from one
standard say UMTS to HSPA, another standard and further to a higher one
say LTE can be done by just loading the software and reconfiguring it to
suit the needs of the user, despite the presence of divergent standards in
the modulation techniques. Thus the SDR has a high potential in many
fields and its use is bound to increase with the developments in the field of
communication.

13
14 Software Defined Radio

2.2 Definition of SDR

The definition as given by the SDR forum is as follows:

2.2.1 Software Controlled Radio

The radio in which some or all of the physical layer functions are Software
Controlled, in other words is a technique where the functions of a radio are
prescribed by the software.

2.2.2 Software Defined Radio

Radio in which some or all of the physical layer functions are Software defined.
In other words, it is the usage of software to determine the functions and the
specifications of a radio. Thus changes find reflection in the radio also, when
the software is subject to any modification.
An all encompassing definition that captures the essence of SDR is that it
is a technique that comprises of a generic hardware platform in which software
that carries out functions like modulation, demodulation, filtering, frequency
selection and frequency hopping (if needed), operates. This demonstrates the
performance changes in the radio arising from the reconfiguration of the
software. The software employs digital signal processing (DSP) processors
as well as general purpose processors to carry out the required functions.
The ideal emanation of signals from the transmitter and the processing at
the receiver side after reception and conversion of the signals to bits would
require a digital to analog convertor at the transmitter side to deliver very
high power and extremely minimal noise. This reveals the impediment to a
complete definition and control by software through a few limitations. It is
shown in Figure 2.1.

2.3 Levels of SDR

Since the definition and control of radio using software is dependent on various
parameters, the SDR Forum (now called the Wireless Innovation Forum-
WINNF), has defined various tiers, providing gives a broad perspective of
the tier for a particular radio system to fit in.
Tier 0:- This represents a type of radio that cannot be controlled by software
i.e., non-configurable hardware.
 2.4 SDR Waveform Portability 15

Figure 2.1 Block diagram of an ‘Ideal’ software defined radio.

Tier 1:- Represents a radio system in which only limited functions like power
level, interconnections can be controlled by software, however, no control
over mode and frequency.
Tier 2:- This represents a system in which a significant number of parameters
like frequency, modulation and waveform generation/detection, wide/narrow
band operation, security etc can be controlled by software. However the RF
front end remains hardware based and is non-reconfigurable.
Tier 3:- An ideal software radio (ISR) in which the “front end “is also
configurable. This is considered to have complete programmability with the
boundary between configurable and reconfigurable elements lying very close
to the antenna.
Tier 4:- This is one step ahead of the tier 3 system where it supports multiple
functions and frequencies in addition to complete programmability. This is also
termed as the Ultimate Software Radio (USR). With mobile communication
developing by leaps and bounds, this technology finds application in many
devices that include a software definable multifunctional cell phone.

2.4 SDR Waveform Portability

Waveform portability is another major advantage of SDR. The factors that
explain the need for waveform portability and explained below:
Cost savings: The cost of usage of different waveforms for communication in
military and commercial levels is very high and hence there is an indispensible
need for techniques that facilitate the reuse of waveforms for communication.
16 Software Defined Radio

Obsolescence mitigation: This is similar to cost savings in areas where there

is a need to transfer the existing waveforms into newer platforms due to the
advent of new hardware techniques.
Interoperability: There are many requests from customers to have the ability
to use the systems across platforms on the basis of complete interoperability.
Even though waveform portability is not easy to achieve, it is necessary
to introduce measures for realizing this in the early stages of design and
development. This vouches for optimization in portability. Additionally a
number of tools and elements like the SCA – Software Communications
Architecture, and CORBA, a form of middleware associated with SCA come
in handy for design purposes. There is also the need for many short-cuts and
well-structured programming techniques for designing purposes. This is due
to the persistent need to compile the codes in different platforms and hence
programmed software that can be run on different platforms is required.

2.5 SDR Security

A high degree of security is expected in many communications seen military
and commercial applications. In addition to the security demanded by the user,
another security requisite in the case of SDR is secure software upgradation
requirement that calls for a high usage of the internet. The high usage of
internet will call for its use in software upgradation in SDR. This might give
room for malicious software upgrades and other impediments in operation of
the radio due to the corruption of software. Thus the security aspect of SDR
should be seriously considered.

2.5.1 SDR Interoperability Testing

Interoperability testing ensures the ability of a code for waveform portability
from one platform to another, providing the necessary functionality in the new
platform. Realization of this needs employment of certified and accredited
waveforms.
The major limitations that prevent the usage of SDR in many real time
applications are the high processing power and the power consumption of the
SDR. Since the decision to have a trade off in power consumption/processing
power should be done even at the initial stage, SDR is not suited for cell
phone designs. But cellular networks base stations employ SDR since the
issues of power consumption and space constraints do not affect them much.
 2.5 SDR Security 17

Further upgradation can also be handled efficiently by the base stations. It is

also used in military and many other devices using SDR have started entering
the market. But there is always the dilemma of choosing SDR as a technique for
mobile communication. It is a fact that the implementation of SDR for small,
cheap radios with lesser scope of change is a waste of resource. But SDR
is an extremely efficient technique that should be considered for complicated
systems with high likelihood of change and a good duration of service required.

2.5.2 SDR Hardware

An important aspect of the SDR technique is the hardware on which the
software has to be programmed. The hardware is a fundamental requirement
for SDR that serves as a platform on which the SDR runs. The design of
a flexible hardware is, therefore, an important and interesting part of the
design process. Though the entire technique revolves around the employment
of software for operation, the hardware is the one that defines the ability of
the software. In terms of design, performance and cost the challenges arise
due to the requirement of the presence of the interface between software
and hardware very close to the antenna to ensure higher levels of software
control and reconfiguring ability. This calls for many decisions at an early stage
regarding the cost, boundary locations based on the required functionality and
performance expected.
The basic functional blocks are:
1. RF Amplification: This is used for amplification of signals coming from
and travelling to the antenna. There is a great need for a RF amplification
block arising from the low probability of a DAC at the transmitter side.
Amplification of the signals is extremely important in the receiver side
as well considering the emergence of the problem of quantization noise
when the signals are passed unamplified into the antenna, despite all the
frequency specifications being within limit.
2. Frequency conversion: The design SDR may or may not include certain
analog signal manipulation section that indulges in frequency conver-
sions. These analog sections carry out conversions to and from the final
frequency or alternatively some intermediate frequency processing may
also be carried out.
3. Digital Conversion: The pivotal stage in which the conversion between
digital and analog formats are carried out. The parameters that are to
be considered in the transmitter side while carrying out this conversion
are the maximum frequency and the required power level while the
18 Software Defined Radio

parameters like maximum frequency and the number of bits to be assigned

to a particular quantization level are to be considered in the receiver side.
4. Baseband processor: A number of functions like digital conversion
of the incoming and outgoing signals in frequency are carried out by
the central baseband processor. Digital Up Converter (DUC) is the
name assigned to these processors, since the conversion of signals from
the base frequency levels to the required output levels is carried out by
these elements. Similarly, the receiver side, the exact opposite process
carried out in the transmitter side is done which involves bringing the
signal down in frequency. This is done by a Digital down Converter
(DDC) after which the signal needs filtration and demodulation and
extraction of data.
Power consumption is a major issue in baseband processor. The processing
level is directly proportional to the current consumption which, on increase
calls for a higher level of cooling. The formats of the processors like general
processors, DSPs, ASICs and particularly FPGAs also influence power con-
sumption. There is considerable importance given to FPGA based design due
to its capability of being reconfigured to the required specifications.

2.6 Software Radio Functional Architecture

The essential communication functions viz., source coding and channel
coding face the need for expansion. The needs can be met through advances
in technology that have done and, are still doing, the mighty role of ushering
in new radio capabilities. A software radio/model has captured these new
functional aspects.

2.6.1 The Software Radio Model

As a first step, multiband technology accesses simultaneously more than one
RF band communications channel, which is then generalized to the channel
set. This is shown in Figure 2.2. While this set includes RF channels, radio
nodes like the base stations of the PC’s and portable military nodes are also
interconnected to a fibre cable, explaining the reason for their inclusion in the
channel set.
The channel encoder of a multi band radio includes RF channel access,
IF processing and a modem. Wideband antennas and multi-element arrays
of smart antennas are included in the RF/channel access. This segment is
known to provide multiple signal paths and RF conversion that span multiple
 2.6 Software Radio Functional Architecture 19

Figure 2.2 Functional model of a software radio communication system.

RF bands. IF processing is likely to include filtering, further frequency trans-

lation, space/time delivery processing, beam forming and related functions.
Multimode radios generate multiple air interface wave forms (modes)
defined basically in the modem, the RF channel modulator-demodulator. These
waveforms may be in different bands and may even span multiple bands. A
software defined personality has, in its fold, RF band, a channel set (e.g. control
and traffic channels), air interface waveforms and related functions. Despite
many applications not requiring information security (INFOSEC), incentives
for its use still exist.
Authentication reduces chances of fraud, while stream encipherment
ensures privacy. Both have the specific advantage of ensuring data integrity.
The fact of a communication event as, for example, through use of spread
spectrum technique is not discussed by transmission security (TRANSEC).
This is the reason why INFOSEC finds inclusion in the functional model
despite the function being null in respect of many applications.
As an additional feature, the source coder/decoder pair currently includes
the data, facsimile, video and multimedia source found essential for new
services. Some sources are physically remote from the radio node, with
connection via the synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH), a local area network
(LAN) etc., through service and network support (detailed in Figure 2.2).
Implementation of these functions may be done in multithreaded multi
processor software orchestrated by a joint control function, which ensures
system ability, error recovery, timely data flow and isochronous streaming of
voice and video. With advancement in radios, increasing complexity is seen in
joint control with evolution towards autonomous selection of band, mode and
data format. Any of the functions has the likelihood of having singleton as, for
example, single band versus multi bands leading to further complication of
20 Software Defined Radio

joint control. Additional users find support from an agile beam forming which
enhances the quality of service. (QoS). The beam forming currently requires
dedicated processor. However, these algorithms may, in future, time share a
DSP pool along with the Rake receiver and other modem functions.
A point to note is that joint source and channel coding also yield wave-
forms that are computationally intensive. Introduction of large variations into
demand through dynamic selection of land, mode and diversity as functions
of QoS is seen. Such variations cause conflicts for processing resources.
A further complication in the statistical structure of the computational demand
is created by channel strapping, adaptive waveform selection and other forms
of data rate agility.
There is also the loss of processing resource through equipment failures.
Joint control gives the facility of integration of fault nodes, personali-
ties and support functions on processing resources which include ASICs,
FPGAs, DSPs and general purpose computers for ensuring the object of
telecommunications.
It is possible for the user to upload a variety of new air interface personali-
ties in a software radio. These may modify any aspect of the air interface under
any circumstances which could be the waveform hoped, spread or otherwise
constructed. The resources required (e.g. RF access, digitalized bandwidth,
memory and processing capacity) should not exceed those available on the
radio platform. There is, therefore, the need for a compelling need for mecha-
nism of some kind for evolution support to define the waveform personalities,
download them (e.g. over the air) and to ensure safety for each new personality
prior to getting activated. It is necessary for the evolution support function to
include a software factory. However, there is the requirement of support to the
evolution of the radio platform both in the analog and the digital hardware of
the radio node. Accomplishment of this is possible via the design of advanced
hardware modules in an integrated evolution support environment or through
the acquisition of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) hardware modules or both.
Figure 2.2 is the block diagram of the radio functional model amounting to
partitioning of the black box functions of the ideal software radio nodes that
have been referred to above with specific functional components.

2.7 Classes of Software Defined Radio (SDR)

The software radio parameter space illustrated in Figure 2.3 represents radio
implementation as a function of digital access bandwidth and programmabil-
ity. The horizontal access has programmability as the ease of making changes.
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little boy, before he went away.”
It was queer for her to ask that. He had expected her to inquire at
once about the three months since their parting in Baltimore. He had
determined to tell if she asked, but it was hard even to think of his
descents, with her sitting by the fire so near. Such things seemed to
have nothing to do with him now—especially when he was with her.
They were like old and vile garments cast off; and without relation to
him, unless he went back and put them on again. Little matters like
Charley and his sister had a relation, for they were without taint. His
thoughts to-day were thoughts of doing well for men, as in fine
moments with Duke Fallows—of going out with her into the world to
help—of writing and giving, of laughing and lifting.... It was surprising
how he remembered the very long ago days—the silent, solid,
steadily-resisting little chap. Many things came back, and with a
clearness that he had not known for years. The very palms of her
hands were upturned in her listening; it seemed as if the valves of
her heart must be open.
“I can see him—the dear little boy——”
He laughed at her tenderness.... They went out late to dinner;
and by the time he had walked back to the house it was necessary
for him to leave, if he caught the last car to Hackensack. Duke
Fallows would be expecting him at the cabin....
It came to him suddenly, and with a new force, on the ferry, that
he had once wished she were pretty. He suffered for it again. He
could never recall her face exactly. She came to him in countless
ways—with poise for his restlessness, with faith and stamina that
made all his former endurings common—but never in fixed feature. It
was the same with her sayings. He remembered the spirit and the
lustre of them, but never the words.... She was a saint moving
unobserved about the world, playing—adrift on the world, and so
pure.
He realized also that he had spoken of Betty Berry for the last
time to Duke Fallows. There was no doubt in his mind now that
Fallows had replaced his old weakness with what might be called, in
kindness—fanaticism.... The thought was unspeakable that Betty
Berry could spoil his work in the world—he, John Morning, a living
hatch of scars from his errors ... and so arrogant and imperious he
had been in evil-doing! This trend made him think of her first words
to-day: “You are not well.” It was true that he had been astonished
often of late by a series of physical disturbances, so much so that he
had begun to ask himself, in his detached fashion, what would come
next. He could not accept Fallows’ promise that he would get
altogether right in health again. He was certainly not so good as he
had been. These things made him ashamed.
Now that he was away from her, the sense obtained that he had
not been square in withholding the facts of the wastrel period. It
didn’t seem quite the same now, as when she was sitting opposite.
He would have to tell her some time, and of that certain mental
treachery to her, and of the wound, too.... He saw the light of the hill
cabin. A touch of the old irritation of Liaoyang had recurred of late.
Morning could master it better now. Still so many things that Fallows
had said in Asia had come true. Climbing up the hill, he laughed
uneasily at the idea of his being temperamentally a monk.... He had
not strayed much among women; he had been too busy. Now he had
met his own. He would go to her to-morrow. His love for her was the
one right thing in the world. Fallows nor the world could alter that....
The resistance which these thoughts had built in his mind was all
smoothed away by the spontaneous affection of the greeting. They
sat down together before the fire, but neither spoke of the woman
who had come between.

12
Onholdthethe
way to Betty Berry the second day, Morning could not quite
altitude of yesterday. There was much of the boy left in
the manner of his love for her. The woman that the world saw, and
which he saw with physical eyes, was only one of her mysteries. The
important thing was that he saw her really, and as she was not seen
by another.... They had been together an hour when this was said:
“There comes a time—a certain day—when a little girl realizes
what beauty is, and something of what it means in the world. That
day came to me and it was hard. I fought it out all at once. I was not
exactly sure what I wanted, but I knew that beauty could never help
me in any way. I learned to play better when I realized this fully. I
have said to myself a million times, ‘Expect nothing. No one will love
you. You must do without that,’ I believed it firmly.... So you see
when I went back to the Armory that next morning I had something to
fall back upon.... I would not have thought about it except you made
me forget—that afternoon. Why, I forget it now when you come; but
when you go, I force myself to remember——”
“Why do you do that?”
She was looking into the fire. The day was stormy, and they were
glad to be kept in.
“Why do you do that?” he repeated.
“Because I can’t feel quite at rest about our being together
always. It seems too wonderful. You must understand—it’s only
because it is so dear a thing——”
She had spoken hastily, seeing the fear and rebellion in his eyes.
“Betty Berry.... We’re not afraid of being poor. Why not go out and
get married to-day—now?”
Her hand went out to him.
“That wouldn’t be fine in us,” she said intensely. “I would feel that
we couldn’t be trusted—if we did anything like that.... Oh, that would
never keep us together—that is not the great thing. And to-day—
what a gray day and bleak. We shall know if that day comes. It will
be one such as the butterfly chooses for her emerging. It must not be
planned. Such a day comes of itself.... Why, it would be like seizing
something precious from another’s hand—before it is offered——”
“And you think you are not beautiful?” he said.
“Yes.”
He tried to tell her how she seemed to him when they were apart
—how differently and perfectly the phases of her came.
 “It makes me silent,” he went on. “I try to tell just where it is. And
sometimes when I am away—I wonder what is so changed and
cleansed and buoyant in my heart—and then I know it is you—
sustaining.”
“It doesn’t seem to belong to me—what you say,” she answered.
“I don’t dare to think of it as mine.... Please don’t think of me as
above other women. I am not apart nor above. I am just Betty Berry,
who comes and goes and plays—dull in so many ways—as yet, a
little afraid to be happy. When you tempt me as now to be happy—it
seems I must go and find someone very miserable and do
something perfect for him.... But, it is true, I fear nothing so much as
that you should believe me more than I am.”
A little afterward she was saying in her queer, unjointed way, as if
she spoke only here and there a sentence from the thoughts running
swiftly through her mind:
“... And once, (it was only a few weeks after the Armory, and I
was playing eastward) I heard your name mentioned among some
musicians. They had been talking about your war, and they had seen
the great story.... I couldn’t tell them that I know you?... It was known
you were in New York, and one of the musicians spoke of an early
Broadway engagement—of starting for New York that very night. It
was the most common thing to say—but I went to my room and
cried. Going to New York—where you were. Can you understand—
that it didn’t seem right for him, just to take a train like that? And I
had to go eastward so slowly. For a while after that, traveling out
there, I couldn’t hold you so clearly; but as we neared New York—
whether I wished it or not—I began to feel you again, to expect you
at every turning. Sometimes as I played—it was uncanny, the sense
that came to me, that you were in the audience, and that we were
working together.... And then you came.”
Her picture changed now. Morning grew restless. It was almost
as if there were a suggestion from Duke Fallows in her sentences:
“I thought of you always as alone.... You have gone so many
ways alone. Perhaps the thought came from your work. I never could
read the places where you suffered so—but I mean from the tone
and theme of it. You were down among the terrors and miseries—but
always alone.... You will go back to them—alone, but carrying
calmness and cheer. You will be different.... It’s hard for me to say,
but if we should clutch at something for ourselves—greedily because
we want something now—and you should not be able to do your
work so well because of me—I think—I think I should never cease to
suffer.”
A dozen things to say had risen with hostility in his mind to check
this faltering expression, the purport of which he knew so well in its
every aspect. He hated the thought of others seeing his future and
not considering him. He hated the fear that came to him. There had
been fruits to all that Fallows had said before. He had plucked them
afterward. And now Betty Berry was one with Fallows in this hideous
and solitary conception of him. And there she sat, lovely and actual
—the very essence of all the good that he might do. He was so tired
of what she meant; and it was all so huge and unbreakable, that he
grew calm before he spoke, from the very inexorability of it.
“There is no place for me to go—that you could not go with me.
Every one seems to see great service for me, but I see it with you.
Surely we could go together to people who suffer.... I have been
much alone, but I spent most of the time serving myself. I have
slaved for myself. If Duke Fallows had left me alone, I should have
been greedy and ambitious and common. I see you now identified
with all the good of the future. You came bringing the good with you
to the Armory that day, but I was so clouded with hatred and self-
serving, that I really didn’t know it until afterward.... All the dreams of
being real and fine, of doing good in work, and with hands and
thoughts, of sometime really being a good man who knows no
happiness but service for others—that means you—you! You must
come with me. We will be good together. We will serve together.
Everybody will be better for us. We will do it because we love so
much—and can’t help it——”
“Oh, don’t say any more—please—please! It is too much for me.
Go away—won’t you?”
She had risen and clung to him, her face imploring.
 “Do you really want me to go away?” he said.
“Yes—I have prayed for one to come saying such things—of two
going forth to help—prayed without faith.... I cannot bear another
word to be said to-day.... I want to sit here and live with it——”
He was bewildered. He bent to kiss her brow—but refrained....
Her face shone; her eyes were filled with tears.... He was in the
street trying to recall what he had said.

13
Hestarved
did not cross the river, but wandered about the city.... She had
her heart always, put away the idea of a lover, and
sought to carry out her dreams of service alone. Then he had come.
In the midst of mental tossing and disorder to-day, he had stumbled
upon an expression of her highest idea of earth-life: for man and
woman to serve together—God loving the world through their
everyday lives.... And she had been unable to bear him longer near
her. It was the same with her heart, as with one who has starved the
body, and must begin with morsels.
He was in the hotel writing-room—filling pages to her. He did not
mean to send the pages. It was to pass the time until evening. He
lacked even the beginnings of strength to stay away from her until to-
morrow. He would have telephoned, but she had not given him the
number, or the name of the woman who kept the house. The writing
held his thoughts from the momentarily recurring impulse to go back.
The city was just a vibration. Moments of the writing brought her
magically near. In spite of her prayer for him not to, his whole nature
idealized her now. His mind was swept again and again with gusts of
her attraction. Thoughts of hers came to him almost stinging with
reality ... and to see her again—to see her again. Once in the
intensity of his outpouring, he halted as if she had called—as if she
had called to him to come up to her out of the hollows and the
vagueness of light.
It was nightfall. He gave way suddenly—to that double-crossing
of temptation which forces upon the tempted one the conviction that
what he desires is the right thing.... He would be a fool not to go. She
would expect him.... He arose and set out for her house.
But as he neared the corner something within felt itself betrayed.
“And so I cannot be content with her happiness,” he thought. “I
cannot be content with the little mysteries that make her the one
Betty Berry. I am not brave enough to be happy alone—as she is. I
must have the woman....”
He was hot with the shame of it. He saw her bountifulness; her
capacity to wait. Clearly he saw that all these complications and
conflicts of his own mind were not indications of a large nature, but
the failures of one unfinished. She did not torture herself with
thoughts; she obeyed a heart unerringly true and real. She shone as
never before; fearless, yet with splendid zeal for giving; free to the
sky, yet eager to linger low and tenderly where her heart was in
harmony; a stranger to all, save one or two in the world, pitilessly
hungry to be known, and yet asking so little.... Compared with her,
he saw himself as a littered house, wind blowing through broken
windows.
... That night, sitting with Duke Fallows before the fire, brooding
on his own furious desires, he thought of the other John Morning
who had brooded over the story of Liaoyang in so many rooms with
the same companion. All that former brooding had only forced the
world to a show-down. He knew, forever, how pitifully little the world
can give.... A cabin on the hill and a name that meant a call in the
next war....
The face of the other cooled and stilled him. Duke was troubled;
Duke, who wasn’t afraid of kings or armies or anything that the world
might do; who didn’t seem even afraid now of the old Eve violence,
whoever she was—was afraid to speak of Betty Berry to his best
friend.... Morning wondered at this. Had Duke given up—or was he
afraid of mixing things more if he expressed himself? The fire-lit face
was tense. One after another of the man’s splendid moments and
performances ran through Morning’s mind—the enveloping
compassion—in Tokyo, Liaoyang, in the grain, in the ploughed lands
—the Lowenkampf friend, the friend of the peasant house, the friend
of men in Metal Workers’ Hall, his own friend in a score of places
and ways—the man’s consummate art in friendliness....
“Duke, there’s a lot to think about in just plain living, isn’t there?”
The other started. “Hello,” he said. “I didn’t think you were in my
world.”

Betty Berry was waiting at the stairs the next morning.

“Did you get my letter?” she whispered, when the door had
swung to.
“No.... Mailed last night?”
“Yes.”
“I left the cabin two hours before the mail. It’s rural delivery, you
know. Jethro reaches my box late in the forenoon——”
“I wrote it about dark, but didn’t mail it until later. I thought you
would come——”
He told her how he had written, how he had come to her house,
and turned away. They were very happy.
“To think that you came so far. I couldn’t sit still, I was so
expectant at that very time.... But it was good for us——”
“I understood after a while.”
“Of course, you understood.... I was—oh, so happy yesterday.
Yet, aren’t we strange? Before it was night, I wanted you to come
back.... I didn’t go out last night. I couldn’t practice. To-night, there
are some friends whom I must see——”
Morning, in a troubled way, reckoned the hours until evening....
She was here and there about the room. The place already reflected
her. She had never been so blithe before.... It was an hour afterward
that he picked up a little tuning-fork from the dresser, and twanged it
with his nail. She started and turned to him, her thumb pressed
against her lips—her whole attitude that of a frightened child.
“I wonder if I could tell you?” she said hesitatingly. “It would make
many things clear. You told me about little boy—you. It was my
father’s——”
He waited without speaking.
“... He used to lead the singing in a city church,” she said.
“Always he carried the tuning-fork. He would twang it upon a cup or
a piece of wood, and put it to his ear—taking the tone. He had a soft
tenor voice. There was never another just like it, and always he was
humming.... I remember his lips moving through the long sermons,
as he conned the hymn-book, one song after another, tapping his
fork upon a signet ring. How I remember the tiny twanging, the light
hum of an insect that came from him, from song to song, his finger
keeping time, his lips pursed over the words.
“He never heard the preacher. There was no organ allowed, but
he led the hymns. He loved it. He held the time and tone for the
people—but never sang a hymn twice the same, bringing in the
strangest variations, but always true, his face flaming with pleasure.
“For years and years we lived alone. As a little girl, I was lifted to
the stool to play his accompaniments. As a young woman, I
supported him, giving music lessons. The neighbors thought him an
invalid.... All his viciousness was secret from the world, but common
property between us from my babyhood. I pitied him and covered
him, fed him when he might have fed himself, waited upon him when
he might have helped me. He would hold my mind with little devilish
things and thoughts—as natural to him as the tuning-fork.... He
would despoil the little stock of food while I was away, and nail the
windows down. My whole life, I marveled at the ingenuity of his lies.
He was so little and helpless. I never expected to be treated as a
decent creature, from those who had heard his tales. They looked
askance at me.
“For years, he told me that he was dying, and I sat with him in the
nights, or played or read aloud. If any one came, he lay white and
peaceful, with a look of martyrdom.... And then at the last, I fell
asleep beside him. It was late, but the lamp was burning. I felt him
touch me before morning—the little old white thing, his lips pursed.
The tuning-fork dropped with a twang to the floor. I could not believe
I was free—but cried and cried. At the funeral, when the church
people spoke of ‘our pain-racked and martyred brother’——”
She did not finish.
Morning left her side. “I never thought of a little girl that way,” he
said, standing apart. “Why, you have given me the spirit of her, Betty.
It is what you have passed through that has made you perfect.... And
I was fighting for myself, and for silly things all the time——”
But he had not expressed what was really in his mind—of the
beauty and tenderness of unknown women everywhere, in whose
hearts the sufferings of others find arable ground. Surely, these
women are the grace of the world. His mother must have been
weathered by such perfect refinements, otherwise he would not have
been able to appreciate it in Betty Berry. It was all too dreamy to put
into words yet, but he felt it very important in his life—this that had
come to him from Betty’s story, and from Betty standing there—
woman’s power, her bounty, her mystic valor, all from the
unconscious high behavior of a child.
She had given him something that the Ploughman gave Duke
Fallows. He wanted to make the child live in the world’s thoughts, as
Duke was making the Ploughman live.
It was these things—common, beautiful, passed-by things, that
revealed to Morning, as he began to be ready—the white flood of
spirit that drives the world, that is pressing always against hearts that
are pure.
He went nearer to her.
“Everything I think is love for you, Betty,” he said.
The air was light about her, and delicate as from woodlands.

14
 he horse and phaeton—both very old—of the rural-carrier could be
T seen from the hill-cabin. Duke Fallows walked down to the fence
to say “Hello” to Jethro whom he admired. He returned bearing very
thoughtfully a letter addressed to John Morning. It was from across
the river; the name, street, and number of the sender were written
upon the envelope.... Fallows sat down before the fire again, staring
at the letter. He thought of the woman who had written this, (just the
few little things that Morning had said) and then he thought of the
gaunt peasant woman in Russia, the mate of the Ploughman, and of
the mother of the Ploughman. He thought of the little boy, Jan—the
one little boy of the six, that had his heart, and whom he longed for.
He thought of this little boy on one hand—and the world on the
other.
Then he thought of Morning again, and of the woman.
He loved the world; he loved the little boy. Sometimes it seemed
to him when he was very happy—that he loved the world and the
little boy with almost the same compassion—the weakness,
fineness, and innocence of the races of men seeming almost like the
child’s.
He thought of John Morning differently. He had loved him at first,
because he was down and fighting grimly. He thought of him of late
as an instrument, upon which might be played a message of mercy
and power to all who suffered—to the world and to the little boy alike.
And now Fallows was afraid for the instrument. Many things had
maimed it, but this is the way of men; and these maimings had left
their revelations from the depths. Such may measure into the
equipment of a big man, destined to meet the many face to face.
Fallows saw this instrument in danger of being taken over by a
woman—to be played upon by colorful and earthly seductions. No
man could grant more readily than he, that such interpretations are
good for most men; that the highest harmony of the average man is
the expression of love for his one woman and his children. But to
John Morning, Fallows believed such felicity would close for life the
great work which he had visioned from the beginning.
 He did not want lyrical singing from John Morning, he wanted
prophetic thunderings.
He wanted this maimed young man to rise up from the dregs and
tell his story and the large meaning of it. He wanted him to burn with
a white light before the world. He wanted the Koupangtse courage to
drive into the hearts of men; a pure reformative spirit to leap forth
from the capaciousness where ambition had been; he wanted John
Morning to ignite alone. He believed the cabin in which he now sat
was built blindly from the boy’s standpoint, but intelligently from the
spirit of the boy, to become the place of ignition. He believed this of
Morning’s to be a celibate spirit that could be finally maimed only by
a woman. He believed that Morning was perfecting a marvelous
instrument, one that would alter all society for the better, if he gave
his heart to the world.
Fallows even asked himself if he did not have his own desperate
pursuits among women in too close consideration.... It would be easy
to withdraw. So often he had faltered before the harder way, and
found afterward that the easy one was evil.... He left it this way: If he
could gain audience with Betty Berry alone this evening he would
speak; if Morning were with her, he would find an excuse for joining
them and quickly depart. Last night Morning had returned to the
cabin early; the night before by the last car. It was less than an even
chance.... Fallows crossed the river, thinking, if the woman were
common it would be easy. The way it turned out left no doubt as to
what he must do. Approaching the number, on the street named on
the corner of the envelope, he passed John Morning, head down in
contemplation. He was admitted to the house. Betty Berry appeared,
led him to a small upper parlor, and excused herself for a moment.
Fallows sat back and closed his eyes. He was suffering. All his
fancied hostility was gone. He saw a woman very real, and to him
magical; he saw that this was bloody business.... She came back,
the full terror of him in her eyes. She did not need to be so sensitive
to know that he had not come as a cup-bearer.... He was saying to
himself, “I will not struggle with her....”
“Have I time to tell my story?”
 “I was going out.... John Morning just went away because I was
to meet old friends. But, if this is so very important, of course——”
“It is about him.”
“I think you must tell your story.”
Fallows talked of Morning’s work, of what he had first seen from
Luzon, and of the man he found in Tokyo. He spoke of the days and
nights in Liaoyang, as he had watched Morning at his work.
“He’s at his best at the type-writer. When the work is really
coming right for him, he seems to be used by a larger, finer force
than he shows at other times.... It is good to talk to you, Miss Berry.
You are a real listener. You seem to know what I am to say next——”
“Go on,” she said.
“When a man with a developed power of expression stops writing
what the world is saying, and learns to listen to that larger, finer force
within him—indeed, when he has a natural genius for such listening,
and cultivates a better receptivity, always a finer and more sensitive
surface for its messages—such a man becomes in time the medium
between man and the energy that drives the world——”
“Yes——”
“Some call this energy that drives the world the Holy Spirit, and
some call it the Absolute. I call it love of God. A few powerful men of
every race are prepared to express it. These individuals come up like
the others through the dark, often through viler darkness. They suffer
as others cannot dream of suffering. They are put in terrible places—
each of which leaves its impress upon the instrument—the mind. You
have read part of John Morning’s story. Perhaps he has told you
other parts. His mind is furrowed and transcribed with terrible
miseries.
“Until recently his capacity was stretched by the furious passion
of ambition. It seemed in Asia as if he couldn’t die, unexpressed; as
if the world couldn’t kill him. You saw him at the Armory just after he
had passed through thirty days hard enough to slay six men.
Ambition held him up—and hate and all the powers of the ego.
 “This is what I want to tell you: ‘When the love of God fills that
furious capacity which ambition has made ready; when the love of
God floods over the broadened surfaces of his mind, furrowed and
sensitized by suffering, filling the matrix which the dreadful
experiences have marked so deeply—John Morning will be a
wonderful instrument of interpretation between God and his race.’
“I can make my story very short for you, Miss Berry. Your listening
makes it clearer than ever to me. I see what men mean when they
say they can write to women. Yes, I see it.... John Morning has made
ready his cup. It will be filled with the water of life—to be carried to
men. But John Morning must feel first the torture of the thirst of men.
“Every misery he has known has brought him nearer to this
realization; days here among the dregs of the city; days of hideous
light and shadow; days on the China Sea, sitting with coolies
crowded so they could not move; days afield, and the perils; days
alone in his little cabin on the hill; sickness, failures, hatreds from
men, the answering hatred of his fleshly heart—all these have knit
him with men and brought him understanding.
“He has been down among men. Suffering has graven his mind
with the mysteries of the fallen. You must have understanding to
have compassion. In John Morning, the love of God will pass
through human deeps to men. Deep calls to deep. He will meet the
lowest face to face. He will bring to the deepest down man the only
authority such a man can recognize—that of having been there in
the body. And the thrill of rising will be told. Those who listen and
read will know that he has been there, and see that he is risen. He
will tell how the water of life came to him—and flooded over him, and
healed his miseries and his pains. The splendid shining authority of it
will rise from his face and from his book.
“And men won’t be the same after reading and listening; (nor
women who receive more quickly and passionately)—women won’t
be the same. Women will see that those who suffer most are the real
elect of this world. It’s wonderful to make women listen, Miss Berry,
for their children bring back the story.
 “It isn’t that John Morning must turn to love God. I don’t mean
that. He must love men. He must receive the love of God—and give
it to men. To be able to listen and to receive with a trained instrument
of expression, and then to turn the message to the service of men—
that’s a World-Man’s work. John Morning will do it—if he loves
humanity enough. He’s the only living man I know who has a
chance. He will achieve almost perfect instrumentation. He will
express what men need most to know in terms of art and action. The
love of God must have man to manifest it, and that’s John Morning’s
work—if he loves humanity enough to make her his bride.”
Fallows was conscious now of really seeing her. She had not
risen, but seemed nearer—as if the chair, in which she slowly
rocked, had crept nearer as he talked. Her palms resting upon her
knees were turned upward toward him:
“And you think John Morning is nearly ready for that crown of
Compassion?”
“Yes——”
“You think he will receive the Compassion—and give it to men in
terms of art and action?”
“Yes——”
“You think if he loves me—if he turns his love to me, as he is
doing—he cannot receive that greater love which he must give
men?”
“Yes——”
“And you think it would be a good woman’s part to turn him from
her?”
“Yes——”
“And you came to tell me this?”
“Yes.”
“I think it is true——”
 “Oh, listen—listen——” he cried, rising and bending over her—“a
good woman’s part—it would be that! It would be something more—
something greater than even he could ever do.... What a vision you
have given me!”
She stood before him, her face half-turned to the window. Yet she
seemed everywhere in the room—her presence filling it. He could
not speak again. He turned to go. Her words reached him as he
neared the door.
“Oh, if I only had my little baby—to take away!”

15
Fallows stood forward on the ferry that night and considered the
whole New York episode. He had done his work. He had told the
Ploughman story five times. It was just the sowing. He might possibly
come back for the harvest.... He had another story to tell now. Could
he ever tell it without breaking?... He had tortured his brain to make
things clear for Morning and for men. He realized that a man who
implants a complete concept in another intelligence and prevents it
from withering until roots are formed and fruitage is assured,
performs a miracle, no less; because, if the soil were ready, the
concept would come of itself. He had driven his brain by every
torment to make words perform this miracle on a large scale.
And this little listening creature he had just left—she had taken
his idea, finished it for him, and involved it in action. To her it was the
Cross. She had carried it to Golgotha, and sunk upon it with
outstretched palms.... There was an excellence about Betty Berry
that amazed him, in that it was in the world.... He had not called such
women to him, because such women were not the answer to his
desires. He realized with shame that a man only knows the women
who answer in part the desires of his life. Those who had come to
him were fitted to the plane of sensation upon which he had lived so
many years. He had condemned all women because, in the
weariness of the flesh, he had suddenly risen to perceive the falsity
of his affinities of the flesh. “What boys we are!” he whispered, “in
war and women and work—what boys!”
 Betty Berry had taught him a lesson, quite as enormous to his
nature as the Ploughman’s. A man who thinks of women only in
sensuousness encounters but half-women. He had learned it late,
but well, that a man in this world may rise to heights far above his
fellows in understanding, but that groups of women are waiting on all
the higher slopes of consciousness for their sons and brothers and
lovers to come up. They pass their time weaving laurel-leaves for the
brows of delayed valiants....
Duke thought of the men he had seen afield, the gravity with
which these men did their great fighting business, the world talking
about them. Then he thought of the little visionary in her room
accepting her tragedy....
Even now, in the hush and back-swing of the pendulum, it
seemed very true what he had said. She had seen it. It is dangerous
business to venture to change the current of other lives; no one
knew it better than Fallows. But he considered Morning. Morning, as
it were, had been left on his door-step. Morning would be alone now
—alone to listen and receive his powers.... Fallows looked up from
the black water to the far-apart pickets of the wintry night. He was
going home.

The cabin was lit. Fallows climbed the hill wearily. There was a
certain sharpness as of treachery from his night’s work, but to that
larger region of mind, open to selfishness and the passion to serve
men, peace had come. He was going home, first to San Francisco—
then to the Bosks and the little boy.
Morning arose quickly at the sound of the step on the hard
ground, and opened the door wide. He had been reading her letter,
which Fallows had left upon the table. The letter had been like an
added hour with her. It was full of shy joy, full of their perfect accord,
remote from the world—its road and stone-piles and evasions....
Fallows saw that he looked white and wasted. The red of the firelight
did not mislead his eye. Its glow was not Morning’s and did not blend
with the pallor.
“I’m going on to-morrow, John,” he said.
“’Frisco?”
“Yes—and then——”
“You’ll come back here?”
“No, I’ll keep on into the west to my cabin——”
“It would be nearer this way. I planned to see you after ’Frisco.”
“I’ll come back,” Fallows’ thought repeated, “for the harvest.”
“And so you are going to make the big circle again?”
“Yes.”
“You haven’t finished this first one, until you reach Noyes and
your desk in the Western States.”
“The next journey won’t take so long.”
“You’ve been the good angel to me again, Duke. It’s quite a
wonder, how you turn up in disaster of mine.... I wonder if I shall ever
come to you—but you won’t get down. You wouldn’t even stay ill.”
“You won’t get down again, John, at least, in none of the ways
you know about——”
Both men seemed spent beyond words.... Morning saw in the
other’s departure the last bit of resistance lifted from his heart’s
quest. Betty Berry had come between them. Morning’s conviction
had never faltered on the point that Fallows was structurally weak on
this one matter.... And so he was going. All that was illustrious in
their friendship returned. They needed few words, but sat late before
turning in. The cabin cooled and freshened. Each had the thought,
before finally falling asleep, that they were at sea again.... And in the
morning the thing that lived from their parting was this, from Duke
Fallows:
 “Whatever you do, John—don’t forget your own—the deepest
down man. He is yours—go after him—get him!”

... She was at the top of the stairs when he called the next
morning; and he was only half-way up when he saw that she had on
her hat and coat and gloves. The day was bitter like the others. He
had thought of her fire, and the quiet of her presence. He meant to
tell her all about Duke Fallows and the going. It was his thought—
that she might find in this (not through words, but through his sense
of release from Duke’s antagonism) a certain quickening toward their
actual life together. He wanted to talk of bringing her to the cabin—at
least, for her to come for a day.
“You will go with me to get the tickets and things. I must start
west at once.”
It was quite dark in the upper hallway. Morning reached out and
turned her by the elbow, back toward the door of her room. There in
the light, he looked into her face. She was calm, her eyes bright.
Whatever the night had brought—if weakness it was mastered, if
exaltation it was controlled. But she was holding very hard. There
was a tightness about her mouth that terrified him. It was not as it
had been with them; he was not one with her.
“You mean that you are going away—for some time?”
“Yes.... Oh, you must not mind. We are road people. We have
been wonderfully happy. You must not look so tragic——”
It wasn’t like her at all. “We are not road people,” he thought....
“You must not look so tragic,”—that was just like a thing road people
might say.
He sat down. The weakness of his limbs held his mind. It seemed
to him, if he could forget his body, words might come. At first the
thought of her going away was intolerable, but that had dwindled. It
was the change in her—the something that had happened—the
flippancy of her words.... He looked up suddenly. It seemed as if her
arms had been stretched toward him, her face ineffably tender. So
quickly it had happened that he could not be sure. He wanted this
very thing so much that his mind might have formed the illusion. He
let it pass. He did not want her to say it was not so.
Words of her letter came back to him. Neither the letter nor
yesterday had anything to do with this day.... “You are drawing closer
all the time. I have been so happy to-day that I had to write. You
must know that I sent you away because I could not bear more
happiness....”
Where was it? What had happened? He was fevered. Something
was destroying him.... Betty Berry did not suffer for herself—it was
with pity for him. The mother in her was tortured. It was her own life
—this love of his for her—the only child she would ever have. She
had loved its awakenings, its diffidences, the faltering steps of its
expression. The man was not hers, but his love for her was her very
own.... She had not thought of its death, when Fallows talked the
night before. She had thought of her giving up for his sake, but not of
the anguish and the slaying of his love for her. And this was taking
place now.
“You will let me write to you?” he said, still thinking of the letter.
“Oh, yes.”
“And you will write to me?”
She remembered now what she had written.... The fullness of her
heart had gone into that. She could not write like that again. Yet he
was asking for her letters, as a child might ask for a drink.... She
could not refuse. It wasn’t in nature to see his face, and refuse....
Surely if she remained apart it was all any one could ask.
“Yes, I will write sometimes.”
He stood in the center of the room, his head bowed slightly, his
eyes upon the wall. He was ill, bewildered, his mind turning here and
there only to find fresh distress.... Suddenly he remembered that he
had not told her of his drinking.... That must be it. Some one else
had told her, and she was hurt and broken.