LESSON 4

FORMULATION OF RESEARCH FRAMEWORK

The research framework explains the existence of a problem. It serves as basis

for examining and analyzing the connection between or among the study variables.
Most research studies involve the examination of relationship between variables. In this
module the role of theories and frameworks in research and how they are formulated
and used are discussed. Variables are defined, classified and differentiated. Examples
are also given.

Learning Objectives

At the end of the lesson, students will be able to:

1. define theoretical framework and conceptual framework and explain what
their
functions in research are,
2. select appropriate theories or findings of related studies that explain the
existence
of a certain research problem,
3. use existing theories and/or research findings, give educated guesses on
why a
particular problem exists and how certain factors contribute to the
existence,
seriousness or complexity of the problem.

Research Frameworks

A problem exists because of certain reasons. Even if the cause of causes of a

problem cannot be pinpointed, its existence may be discussed by examining certain
patterns that relate to the problem situation. In explaining the existence of a problem, a
researcher may base the explanation on a theory. The connection between a theory and
the problem is explained in the theoretical framework. The theoretical framework may
be further explained and illustrated in concrete terms using a conceptual framework.

The Role of Theory in Research

A theory is a set of concepts which explains the occurrence of a certain

phenomenon it is a statement of relationship between two variables, one acting as the
independent variable, another as the dependent variable. An independent variable is
assumed to be the “cause” of the problem, while the dependent variable, is the problem
itself or the phenomenon being studied.

Since one can never be sure whether a given theory provides the best explanation
for a set of observations, it is possible to use two or more competing theories and test
which theory best explains the problem. A competing theory may also be used to
explain the possible confounding in influence of other variables on the assumed
relationship between the major variables of the study.

Examples of theories which explain behavior

Dissonance Theory. According to Festinger (Wicklund and Brehm, 1976), “Feelings of

tension arises when one becomes aware of two conflicting or inconsistent cognitions. A
person is motivated to justify his behavior in order to reduce tension when acting
contrary to his attitude.”

Comment: A religious man who committed adultery may justify his action with “an
experience of a moment of weakness,” or by explaining that “being human, he can
succumb to temptation.”

Attribution Theory. Heider (1980) theorizes that “people tend to attribute someone’s
behavior either to internal causes (person’s disposition or feelings), or external causes
(a person’s situation or environment).”

Comment: A teacher may attribute a student’s poor performance in class for his lack
interest in the subject (a “dispositional attribution”) or to some social or economic
circumstances, like financial difficulties, malnutrition or family problems (a situational
attribution).

Self-Perception Theory. (Bem, 1972, in Myers, 1983). “When one is unsure of his/her
attitude, he/she infers it back by looking at a behavior and the circumstances under
which it occurs. When a person’s attitude is weak, he/she simply observes his/her
behavior and its circumstances and simply infers what his/her attitude will be.”

Comment: The theory suggests that man’s attitude is influenced by his actions. A child
abuser may tend to have an indifferent attitude towards children.

Social Loafing Theory. Myers (1986), explains that “people tend to exert less effort
when they pull their efforts towards a common goal than when they are individually
accountable.”

Comment: Contrary to the notion that “many hands make light work, “experiments have
shown that a group of people may be less motivated when performing additive tasks
(Steiner, 1972).

Theoretical Framework

A theoretical framework a theory that explains why a problem under study exists
(Mercado, 1994), and explains the connection between certain factors and the problem.
The choice of a theory depends on the number and nature of the variables and the
relationships being examined.

A background in theories on behavior, education, communication, sociology,

economics and anthropology can be very useful in formulating a theoretical framework.
A starting point in developing a theory is to review related literature.

The concepts used in a theoretical framework are abstract and expressed in

general terms. For example, in Durkheim’s elaboration of factors associated with
suicide, one of the factors he identified was “individualism,” which is quite abstract.
Among the indicators of individualism which he used are “being single,” and “being
professional,” which are concrete, specific, and measurable.

Functions of a Theoretical Framework in Research

 It provides the general framework which can guide data analysis.

 It identifies the variables to be measured.
 It explains why one variable can possibly affect another or why the independent
variable can possibly influence the dependent variable.
 It limits the scope of data relevant to the framework by focusing on specific
 variables.
 It stipulates the specific frame of mind or viewpoint that the researcher will take
in analyzing and interpreting the data.
Not all research studies need a theoretical framework, but relational and causal
studies do. Studies which do not intend to examine relationships between or among
variables or the effect of one variable on another do not require a theoretical
framework.

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework is an elaboration of the theoretical framework in

concrete terms. The conceptual framework is anchored on the theoretical framework.
The conceptual framework needs to be consistent with and related to the theoretical
framework. It specifies the variables of the study and the expected flow of relationship
among them.

Based on the theory used and/or related literature, the predicted association
between variables or the assumed effect of one variable (independent variable) on
another variable (dependent variable) is explained. Arguments on how and why a
particular factor can possibly influence another are presented. Findings of related
studies may be used to support argument.

The conceptual framework explains in more detail the:

 Variables to be observed in the study and

 Assumed connection between the independent and the dependent variables
The conceptual framework is summarized in a paradigm or schematic diagram
identifying the hypothesized link between the independent and dependent variables,
independent and intervening variables (if any), and intervening variables and
dependent variables or between an independent variable and a dependent variable,
controlling for the effect of another variable.

Example No. 1

Research Title: “The Effect of Curfew on the Attitude of Students Towards their Studies
and Their Academic Performance”

Many parents or guardians prevent their children from staying out late at night by
imposing curfew, so that they can study and perform well in school. But, many students,
still perform badly in school, even if they are forced to be home early. Is curfew an
effective means of improving students’ attitudes towards their studies and
consequently their school performance? Does curfew adversely affect students’ school
performance?

Objective: To determine whether imposing curfew can significantly affect students’

attitude towards their studies and academic performance.
Theoretical Framework

“People value their sense of freedom and like to protect an image of efficacy
(Baer, et.al., 1980). When social pressure threatens their sense of freedom, they tend to
rebel.” According to the theory of psychological reactance, people act to defend their
freedom. Experiments have shown that attempts to restrict a person’s freedom often
results in a reactive “boomerang effect. Restricting someone’s movement is also
reducing or taking away one’s freedom. Most people use restrictions as a preventive
measure. For some it may work, for others, it may not. It may produce good result for
others, for some it may do more harm than good.

Conceptual Framework

Imposing curfew can be viewed as a form of freedom restriction. When students

are prevented from staying out late by their parents, and are expected to be home not
later than the specified curfew, the young students may view this as a curtailment of
freedom. While the parents’ intentions are good, they may be perceived by their children
as unjust and unfair and they may harbor feelings against their parents and rebel.
Instead of coming home early, they may even come home very late or drunk to spite
their parents. This rebellion can possibly result to irregular attendance in classes.
Indifference towards their studies and consequently, poor grades.

In this study, exposure or non-exposure to curfew serves as the independent

variable, while school performance is the dependent variables. If the effect of curfew is
positive, those who will be subjected to curfew is expected to have better grades than
those who were not subjected to curfew. On the other hand, a negative effect will be
evidenced by poor grades. The diagram below shows the expected flow of relationship
between variables

 Attitude toward their studies

Exposure to Curfew
 Academic Performance

Example No. 2

Research Title: Sex Differentials in Decision-making Participation at Home Among

Tertiary Faculty Members

Objectives:

1. To determine and compare the extent of participation in decision-making of male

and female faculty members
2. To determine whether the extent of participation of the male and female faculty
members is associated with the length of service and attendance in gender
sensitivity training.
Theoretical Framework
 Role theorists, like Park, Moreno, and Mead (Turner, 1982) view the social world
as a network of variously interrelated positions and statuses within which individuals
enact roles. For each position, various kinds of expectations about how individuals are
expected to behave can be discerned. The role theorists explained that expectations are
mediated by an individual’s perceptions and interpretations of specific positions and
statuses and their assessments of these expectations affect their behavior. Studies
show that sex is a very important determinant of behavior. Society expects men to act
or behave differently from women. In most societies, men generally exercise more
power than women because society prescribed this to be so.

Conceptual Framework

As members of an educational institution, faculty members have prescribed roles

which are specified in their job descriptions. As fathers or mothers, sons or daughters,
they also have roles and responsibilities to follow at home. In the Philippines, as in most
societies, men are assumed to have greater extent of participation in decision-making
than the women, not only because of biological reasons, but also because of social
prescriptions.

Teachers’ responses to the social prescriptions, however, may vary because of

their experiences and orientations which may have enhanced or modified their
responses as they gain more knowledge, as they grow older and acquire further training
and educations.

Extent of decision-making participation at home, (the dependent variable) of the

men and that of the women is expected to differ (sex as the independent variable). But
as they stay longer in teaching and gain more experience, their decision-making
behavior may change. Women may improve their bargaining power, while the men who
have attended gender sensitivity training may have learned to share power and opt for a
consultative decision-making process. Length of service and attendance in gender
sensitivity training may also influence their decision-making participation and thus
affect the connection between sex and extent of participation. In this study these
variables serve as moderators or intervening variables.

Length of Service Extent of Participation in

Sex Attendance in Gender Decision-making
Sensitivity Training

Independent Variable Intervening Variable Dependent

Variable
 WORKSHOP NO. 3

FORMULATION OF A THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

1. My research problem is. _________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. The immediate/general objective of my study is:
____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

3. The specific objectives of my study are:

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

4. (If study is relational) My study is anchored on the theory

______________________ of_______________________, which states
that:_____________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
 ______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

5. In my study, __________________________________________________________ is
assumed to be associated with or affected by ______________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

6. The assumed flow of the major variables of my study is shown in diagram

below: (Identify and label the variables):

LESSON 5

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF VARIABLES

One of the most important concepts in research is the concept of “variable.”

There are many kinds of variables and many research studies involve the examination
of relationship between variables. Variables may be studied one at a time or in relation
to other variables. In this module, variables are defined, classified and differentiated.
Examples are also given.

Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students will be able to:
1. define what a variable is and explain its uses in research,
2. describe and compare the different types of variables and give examples of each,
and
3. identify the variables in a given study and determine the nature of relationship
between them.

What is a Variable?
A variable is a concept that stands for a variation within a class of objects or
persons (Fraenkel and Wallen, 1996).
A variable is a characteristic or property that can take different values or
attributes (Schutt, 1999).
Variables are the basic elements which are measured in a study. They are
observable and measurable.
Examples of Variables:
` • age • location of business • degree of malnutrition
• sex • revenue •level of fertilizer

• marital status • type of work • type of crop

• income • number of meetings • size of land

Types of Variables
Variables can be classified as: dependent, independent, intervening, and antecedent
variables
Dependent Variable
The dependent variable is the “assumed "effect" of another variable. It is the
change that occurs in the study population when one or more factors are changed or
when an intervention is introduced. Usually dependent variable is the problem itself.
Independent variable
The independent variable is the “assumed cause" of a problem. It is an assumed
reason for any "change" or variation in a dependent variable. An independent variable is
sometimes treated as "antecedent" variable (the variable before). Likewise, an
"antecedent" variable may be treated as an “independent” variable.

Example No. 1
In the study on “The Relationship Between Exposure to Mass Media and
Smoking Habits Among Young Adults,” the dependent variable is “smoking habits,”
while the independent variable is “exposure to mass media.” A person’s smoking habits
is assumed to change or vary depending on his/her mere exposure or degree of
exposure to print or broadcast media related to smoking.

Exposure to Smoking
Mass Habits
media

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Example No. 2
In the experimental study to test the “Effect of Peer Counseling on the Students’
Study Habits,” the independent variable is “exposure to peer counseling.” It is assumed
that students who have been counseled by peers will have better study habits that those
who were not counseled by peers or those who have been exposed to traditional
counseling techniques.

Exposure to
Study Habits
Counseling

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Example No. 3
In the study entitled “Factors that Influence of Extent of Participation in
Household Decision-making Among Married Professionals,” the dependent variable is
extent of participation in household decision- making,” while the independent variable is
“factors,” which include personal characteristics of the respondents, such as age, sex,
educational attainment and income.

Factors Extent of decision-

Sex, Education, making participation
Age, Income

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Intervening Variable
The intervening variable is a factor that works "between" the independent and
dependent variables. It can weaken(decrease) or strengthen (increase) the effect of the
independent on the dependent variables. It is also called a "facilitating variable,"
"moderator" or a "control variable.”

Example No. 1
In the study on “Knowledge of the Dangers of Smoking, Attitudes towards Life,
and Smoking Habits of Young Professionals,” the intervening variable is “attitude
towards life.” A person’s attitude may increase or decrease the influence of “knowledge
on dangers of smoking (independent variable) on “smoking habits” (dependent variable).
Knowing the dangers of smoking, one may shun smoking. One may argue, however, that
knowledge about the dangers of smoking may not necessarily prevent a person from
smoking if he does not mind dying early as long as he/she enjoys life.
Knowledge of the Attitudes Smoking Habits
dangers of smoking towards life

Independent Variable Intervening Variable Dependent Variable

Example No. 2
In the study on “Factors that Influence Household Decision-making Participation of
Married Professionals," the intervening variable “gender sensitivity’ may affect the
relationship between “selected factors” (independent variables) and “decision-making
participation” (dependent variable). Men are generally expected to participate in
decision-making more than women because of social prescription. Older, better
educated individuals and those with big income are also expected to participate more
actively in decision-making than their younger less educated counterparts. It may also
be possible that a woman with a gender sensitive partner may also be actively involved
in decision-making, despite poor education or low income.

Factors Gender Sensitivity Decision-making

Sex Education (Perception about Participation
Age Income gender roles
Independent Variable Intervening Variable Dependent Variable

Example No. 3
In the study on “The Effect of Information Education Campaign (IEC) on Land
Reform on the Farmer’s Attitude Towards Land Reform,” the “length of a farmer-landlord
relationship” is the intervening variable. It is assumed that this variable can strengthen
or weaken the relationship between “exposure to IEC materials” (independent variable)
and “attitudes towards land reform” (dependent variable). A farmer may have read or
heard about the benefits of land reform, but still reject it (negative attitude) because of
along and close relationship with his landlord and his family. which he does not want to
be “cut off” by land.

Exposure to EIC Length of Farmer- Attitudes

Materials on Land Landlord Towards Land
Reform Relationship Reform
Independent Variable Intervening Variable Dependent Variable

Antecedent Variable
An antecedent variable is a factor or characteristic which is found before (ante)
the independent variable. It is expected to influence the independent variable/s. It is
usually irreversible.

Example No. 1
In the study entitled "Attitudes Towards Land Reform and Acceptance of the
Program among Lowland Farmers of Northern Luzon,” the major concern of the study
is the influence of “attitude towards land reform” (independent variable) on the “farmers”
acceptance of the program” (dependent variable). The farmers’ attitude towards land
reform is expected to vary according to their “education, tenurial status and the size of
the land they own” (antecedent variables). More educated farmers who own their farm
lots and are tilling more than a hectare of land may be more receptive of land reform
than the less educated farmers and those who do not own any farm land or those who
own less than a hectare lot.
 Education Attitudes Towards Acceptance of
Tenurial Status Land Reform Land Reform
Size of Land Owned Program

Independent Variable Intervening Variable Dependent Variable

Example No. 2
In the study entitled "Extent of Exposure to Print Media and Reading Ability of
College Freshmen,” the main concern is the relationship between students’ “extent of
exposure to print media” (independent variable) and their “reading ability” (dependent
variable). The students’ exposure to print media, however, may depend on their sex,
residence and their parents’ education (antecedent variable).

Sex, Residence, Extent of Reading Ability

Parents’ Education Exposure to
Print Media
Independent Variable Intervening Variable Dependent Variable

Operational Definition of Variables

Some researchers cannot answer their research questions because they do not
have clear measures of their variables. A variable must be operationally defined
according to how it is used in the study, so that it can be properly measured.
The operational definition gives a specific meaning to the variable. The definition
clarifies how a variable or a term is used and measured in the study. A variable must be
defined in terms of events/units of measurement that are observable by the senses
(Fisher, et al., 1994). These events/units of measurement serve as indicators of the
variable.
The operational definition of a variable specifies how a variable or a term is
interpreted in the study and also sets the procedure for measuring variable. An
operational definition of a variable used in one study may differ from that employed in
another study.

Look at the examples below:

Variables Indicator/Operational Definition

1. Age 1. This refers to the length of time

a person has lived since he/she
was born. In this study it refers to
the age of a respondent on
his/her last birthday.

2. Educational Attainment 2. This refers to the highest

grade/year completed by
respondent.
3. Exposure to smoking
 information campaign 3. This means Whether or not the
respondent has heard or read
about the anti-smoking campaign
and the number of times he/she
has heard/read the message/s.
4. Knowledge about smoking
4. This is represented by the total
number of correct answers in a 10
-item questionnaire on smoking
and its dangers.

Establishing Categories of Variables

In some cases, a number, an amount, or a score may not be sufficient to
represent a variable. To facilitate description and analysis of data, categories of
variables can be established. Each category should also be operationally defined. The
categories must be mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
Mutually Exclusive Categories
Mutually exclusive categories do not overlap. Categories are mutually exclusive
when a respondent cannot be assigned to more than one category. Some variables, like
knowledge scores, can be grouped and each group assigned to a category, such as
“high level of knowledge,” “average level of knowledge,” and “low level of knowledge.”
Each of these level categories should also be operationally defined.
Example No. 1
If for instance, the operational definition of level of knowledge about cancer is
the “number of questions about cancer which a respondent answered correctly”, each
of level of knowledge may be assigned a range of scores. Assuming that the total
possible score is 20, the possible categories should be:
High level of knowledge = scores of 14 to 20
Average Level of knowledge = scores of 7 to 13
Low level of knowledge = scores of 0 to 6
In the example above the categories are mutually exclusive because a
respondent with a score of 15 can be assigned only to “high level of knowledge”.
However, if scores are decimal numbers, the score limits of each level should be
specified, like “0 to 6.5”, “6.6 to 13.5” and “13.6 to 20”

Example No. 2
For a variable like “residence”, if its operational definition is “geographical
characteristics of the area where the respondents permanently reside,” the possible
answers may be categorized as “rural” and “urban.” The meaning of “rural” and “urban,”
however, may be different in other studies. The operational definition depends on how
the word is used and measured in the study. The categories may be defined as :
Rural - “refers to a place of residence which is located outside the geographical
jurisdiction of a city or a town center.
“Urban - refers to a place of residence which is located within the city proper or within
the town proper of a municipality.
Exhaustive Categories
 Categories are exhaustive if all the possible responses are included among the
options of responses. The answers given by every respondent can be assigned to a
particular category. If a researcher is not sure about the exhaustiveness of the
categories identified, he/she should include “Others,” the “catch all” category. Under this
category, responses which can not be assigned to any of the other categories can be
classified.
Example
A list of categories like: “Protestant, Catholic, Muslim, and Budhist” for responses
to a question on religion is not exhaustive because a Mormon cannot be classified
under any of the categories in the list.
For instance, the variable “hobbies” is operationally defined as “a type of activity
a person engages in during leisure or free time.” The possible categories of this variable
may be: “singing,” “reading,” “painting,” “writing poems,” “sewing,” “Others, specify.”
What may not be classified under the five specific categories can be classified under
“Others.” However, if during data analysis, the number of responses falling under
“Others” exceed three, the responses must be specified and based on these an
additional category can be added.

Operational Definition of Key Terms

There may be terms in the study (not variables) that have meanings different
from their "dictionary meaning" or they take on different meanings, depending on
situations or events. These terms must also be defined operationally to avoid
misinterpretation. The definition depends on how the word is used and measured.
Examples:
a) Family planning user is any currently married woman aged 15 to 49 years
old or a married man aged 15 or older who has used a method to prevent or
space pregnancy at least once during the last three months.
b) Coastal Barangay is a village or community which is located near the sea
where fishing is the main activity of the residents.
c) Merging is the absorption of one or more business firms by another existing
firm which retains its identity and takes over the rights, previleges,
franchises, and properties and assumes all the liabilities or obligations of the
absorbed firm/s (Pudadera, 2002)
d) Interest rate represents the cost of borrowing money, expressed as a
percent rate, for a given period of time.

How to Make Operational Definitions

Here are some guidelines to follow defining variables operationally:
1.List your independent, dependent and intervening (if any) variables.
2.Write an operational definition for each variable.
3.Identify the possible categories of each variable and determine if the categories can
be clearly understood, are mutually exclusive (do not overlap) and exhaustive. The
list of categories is complete so that all respondents can be categorized.
4.List the key terms which may be interpreted differently by different people, unless
 they are operationally defined. Write an operational definition for each term.
5.When defining a variable or a term, be guided by the following questions:
a. Does the definition clearly specify the way the variable will be measured?
b. Are the categories of each variable mutually exclusive?
c. Are the categories exhaustive?

LESSON 6

CHOOSING AN APPROPRIATE STUDY DESIGN

The study design is the plan adopted by the researcher in the conduct of a study.
It is important that the researcher selects the appropriate study design to minimize
errors and avoid reaching wrong conclusions. This module defines, describes and
illustrates the most commonly used experimental and non-experimental research
designs.
Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students will be able to:
1. define what study design is,
2. explain the meaning of reliability and validity in research,
3. identify and describe the different kinds of validity threats and how to handle
each,
4. describe the different kinds of research design and distinguish the experimental
from the non-experimental designs,
5. determine the appropriate research design/s for specific types of research
problems, and
6. select an appropriate design for their own research problem.

What Is a Research Design?

A research design is the “blue print” of the study. It guides the collection,
measurement and analysis of data (Cooper and Schindler, 2001). It is a plan or course
of action which the research follows in order to answer the research question/s or solve
the research problem (Sanchez, et. al., 1996). The design becomes the basis for
determining what data will be collected, and how they will be analysed and interpreted.
A good research requires a good design. The use of an appropriate design
minimizes the occurrence of error in the conduct of the study and in the conclusions
drawn from the study.
Before the research is implemented, the researcher must already be able to
determine the research design he/she intends to use. Will he/she use an experimental
design or a non-experimental design?
A wrong choice of a design puts at risk the validity and the reliability of the study.
When this happens, it is quite difficult to find the real answer to a research question,
because there could be some rival hypotheses that can explain the occurrence of a
problem. The selection of an appropriate study design can minimize possible errors by
maximizing reliability and validity of the data.
Reliability
Reliability refers to the consistency, stability and dependability of the data. A
reliable measuring device is one which, if used for the second time, will yield the same
results as it did the first time. If the results are substantially different, the measurement
is unreliable.
Validity
Validity refers to the extent to which a measurement does what it is supposed to
do, which is to measure what it intends to measure. Valid data are not only reliable, but
also true and sound. A researcher must select a research design that will
yield a true and accurate information and avoid factors that can invalidate study
results.

Threats to Validity
There are many threats to validity. The most common of them are history,
selection, testing, instrumentation, maturation, and mortality.
History. Sometimes there are events in the life of a research project, but which
are not part of the project, that can increase or decrease the expected project outcomes.
These events are not expected, they just happen and they produce effects that can
invalidate study results.
For example, in a study of the “Effect of Anti-Smoking Campaign on Cigarette
Consumption Among Young Adults in Cadiz City,” an intensive information campaign
against smoking was launched in order to discourage smoking among young adults.
Anti-smoking messages were disseminated on radio, television, and newspapers daily
for one month. In the course of the campaign, a cigarette company also launched a
product promotion, offering a free trip to Europe for the customer and dealer who could
collect and submit the most number of empty packs of the cigarette brand being
promoted. A month after the launching of the anti-smoking campaign, an evaluation
was conducted, and the results showed an increase in cigarette consumption in the
study area. The researcher might conclude that the campaign was a failure. The
conclusion here would be invalid because of the high possibility that the cigarette
promotion (the historical event) may have contributed to the increase in cigarette
consumption.
Selection. In an experimental study, a threat to validity occurs when the elements
or subjects selected for the experimental group is very different from those selected for
the control group. For instance, if at the beginning the experiment, the experimental
group already has an advantage over the control group in terms of the focus variables
of the study, this difference will definitely affect the results of the study.
For example, in an experiment conducted to determine if using games and
puzzles as instructional aids can improve performance of college freshmen in Basic
Math, the teacher used games and puzzles in the experimental group, but did not use
them in the control group. After the experiment, it was found that the experimental
group got significantly better grades in the subject than the control group. It was
discovered, however, that most of the students in the experimental group had very good
grades in high school math, while most of those in the control group had average
grades only. Attributing the better performance of the experimental group to the use of
games and puzzles can be questioned. To avoid this validity threat, the experimental
and the control group should have similar characteristics at the beginning.
Testing. Whenever a pretest is given, it may make the examinees “test wise,” and
this can therefore affect the posttest results. Research subjects who have been given a
pretest may remember some of the test items/questions for which they may search
answers and get these correct when they take the posttest. Better performance in the
posttest might be due to the effect of the pretest and not necessarily to the intervention
or treatment.
Instrumentation. When a research instrument, such as a questionnaire or a
measuring device, like a weighing scale or a thermometer is changed during the study
period or between the pretest and the posttest, the change could result in an effect that
is independent of the intervention and yet, may be attributed to it.
For example, in a survey study, an instrumentation effect may be caused by an
interviewer who after conducting the pretest interview becomes more experienced in
interviewing. The interviewer’s experience will enable him/her to generate better and/or
more complete information during the post test than what was collected during the
pretest.
In a biomedical study, the use of an unreliable device, like a scale that badly
needs calibration, a contaminated syringe, or a very old litmus paper may also threaten
the validity of test results.

Maturation. People and things change over time. In other words they become
more mature, and this change can threaten the validity of conclusions. Research
subjects can get tired, hungry, or bored during the duration of the project. If the effect of
a project is measured with a test, their tiredness or boredom can result in scores lower
than their “true” scores..
On the other hand, the subjects may become more experienced, more
knowledgeable as they grow older and as a result they may get higher scores than they
did in the pretest. In this regard the change can not be attributed to the intervention.
Mortality. In studies that take a long time to finish, say, one year or more, like
cohort studies, where the subjects (the same people) are followed up over time, some
cases may drop out, thus resulting in a loss of cases. Some cases may have transferred
residence and are difficult to locate during the follow-up interview. Cases which cannot
be contacted cannot be followed-up. This loss, called mortality, may distort findings and
conclusions, if substantial and if it has introduced a bias to the sample.
The loss could result in a big difference between the pretest and the post test
results. This change may be wrongly attributed to the intervention, thus, threaten the
validity of the conclusions.
Commonly Used Research Designs (Campbell and Stanley, 1968, Parel, et al., 1985,
Fisher, et al., 1994)
The choice of a research design depends on the objectives of the study. There
are many types of research designs that can be used in basic and experimental
research. Described here are some of the most frequently used designs. They are
classified into: non- or pre-experimental designs, true experimental designs, and quasi-
experimental designs.
Non/Pre-Experimental Designs
Non-experimental designs are appropriate for collecting descriptive information
about a population or subjects of a study. They are appropriate for descriptive studies,
like profile studies, exploratory studies, and for doing small case studies. They are also
ideal for diagnostic studies or situation ) analysis. They are not recommended for
evaluation studies intended to 7 determine the effect or impact of a certain intervention
or treatment. Three non-experimental designs are described below. They are the
posttest only or after only design, the pretest-posttest design, and the static group
comparison.
Posttest Only Design or After- Only Survey
Time
X O
(Observation/Testing/Survey)
The design is also called as one shot survey because the data are collected only
once (O). This design is used when the study objective is to describe a
situation/condition of a study population as it exists, or to | determine/describe the
characteristics of a population/ respondents. There is no baseline data.
This design is cheap and easy to conduct, but results cannot be conclusive in
terms of causality or effect of an intervention. It is not, { however, recommended for
evaluation studies that intend to measure the Ys effect of a program intervention, like
training.
Pretest-Posttest Design or Before-After Survey

X (Intervention)
1 2
O O
Observation/Survey 1 Observation/Survey 2
(Before X) (After X)
 This design is used when the study wants to know the change in characteristics
(e.g. knowledge, attitude, practices) of the study population (students, nurses,
managers, clients, etc) in a given area. A survey, observation, or testing is conducted
before an intervention is introduced (O’). After a period of time the survey, observation
or testing is repeated (O°) and the results of the pretest (before) and the posttest (after)
are compared to determine change/s.
For example, if a researcher wants to know if an information campaign against
drug/substance abuse in a certain city has reduced drug use in the area after the
campaign, a survey before and after the campaign can-be conducted. No "control" area
(area where no campaign is conducted), however, is surveyed. With the absence of a
control area, this design cannot be considered an ‘experimental design. Any reduction in
drug use overtime, cannot be solely/conclusively attributed to the intervention
(campaign).

Static Group Comparison Time

Time
1
Experimental Group X O
2
Control Group O

In the static group design, there are two groups involved, an experimental group
and a control group. The experimental group receives or is exposed to the
intervention/treatment (X). This is followed by a measurement (O' ), the result of which
is compared to the result of — the measurement/observation from a control group (O”
that did not receive the intervention. The random process, however, was not used in the
assignment of subjects to the experimental and control groups (indicated by a broken
line). The problem with this design is the validity threat of selection and mortality. It is
possible that the two groups differ greatly on the basis of the main variables of the
study (selection) or some subjects in the experimental group may drop out and be lost
to follow-up or second observation/testing (mortality).
True Experimental Designs
In true experimental designs, subjects are randomly assigned to the experimental
group and the control group to achieve pre-intervention/ treatment equality of the two
groups. With well-defined and properly selected experimental and control groups,
validity threats are avoided. Before a researcher decides on an alternative design, the
feasibility of using true experimental designs must first be considered. The two most
frequently used true experimental designs are the pretest-posttest control group design
and the posttest control group design.

Pretest-posttest Control Group Design

1 3
Experimental group O X O
RA
2 4
Control group O O
Pretest Posttest
 In the pretest-posttest control group design, the experimental group is exposed
to or covered by an intervention or treatment (X), for example, training or a new strategy,
while the control group is left alone or given another kind of treatment. Before the
intervention/treatment is introduced to the experimental group, a
survey/observation/testing is conducted for both experimental group (O') and control
group (O°) using the same device/ instrument. The pre-intervention
survey/observation/test serves as pretest and the data collected serve as baseline data.
After the introduction of the intervention in the experimental group or area, an_
evaluation survey/observation/testing is conducted in both experimental group/area (0°)
and the control group/area (O*), using the same instrument used in both during the
pretest. The results serve as the posttest/endline data.
The baseline (pretest) and endline (posttest) data are compared. If the change in
the "impact/effect indicator/s” or dependent variable/s is significantly better in the
experimental area/group than the change in the control area/group, then the
intervention is considered effective. If not, then the intervention is said to have had no
effect.

1
Experimental group X O
RA

2
Control group O
Posttest

The Posttest Only Control Group design is also used to determine the effects of
an intervention or treatment introduced to a group of subjects (people/objects). As in
the pretest-posttest control group design, at least two groups or areas (e.g. women
groups, communities, provinces) with virtually the same characteristics are chosen and
randomly assigned (RA) to the control and experimental group.
The experimental group or area is exposed to or covered by an
intervention/treatment, while the control group is left alone. No pretest/pre- intervention
study is conducted. The experimental and the control groups are assumed to have
similar characteristics at the start of the study. After the introduction of an intervention
in the experimental group or area, an evaluation survey/observation/testing is
conducted in both experimental and the control groups or areas, using the same “fair”
instrument.
The data gathered from the experimental and control groups are compared. If the
experimental group or area shows significantly better results than the control
area/group with respect to the "impact/effect indicator/s” or dependent variable/s, the
intervention or treatment is considered effective. If not, then, the intervention is not
effective.
Quasi-experimental Designs
In field studies, it is very difficult to meet the random assignment criterion of a
true experimental design. In this situation, a quasi-experimental design is recommended.
Quasi-experimental designs are nearly the same as the true experimental designs,
except that the former do not have restrictions of random assignment. The two most
commonly used quasi-experimental designs are the non-equivalent control group
design and the time series design.

Non-equivalent Control Group Design

1 3
Experimental group O ------------------------------------- O
X
 2 4
Control group O ------------------------------------- O
Pretest Posttest

In field research, it is possible to compare an experimental group with a similar,

but not necessarily equivalent group. The two groups need only to have "collective
similarity," which means that they should have more or less the same characteristics in
terms of aspects which are relevant to the study. For example, if one wants to
determine the impact of an educational campaign on school attendance of children, the
experimental and the control areas should have more or less the same socioeconomic
characteristics, because these factors may also affect school attendance.
As in the pretest-posttest control group design, the intervention or treatment is
introduced to the experimental group, but withheld from the control group. Before the
introduction of the intervention, a survey/observation/testing is conducted in both the
1 2
experimental group (O ) and the control group (O ). After the introduction of the
intervention to the experimental group, another observation/testing (posttest) is
3 4
conducted to both groups (O and O ). The pretest can be used to determine whether
the two groups have truly "collective similarity" at the start of the experiment. The
3 4
results of the two posttests (O and O ). will also be compared. The intervention is
3
effective if the change in the impact/effect indicators in the experimental group (O and
1
O ). is significantly higher/better than the change in the impact/effect indicators in the
4 3
control group (O and O ). If not, then the intervention/treatment cannot be considered
effective. This design is a good one for evaluating training programs, and other
community interventions.

Time Series Design

Time
1 2 3 4 5 6
O O O X O O O

The time series design is similar to the non-experimental _ pretest- posttest

design except that, it has repeated observations/measurements before and after the
intervention (X). Before the introduction of the intervention/treatment, a
measurement/observation with respect to the impact/effect indicators will be
1 2 3
conducted several times at a regular interval, say, every 30 days; (O , O , O ), and then
after the intervention, another series of measurement/observation will be conducted
4 5 6
(O , O , O ), also at the same time interval as the first. The same measuring
instrument/device should be used at all times.
The result or pattern of the observations or testing in the first series of
measurements will be compared with that in the series of measurements after the
intervention. If the post-intervention result or pattern is better than that of the pre-
intervention series, then the intervention can be considered effective. However, if the
pre-intervention and post intervention results or patterns are the same, or the post
intervention result is not significantly better than that of the pre-intervention, then the
intervention cannot be considered effective.
For example, one wants to evaluate the effect of a feeding program which is
intended to improve the nutritional status of pre-school children in a barangay. Before
the introduction of the feeding program, the children (program beneficiaries) will be
1 2 3
weighed (measured) several times at regular interval, say, every 30 days; (O , O , O )
and then after the feeding program, another series of weighing (measurement) will be
4 5 6
conducted (O , O , O ), also at the same time interval as the first series (every 30
days). In order for the feeding program to be considered effective in improving the
nutritional status of the children, the children’s weights should improve after the feeding
program. Since the children are also growing, increase in weight may also be observed
during the series of pre-intervention measurements, however, it is expected that post-
intervention changes must be significantly better than the pre-intervention changes. If
not, the feeding program could not be considered as having effectively improved the
nutritional status of the children.

Selecting a Study Design

In selecting a study design it is important to consider ethical issues and the
balancing of technical issues against practical and administrative issues (Fraenkel and
Wallen, 1996)..
1. Ethical Issues. The researcher must make sure that the use of a particular
design does not endanger the respondent’s life, will not result in the violation of people’s
rights and dignity or in a denial of services that otherwise
would be available. The research should not involve unethical procedures. It is
important therefore, that informed consent is secured from the respondents or subjects
before they are involved in a study.
2. Practical and Administrative Issues. Every research requires sufficient
funds, competent personnel and adequate facilities, but these may not always be
available. Most often funds are limited, time is inadequate, and qualified personnel are
few. These issues often affect the choice of a good _ design. Limited resources often
result in the adoption of a less ideal design.
3. Technical Issues. The use of appropriate or ideal design helps minimize
possible errors. It is important therefore, that technical aspects be given serious
consideration. Whenever possible, the following should be done:
a. Experimental and control groups should be randomly assigned.
b. When random assignment is not possible, try to find a comparison group
that is nearly equivalent to the experimental group.
c. When neither randomly assigned control group nor a_ similar comparison
group is available, try using time series design that can provide information on
trends before and after a program intervention.
d. If time series cannot be used, try to obtain baseline information that can
be compared against post program information (pretest-posttest).
e. If baseline (pretest) information is unavailable, bear in mind that the type
of analysis that you can use is limited.
f. Always keep in mind the issue of validity. Are your measurements true? Do
they measure what they intend to measure?

Guidelines for a GOOD Research Design (Fisher, et. al., 1991)

1. A “good” research design is an ethical design.
2. A “good” research design is capable of obtaining the most reliable and valid data
 given all possible constraints.
3. A “good” research design is capable of collecting the needed data or measuring
whatever it is that happens in the field.
4. A “good” research design helps an investigator avoid making erroneous
conclusions.