ECW445

WATER POLLUTION
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, student should be able to
understand:
▪ LO1: Point source and non-point sources of pollution

▪ LO2: Water quality characteristics

▪ LO3: Water Quality Index (WQI) and guidelines

▪ LO4: Impact of water pollution to environment,

economic and human health.

Introduction
 Water Pollution:
The presence of any harmful chemical or other constituent
present in concentrations above the naturally occurring
background level

 Wastewater:
Discarded or previously used water from a municipality or
industry
Pollutant Sources
 Point sources
• Well defined origin
◊ Municipal wastewater
• Easily measured
◊ Industrial wastewater
• More constant
◊ Tributaries

 Non-point sources
◊ Agricultural
• Diffuse origin
◊ Silvicultural
• More transient
◊ Atmospheric
• Often dependent on
◊ Urban and suburban runoff
precipitation
◊ Groundwater
Typical municipal wastewater
characteristics
 Water Quality
 Water quality is the physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of water in relationship to a set of standards.
 Water quality standards are created by state agencies for
different types of water bodies and water body locations per
desired uses.
 The primary uses considered for such characterization are
parameters which relate to drinking water, safety of human
contact, and for health of ecosystems.
Water Quality
 Common measures of water quality
❑ DO and Oxygen Demand
❑ Solids
❑ Nutrients
❑ Metals
❑ Pathogens
❑ Organic Compounds
❑ Toxics
❑ Bioactive compounds
 Sources and quantities
1) Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

 Oxygen is a rather insoluble gas

❑ Often the limiting constituent in the aerobic purification
of wastes and natural waters

❑ Solubility ranges from 14.6 mg/L at 0oC to about 7

mg/L at 35oC
▪ In addition to temperature, its solubility varies with
barometric pressure and salinity
DO (cont.)
 Minimum concentration is required for the survival of
higher aquatic life
 Larval stages of certain cold-water fishes are quite sensitive
 Significant discharges of organic wastes may depress
the DO concentration in receiving waters
 Microbially-mediated oxidation
 Each state has established ambient dissolved oxygen
standards
 Another use of DO is the assessment of oxidation state
in groundwater and sediments.
DO (cont.)
 Also a very important parameter in biological
treatment processes
 Indicates when aerobic and anaerobic organisms will
predominate
 Used to assess the adequacy of oxygen transfer systems

 Indicates the suitability for the growth of such sensitive

organisms such as the nitrifying bacteria
 Used in the assessment of the strength of a wastewater
through either the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
or respirometric studies
Insufficient DO
Solutions – Reduce DO “demand”
 Reduction of BOD by biological wastewater treatment

 Nutrient control

Ambient Water Quality Criteria

 Established by EPA in “Gold Book”

 Dependent on type of fish, averaging period

Ambient Water Quality Standard [enforceable]

 Established by states and other local agencies

 Dependent on use classification

Oxygen Demand
 It is a measure of the amount of “reduced” organic and
inorganic matter in a water
 Relates to oxygen consumption in a river or lake as a result
of a pollution discharge
 Measured in several ways
 BOD – Biochemical Oxygen Demand
 COD – Chemical Oxygen Demand
 ThOD – Theoretical Oxygen Demand
 The BOD indicates the content of oxygen needed to
decompose organic compounds in waste water by
bacteria.

 The COD is a parameter has been defined

indicating the amount of oxygen which would be
needed when all organic ingredients would be
oxidised completely.
BOD: A Bioassay
Briefly, the BOD test employs a bacterial
seed to catalyze the oxidation of 300 mL of
full-strength or diluted wastewater. The
strength of the un-diluted wastewater is then
determined from the dilution factor and the
difference between the initial DO and the
final DO.

𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑡 ≡ 𝐷𝑂𝑖 − 𝐷𝑂𝑓

BOD with dilution
When BOD>8 mg/L

DOi − DO f
BODt =
 Vs 
 
 Vb 

where
BODt = biochemical oxygen demand at t days, [mg/L]
DOi = initial dissolved oxygen in the sample bottle, [mg/L]
DOf = final dissolved oxygen in the sample bottle, [mg/L]
Vb = sample bottle volume, usually 300 or 250 mL, [mL]
Vs = sample volume, [mL]
BOD – loss of biodegradable organic
matter (oxygen demand)

Lo
L or BOD remaining
COD: A Chemical test
The chemical oxygen demand (COD) of
a waste is measured in terms of the
amount of potassium dichromate
(K2Cr2O7) reduced by the sample during
2 hr of reflux in a medium of boiling,
50% H2SO4 (Sulfuric Acid) and in the
presence of a Ag2SO4 (Silver Sulfate)
catalyst.
ThOD

This is the total amount of oxygen required to

completely oxidize a known compound to CO2 and
H2O. It is a theoretical calculation that depends on
simple stoichiometric principles. It can only be
calculated on compounds of known composition.
Example ThOD of Glucose

Compute the ThOD of 108.75 mg/L of glucose (C6H12O6)

 Solution:

 Balanced equation for the reaction

C 6 H12 O 6 + 6O 2 → 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O
 Compute the gram molecular weights of the reactants
◼ Glucose (C6H12O6) = 6×12+12×1+6×16 = 180
◼ Oxygen (6O2) = 6×12×2 = 192

 It takes 192 g of oxygen to oxidize 180 g of glucose to CO2

and H2O.
 The ThOD of 108.75 mg/L of glucose is
𝑚𝑔 192 𝑔 𝑂2 𝑚𝑔
108.75 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 = 116 𝑂2
𝐿 180 𝑔 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝐿
2) Solids
 TDS: Total Dissolved Solids
 Used as a measured of “salinity”
◼ Indicates when water unsuitable for drinking or agricultural
use
 TSS: Total Suspended Solids
 Measure of “muddiness” of a water
◼ Used to assess clarifier performance
 VSS: Volatile Suspended Solids
 Used to estimate bacterial populations in wastewater
treatment systems
Significance (cont.)
 Wastewater
 Measure strength and treatment efficiency (TS, TSS)
 Mass balance of solids for operation and sizing of sludge
treatment, handling and disposal facilities (TSS, VSS)
 Estimate of active biomass for process control (VSS)
 Regulatory control on effluent (TSS)
 Natural Waters
 Direct hazard to aquatic life (TSS, TDS)
 Indirect hazard due to solubilization of hydrophobics (TSS)
 Drinking Waters (uses turbidity in place of TSS)
 Suitability as a water supply (TDS), aesthetics, interference
with other processes, treatment doses and sizing (Turbidity)
Turbidity
❑ A measure of the clarity of a water. It is determined by
light scattering using a turbidimenter.
❑ Measure in nephelometric turbity units (NTU)
❑ Turbidity in open water may be caused by growth of
phytoplankton, human activities that disturb land, such as
construction, storm water runoff.
Avg. Concentration of Major Inorganics
in River Water
Alkalinity

       
Alk. = HCO 3- + 2 CO 32− + OH − − H +
 The capacity of a water to neutralize strong acids
 In natural waters, it is associated with the carbonate
and bicarbonate concentrations.
 Most alkalinity in surface water comes from calcium
carbonate, CaCO3, being leached from rocks and
soil.

Titrant volume (mL)

Other Units
Calcium Carbonate
Both alkalinity and hardness are usually expressed in
either meq/L or mg CaCO3/L
       
Alk. = HCO 3- + 2 CO 32− + OH − − H +
Hardness = Ca + Mg 
+2 +2

Because Calcium Carbonate has a gram formula

weight (GFW) of 100 g and because there are two
equivalents per mole (Z=2), we can say that

50 g CaCO 3 = 1 eq
NATURAL FACTORS INFLUENCING ALKALINITY

•Geology - the types of rocks surrounding the stream affects alkalinty.

Phosphates, limestone, and borates give the water a higher alkalinity and
buffering capacity.

•Seasonal weather - spring snow melt and rain can increase runoff which
generally also increases acidity, in turn decreasing alkalinity.

HUMAN FACTORS INFLUENCING ALKALINITY

•Acid Mining Waste- Acids from mines can wash into rivers and streams
and increase the acidity, which requires more alkalinity.

•Urbanization- The particles from cement and other urban construction

materials can wash into streams and affect alkalinity.
3) Nutrients
 Nitrogen: all forms can stimulate growth
 Ammonia: toxic and oxygen consumer
 Nitrite: rarely present in high concentration

 Nitrate: drinking water concern

 Organic-N: oxygen consumer

 Phosphorus: stimulate growth

 Ortho-phosphates
Cultural Eutrophication
 Organic-P
4) Heavy Metals
 Toxic, non-biodegradable, exist in various oxidation
states and chemical forms
 Examples
 Mercury

 Lead

 Cadmium

 Arsenic

 Others
5) Pathogenic Organisms

 Viruses
◊ Polio, Norfolk agent, Hepatitis

 Bacteria
◊ Typhoid, Cholera, Shigella, Salmonella
◊ Antibiotic resistant forms

 Protozoans
◊ Cryptosporidium, Giardia
6) Organic Content

 TOC: Total organic carbon

 Measured with a TOC analyzer
 Related to oxygen demand, but does not reflect the
oxidation state of the organic matter

 Other group parameters

 Oil and grease

 Specific organic compounds

TOC
 Total organic carbon analysis is a determination of
organic carbon in a sample regardless of its oxidation
state or biodegradability. Other measures of total
organic matter (e.g., COD, BOD) may respond
differently to solutions of equal carbon concentration
depending on the oxygen content or the
biodegradation kinetics. For the measurement of total
organic carbon, the sample is exposed to an oxidizing
environment often at very high temperatures. With
complete oxidation all carbon is converted to carbon
dioxide and swept into a detector by the carrier gas.
Organic Carbon Fractions
Specific Organic Compounds
 Pesticides
 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
 Disinfection Byproducts (DBPs)
 Endocrine Disrupting Compounds (EDCs) and
pharmaceuticals and personal care products
(PPCPs)
Water : Physical Characteristics
➢ Taste & odor – the terms taste and odor are themselves
definitive of this parameter.

➢ Temperature – usually changes according to

the sun and precipitation.

➢ Color – pure water is colorless, but water in nature is often

colored by foreign substances. Two (2) types of color ;
apparent color and true color.
 Turbidity

❑ Turbidity - a measure of the cloudiness of the water and is

measure in nephelometric turbity units (NTU).
Turbidity in open water may be caused by growth of
phytoplankton, human activities that disturb land, such as
construction, storm water runoff
 Suspended Solid
➢ solids can be dispersed in water in both suspended and
dissolved forms.
➢ solids suspended in water may consist of inorganic (clay, silt
etc) or organic particles (algal, cells, bacteria etc)
Water : Chemical Characteristics

➢ The chemical characteristics of water are numerous. Every

substance that dissolves in water can be called a chemical
water quality characteristic.

➢ Water is called the "universal solvent" because it dissolves

more substances than any other liquid. This means that
wherever water goes, either through the ground or through
our bodies, it takes along valuable chemicals, minerals, and
nutrients.

➢ Some of the important chemical characteristic of water are

its TDS, DO, COD, BOD, hardness, pH, corrosiveness,
conductivity, nitrate-N, iron and manganese.
 Total Dissolved solids (TDS)

 The material remaining in the water after filtration for

suspended solids analysis is considered to be dissolved.
 This material is left as a solid residue upon evaporation of
the water
 Solvent material result from the solvent action of water on
solids, liquids and gases.
 Examples of inorganic material include mineral, metal and
gases.
 Materials such as decay products of vegetation or from
chemical are examples for organic dissolved materials.
 Hardness
➢ Water hardness is a measure of the amount of calcium and
magnesium salts in water.

➢ The simplest way to determine the hardness of water is the

lather/froth test: soap or toothpaste, when agitated, lathers
easily in soft water but not in hard water
 pH
pH is a measure of the
acidic or basic (alkaline)
nature of a solution. The
concentration of the
hydrogen ion [H+]
activity in a solution
determines the pH.
 Biological characteristic
 The biological characteristics of a water body refer to a
variety of living organisms that can be found in water.

 These include microscopic viruses, bacteria and protozoan; as

well as phytoplankton (microscopic algae), zooplankton (tiny
water animals), insects, worms, large plants and fish.

 Of significance to humans is that disease-causing viruses and

bacteria can be present and transported in water.

 Tests for specific pathogens are usually made only when there
is a reason to suspect that those particular organism are
present – using indicator organism.
Animal Indicator (Very good)
Animal Indicator (Good)
Animal Indicator (Ok)
Animal Indicator (Bad)
 Pathogen Indicator
An indicator organism is one whose presence
presume that contamination has occurred in
the water.

The ideal pathogen indicator would:

1. Applicable for all types of water
2. Always be present when pathogens are present
3. Always be absent when pathogens are absent
4. Does not interfere with the test result
5. Not a pathogen itself.
Protozoan
 Group Discussion

Find the Standard for Drinking

Water used in other countries.
Compare with Malaysian
Standard.
 CASE STUDY 1:
Interpret The Data Below
1. Which sample is the best
in water quality and the
Parameter Sample Sample Sample worst?
1 2 3 2. Find out the sources of
Turbidity 0.92 10 >10 the samples according to
(NTU) the water quality
parameter
pH 7.24 7.5 4.7
3. Discuss on the limit
values according to
BOD (mg/l) 0.5 15 69
standard of drinking
water
4. Any other parameter
should be included?
Why?
Malaysia Water Quality Standard

Source : Dr. Zulkifli Abdul Rahman, DOE, Malaysia

Malaysia Water Quality Standard
Malaysia Water Quality Standard

http://www.wepa-db.net/policies/law/malaysia/eq_surface.htm
THRESHOLD ODOR NUMBER (TON)
 Threshold Odor Numbers are whole numbers that
indicate how many dilutions it takes to produce odor-
free water.

 Step one is used to determine the range of dilutions for

the final test.
 Add the following amounts of sample water to four 500
mL flasks: 200 mL, 50 mL, 12 mL, and 2.8 mL.
 Add enough odor-free water to the flasks to create a
total volume of 200 mL.
 Also, prepare another flask filled with only odor-free
water.
 Heat the flasks to 40-60°C and shake.
 Smell each flask, starting with the odor-free water,
then proceeding from lowest to highest
concentration of sample water.
 Prepare flasks for the final test according to the
volume of sample in the jar that first has a
detectable odor.
 Add the amounts of sample water indicated to five
500 mL flasks.
 Next, add odor-free water to bring each flask to a
total volume of 200 mL.
 Include two blanks (flasks with 200 mL of odor-free
water) in the series of samples near the expected
threshold for a total of seven samples.
 Have a group of testers smell each flask, beginning
with the smallest concentration of sample water.
 Record the volume of sample water in the first flask
an odor is detected by each tester.
 Compute the TON using this equation:
Example TON calculation :
Malaysia Water Quality Standard
Example

DO BOD COD AN SS PH
SAMPLE 1 10 4 19 1.2 13 8.2
Example

 Results:
 WQI SAMPLE 1= 61.1 (Class III)
Exercise

 Calculate the WQI for the following sample:

DO BOD COD AN SS PH
SAMPLE 1 10 4 19 1.2 13 8.2
SAMPLE 2 49 22 160 1 1100 8
SAMPLE 3 8.01 8 136 4.480 30 7.08
SAMPLE 4 7.82 11 190 4.760 174 7.11
SAMPLE 5 7.91 9 176 4.480 42 6.97
SAMPLE 6 16.36 15 365 5.374 105 6.77
SAMPLE 7 109.39 7 52 5.302 54 6.74
SAMPLE 8 105.95 5 157 5.322 72 6.43
Example

 Results:
 WQI SAMPLE 1= 61.1 (Class III)
 WQI SAMPLE 2 = 34.72 (Class IV)
 WQI SAMPLE 3 = 61 (Class III)
 WQI SAMPLE 4 = 53 (Class III)
 WQI SAMPLE 5 = 58 (Class III)
 WQI SAMPLE 6 = (Class IV)
 WQI SAMPLE 7 = (Class IV)
 WQI SAMPLE 8 = (Class IV)
Water Quality in Malaysia
Water Quality in Malaysia

7%

34% Clean
59% Slightly Polluted
Polluted

River water quality in 2012

Water Quality in Malaysia
Water Quality in Malaysia
Water Quality in Malaysia
Water Quality in Malaysia
Water Quality in Malaysia
Water Quality in Malaysia
Water Quality in Malaysia
Water Quality in Malaysia
Water Quality Monitoring
 Water Quality Monitoring
The objectives are;
➢ Pollution prevention

➢ Extensive monitoring network

➢ Database for baseline studies

Three (3) types of water quality monitoring;

➢ Groundwater monitoring

➢ Marine water monitoring

➢ River monitoring
Groundwater Monitoring Program
Groundwater monitoring program
Marine Monitoring Program
 River Monitoring Program
➢ National Monitoring Network Established in 1978. The aims;
a) To establish the status of river water quality;
b) To detect changes in water quality as a result of
development activities

➢ Manual Water Quality Monitoring (MWQM) Program:

❑ In 2006, 1064 manual stations in 146 river basins. Program include
❑ In-situ measurements
❑ Sampling and laboratory analysis ( 24-physico-chemical and biological
parameters
➢ Continuous Water Quality Monitoring (CWQM) Program
 River Monitoring Program
➢ In situ measurements of more than six (6) parameters – turbidity, DO, salinity,
temperature, pH and electrical conductivity.

➢ Lab analysis of as many as 24 other chemical and biological parameters.

➢ 10 automatic water quality monitoring stations on major rivers

➢ To detect changes in river water quality on a continuous basis.

➢ Water quality levels violating the ambient standard for specific parameters will
be transmitted real-time to DOE

➢ Immediate inspection will be conducted at the suspected point

River Monitoring program (CWQM)
Expenditure on Monitoring Program
 Policy Decision from River Monitoring
Activities
➢ River classifications for major rivers has been
completed – 24 rivers

➢ Under the 8th Malaysian Plan (2001 – 2005) and the

3rd Outline Perspectives Plan (2001 – 2010),
emphasis given to improve river water quality and
integrated river basin management.

➢ Some river have been set to attain Class II

 Program Implementation
➢ Program for the pollution prevention improvement of river
water quality has been planned and implemented as of 2001.

➢ 26 rivers have been identified.

➢ In 2001, the program has started with six (6) rivers namely,
Langat River, Skudai River, Segget River, Tebrau River, Melaka
River and Miri River.

➢ The effort aims to ensure the sustainability of the water uses in

the river basin
 Program Implementation

➢ PROGRAMS STRATEGIES:
1. Pollution Control and prevention
2. Sustainable Development through Conservation of Resources
3. Integration of Environmental Factors in Development
Planning
4. Promotion of Environmental Education and Awareness
5. Public Participation
6. Inter-Agency and Federal-State Cooperation
7. International Cooperation
Program Implementation

SSD: Sewerage Services Department

DOE: Department of Environment
LA: Local Authority
IWK: Indah Water Konsortium
Program Implementation
Program Implementation
Program Implementation
Program Implementation
River Pollution Prevention Program
CASE STUDY: Interpret The Data Below
Table below shows results of water quality monitoring program for a
water distribution system:

Sampling Turbidity Color pH Hardness 1. Based on the results, what

Location (NTU) (TCU) (ppm) is your evaluation of the
water coming to the
0.5km 3.4 5 6.8 50 reservoir?
from 2. What are the possible
reservoir causes of water quality
0.75km 5.1 11 6.3 50 deterioration in the
from distribution system?
reservoir
3. Recommend 3 measures
1 km from 7.7 16 6.7 60 that can be taken to
reservoir improve the situation.
Explain
 Conclusion
➢ Monitoring program has proven to be useful although
they can be expensive.

➢ Such activity becomes more important in the river

restoration and rehabilitation works to a desired
natural river conditions

➢ The need to use latest technology and know-how of

river restoration to have an efficient monitoring
program.