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“This book is an incredible resource full of practical strategies for all school
professionals engaged in school safety and mental health initiatives! Each
chapter provides an overview of the research underlying evidenced-based
practices while also focusing on the ‘nuts and bolts’ of how to establish
effective school safety and mental health programs. It is a one-of-a-kind
book that emphasizes critical strategies needed to help establish a multi-
disciplinary team approach, with an emphasis on engaging teachers and
parents. A strong focus is placed on a comprehensive approach to school
safety and mental health programming that includes: how to integrate
new initiatives within existing intervention frameworks, culturally
competent practices, trauma informed approaches, threat and suicide
assessment, and crisis prevention through intervention and recovery.
The book concludes with strategies on how to conduct high quality
professional development and sustain new initiatives, critical to schools
in the era of limited resources and overwhelming needs. A must read
for administrators, educators, school mental health professionals, school
safety and security professionals and other key stakeholders invested in
school safety and mental health!”
– Melissa A. Reeves, PhD, NCSP, LCMHC, associate professor,
School Psychology Program & Psychology Department, Winthrop
University; past-president, National Association of School
Psychologists (NASP)

“This thorough, engaging, and accessible text is an excellent resource for

both experienced educators and graduate students. The authors provide
a comprehensive overview of school-based mental health services within
a multi-tiered framework and offer clear and practical recommendations
for implementation. While there is a clear and consistent focus on
culturally responsive practices and social justice throughout the book,
the standalone chapter on culturally responsive school mental health
services and education is quite strong and provides a useful framework
for developing educators’ cultural competence, adapting interventions
for different cultural groups, and addressing systemic factors that impact
mental health of students from minoritized backgrounds.”
– Celeste M. Malone, PhD, MS, associate professor of School
Psychology and program coordinator, Howard University
School of Education; president-elect, National Association of
School Psychologists (NASP), 2021–2022; member, APA Board of
Educational Affairs
“More than ever before, schools face an imperative to promote environments
that are physically and psychologically safe, and support mental wellness
among students, families, and staff. Doing so, however, requires signifcant
planning, buy-in, and integration of efforts. Developing Comprehensive School
Safety and Mental Health Programs: An Integrated Approach offers a new and
contemporary roadmap to help schools and districts address this challenge.
Drs. Roth and Erbacher offer a rich and comprehensive, yet practical
and application-focused reference that uniquely integrates efforts to ensure
school safety and mental health. This volume highlights and brings together
existing frameworks and approaches including trauma-informed care,
crisis prevention and response, violence prevention, culturally responsive
service delivery, positive behavior supports, and more. Just as importantly,
Roth and Erbacher describe the important steps schools and administra-
tors must take to build staff knowledge and buy-in, and effectively advocate
for improved service delivery and program development. All education
personnel, and particularly school-employed mental health professionals,
would beneft from maintaining a copy of Developing Comprehensive School
Safety and Mental Health Programs on their bookshelves.”
– Eric Rossen, PhD, NCSP, director, Professional Development
and Standards, National Association of School Psychologists (NASP);
National Register Health Service Psychologist

“I’ve been involved in school crisis prevention and intervention and

student mental health for four decades and fnally a book provides what
we need to know to make the difference in student lives! This book is a
timely masterpiece with a wealth of practical information to help school
personnel truly focus on supporting student mental health and primary
prevention. School psychologist practitioners Roth and Erbacher have
hit one out of the park with this comprehensive, practical, must have
book for school personnel. School psychology is blessed to have these two
experienced professionals who have provided a wealth of information on
how to develop and sustain safety and prevention programs much needed
by schools today.”
– Scott Poland, EdD, LP, NCSP, professor at the College of
Psychology; director of the Suicide and Violence Prevention Offce,
Nova Southeastern University; past-president, National Association
of School Psychologists (NASP)
“Each chapter of this book reads as an executive summary for practitioners
covering the waterfront of school mental health programs and practices.
It is packed with valuable, practical guidance succinctly presented in terse
declarative prose and bullet lists covering key topics such as culturally
responsive practices, multi-tiered systems of support, positive behavioral
interventions and supports, social and emotional learning, and trauma-
informed schools. It offers authoritative advice on effective school
practices in mental health screening, social media monitoring, suicide
assessment and violence prevention, among others. This is your one-stop
resource for school mental health services.”
– Dewey Cornell, PhD, professor of Education and
Clinical Psychologist, University of Virginia; director of the
UVA Virginia Youth Violence Project; principal author,
Comprehensive School Threat Assessment Guidelines

“This book is a valuable and comprehensive resource for school

administrators and mental health professionals. Foundational practices
and considerations, such as positive school climate, culturally responsive
teaching and mental health services, multi-tiered systems of supports,
and family–school collaboration are reviewed. I especially appreciate the
inclusion of a chapter on monitoring social media and technology, with
its practical considerations and suggestions for a topic that challenges
educators and parents. In this book, Jeffrey Roth and Terri Erbacher provide
current and helpful guidance to schools on topics such as crisis prevention
and preparedness, violence prevention, including threat assessment and
intervention, and suicide prevention and postvention. Comprehensive
approaches to promote positive behavior and mental health, including
positive behavioral interventions and supports and social and emotional
learning, with helpful case studies and tips for integrating these frameworks
in the curriculum. The important topics of mental health screening and
trauma-informed practices are also covered. In addition to this excellent
content, Roth and Erbacher provide readers with detailed guidance about
professional development and how to create and maintain an infrastructure
to implement, evaluate, and sustain multiple programs. The balance of
foundational and infrastructure issues with more specifc content makes
this book ideal not only for practitioners, but also for university professors
teaching courses on school safety and system-wide prevention.”
– Amanda B. Nickerson, PhD, NCSP, professor of School Psychology;
director, Alberti Center for Bullying Abuse Prevention; University of
Buffalo, the State University of New York; co-author, School Crisis
Prevention and Intervention: The PREPaRE Model
“This comprehensive book provides an expert analysis for school staff
to learn how to keep their schools physically and psychologically safe.
Drs. Roth and Erbacher have embedded research and best practice
documents from a variety of school safety professionals and researchers.
Their analysis provides a range of topics from trauma, social emotional
learning, violence and crisis prevention, social media, positive school
climate, and mental health delivery. This book has the power to provide
any educator with a quick reference to support a safe school climate.”
– Christina Conolly, PsyD, NCSP, director, Division of Psychological
Services, Montgomery County Public Schools, Maryland;
co-author, School Crisis Prevention and Intervention:
The PREPaRE Model

“Developing Comprehensive School Safety and Mental Health Programs: An

Integrated Approach is an invaluable book focusing on school crisis, safety,
and mental health that will be useful for school-based and other mental
health practitioners, graduate students, and university faculty. Dr. Jeff
Roth and Dr. Terri Erbacher provide numerous applied and feasible
strategies and considerations that are not only drawn from evidence-based
research, but also from their years of experience as practicing school
psychologists. This book provides extensive information on a variety of
critical topics, including suicide prevention, trauma-informed schools,
culturally responsive school mental health services, and family–school
collaboration. It is an invaluable resource that complements and expands
upon other existing school safety and mental health publications.”
– Jacqueline Brown, PhD, NCSP, associate professor of
Psychology, University of Montana-Missoula; co-editor,
Supporting Bereaved Students at School
Developing Comprehensive
School Safety and Mental
Health Programs

Developing Comprehensive School Safety and Mental Health Programs offers

an integrated, long-term plan to create safe and supportive learning
environments.
This user-friendly guide illustrates how to develop, implement, evaluate,
and sustain multiple evidence-based programs that work. This book
informs school mental health professionals, administrators, and teachers
about multi-tiered service delivery, organizational development, and
facilitating the implementation process. It describes the complementary
roles of school administrators, counselors, and school psychologists,
providing school staff with time, resources, and ongoing support to
strengthen their skills and sustain programs they have embraced. It
expresses empathy and appreciation for teachers, advocating for their
personal growth, professional collaboration, and stress management.
School leaders, facilitators, and teams are provided with the knowledge,
skills, and long-term plans to effectively advocate, assess needs, select
programs, train and encourage staff, provide resources, and implement,
evaluate, and sustain desired goals.

Jeffrey C. Roth, PhD, NCSP, has initiated and led a school-wide confict
resolution program, positive behavioral supports, crisis response team,
social skills curriculum, and professional development programs. He has
served as an adjunct professor at Wilmington University and a Red Cross
Disaster Mental Health volunteer, and was awarded Delaware’s School
Psychologist of the Year.

Terri A. Erbacher, PhD, has served as a school psychologist for over

20 years, was a professor at Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine
for over 13 years, and has a private practice at erbacherconsulting.com.
Dr. Erbacher has won numerous awards for crisis-based community
service, including Pennsylvania’s School Psychologist of the Year.
Developing Comprehensive
School Safety and Mental
Health Programs
An Integrated Approach

Jeffrey C. Roth and Terri A. Erbacher

First published 2022
by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2022 Jeffrey C. Roth and Terri A. Erbacher
The right of Jeffrey C. Roth and Terri A. Erbacher to be identifed as
authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with
sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identifcation and
explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Roth, Jeffrey C., author. | Erbacher, Terri A., author.
Title: Developing comprehensive school safety and mental health
programs : an integrated approach / Jeffrey C. Roth, Terri A.
Erbacher.
Description: New York, NY : Routledge, 2022. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifers: LCCN 2021002929 (print) | LCCN 2021002930 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780367713683 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367713676 (paperback) |
ISBN 9781003150510 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Schools—United States—Safety measures. | School mental
health services--United States. | School violence—United
States—Prevention. | School crisis management—United States.
Classifcation: LCC LB2864.5 .R68 2022 (print) | LCC LB2864.5
(ebook) | DDC 363.11/9371—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021002929
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021002930
ISBN: 978-0-367-71368-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-71367-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-15051-0 (ebk)
Typeset in Baskerville
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Access the Support Material: www.routledge.com/9780367713676
Contents

About the Authors xv

List of Illustrations xvii
Foreword by Charles Barrett xviii
Acknowledgments and Dedications xx

SECTION I
Background 1

1 Introduction 3
Purpose of the Book 3
A Story From School 9

2 The Case for Comprehensive School Safety and

Mental Health Programs 12
Need for School Safety and Mental Health Programs 12
Benefts of School Safety and Mental Health Programs 16
Barriers to School Safety and Mental Health Programs 24

3 Models Promoting School Safety and Mental Health

Service Delivery 36
Infrastructure and Resources to Support Programs
and Training 36
Practices Supporting School Safety and Mental Health 44
Mental Health Service Delivery Models 49
School Models Supporting Partnerships and Professional
Development 53
x Contents
SECTION II
Foundational Practices Supporting School
Safety and Mental Health 59

4 Positive School Climate 61

Impact of School Climate on Programs 61
Description and Benefts of a Positive School Climate 62
Establish Norms of Collaboration and Learning for All 68
Using School Climate Data 70

5 Culturally Responsive School Mental Health

Services and Education 76
A Model for Culturally Competent Mental Health Services 76
Culturally Competent Mental Health Service Delivery for
Indigenous Youth and Communities 80
Culturally Responsive Teaching and Valuing Diversity 82
Social Justice Advocacy for Educational and Societal Change 87
Confronting Harassment of LGBTQ+ Students 89

6 Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) 94

MTSS: Service Delivery for Integrating and
Coordinating Programs 94
Infrastructure and Collaborative Problem-Solving Teams 98
Selecting and Implementing Programs and Practices
at Each Tier 102

7 Family – School Collaboration and Caregiver Education 107

Understanding Family Systems and Challenges 107
Training Teachers for Family Engagement 108
Family Involvement in a Multi-Tiered System of Supports 110
Facilitators and Barriers to Family Engagement 112
School and Family Consultation to Address Mental Health 113
Cultural Diversity and Family – School Partnerships 114

8 Monitoring Social Media and Technology 119

Impact of Technology on School Communities 119
Managing Social Media for School Safety 121
Parent Monitoring of Social Media 127
Social Media and Technology Research 130
 Contents xi
SECTION III
Programs and Practices Supporting School and
Student Safety 133

9 Crisis Prevention, Preparedness, and Response 135

School Safety and Crisis Response Teams 135
Strategies for Prevention and Preparedness 139
Key Elements of Crisis Response 145

10 Violence Prevention, Threat Assessment,

and Intervention 160
Types of School-Related Violence 161
Prevention of School-Related Violence 161
School Threat Assessment 168
Cultural and Developmental Competence After Violence 178
Supporting Students and the School Community After Violence 179

11 Suicide Prevention, Intervention, and Postvention 186

Risk Factors, Protective Factors, and Warning Signs 186
Suicide Prevention and Preparedness 189
Intervention With a Potentially Suicidal Student 196
Suicide Postvention and Prevention of Contagion 202

SECTION IV
School-Wide Programs Promoting Positive
Behavior and Mental Health 209

12 Universal Mental Health Screening 211

Purposes and Planning of Mental Health Screening 211
Implementation and Follow-Up 219
Example of a Focus Area: Trauma Screening 221
Barriers to Implementation of Mental Health Screening 223
Overcoming Barriers to Implementation 224

13 Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) 231

Program Description and Benefts 231
PBIS Within a Multi-Tiered System of Supports 232
Behavioral and Academic Interventions Using MTSS 233
xii Contents
ISF Integrates PBIS With Mental Health Services 238
School-Wide PBIS (SWPBIS) Cultural Responsiveness 240
Brandywine School District Case Study: An Integrated
Approach 249

14 Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) 263

Program Description and Benefts 263
Building Equity in SEL 268
The Role of SEL in Academic Opportunity 271
The Role of SEL in Violence Prevention 272
The Role of SEL in Crisis Intervention 272
Guide to Planning and Implementation 274
Integrating SEL With Programs and Curriculum 275

15 Trauma-Informed Schools (TIS) 281

Program Description and Benefts 281
An MTSS Model for TIS 286
Staff Resources and Funding to Support TIS 287
Supportive School and Classroom Learning Environments 288
Trauma-Informed and Culturally Responsive Classrooms 297
A Trauma-Informed Approach to Evaluations 298

SECTION V
Professional Development for School Safety and
Mental Health 305

16 Developing Effective Professional Development 307

The Process of Organizational Development and Change 308
Secure Stakeholder Buy-In Throughout the Development Process 309
Administrator Support and Teacher Buy-In: Critical for Success 310
Needs Assessment and Program Selection 318
Select Evidence-Based Programs That Fit School Needs 322

17 Best Practices in Professional Development 329

Effective Training in Engaging Formats 329
Plan, Implement, and Evaluate Training Effectiveness 334
Transfer Knowledge and Skills to Classroom Practice 337
High Quality Professional Development 340
Supportive Follow-Up to Training 344
 Contents xiii
SECTION VI
Putting It All Together 349

18 Implementing, Evaluating, and Sustaining Integrated

Programs and Practices 351
Setting the Stage for Successful Implementation 351
Implementation Science and Evidence-Based Interventions 356
Evaluating Programs for Evidence of Effectiveness 363
Sustaining Gains Through Program Maintenance 369

19 Integrating and Managing Multiple Programs

and Practices 375
Integrating Through Systems Thinking 375
Integrating With Leadership and Logistics 377
Integrating With Infrastructure and Resources 379
Integrating With Professional Development 381
Integrating Programs Within MTSS 385
Integrating With Collaboration and Teams 387
Integrating Programs and Practices 389
Integrating Cultural Responsiveness 395
Integrating Data Collection, Analysis, and Decision Making 396
Integrating Funding Streams 397
Summary: Implementing, Evaluating, and Sustaining
Programs 398
Limitations in Developing School Safety and Mental Health
Programs 400

Appendix 403
Appendix: Highly Rated, Evidence-Based Programs 403

Online Resources: Available on the Routledge Website

Online Resource 1: Highly Rated, Evidence-Based Programs
Online Resource 2: Resources and Websites Organized by Relevant Topics
Online Resource 3: Tips and Strategies on Topics of Interest to
Teachers, Administrators, and Parents/Caregivers
Online Resource 4: Sample Universal and Follow-Up Mental
Health Screening Instruments
Online Resource 5: Sample Scales to Follow Up and Further
Evaluate Indicated Trauma and Possible Post-Traumatic Stress
xiv Contents
Online Resource 6: Sample Scales to Indicate Emotional Impact
of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Youth and Families
Online Resource 7: Sample Workshop Evaluation Form
Online Resource 8: Parent Interview Form That Incorporates
History of Potential Trauma and Symptoms

Index 423
About the Authors

Jeffrey C. Roth, PhD, NCSP, joined the Brandywine School District in

Delaware, where he initiated Operation Cooperation – a school-wide
approach to confict resolution – helped initiate and lead the district
crisis response team, and was named Delaware’s School Psychologist
of the Year. He developed instructional support and positive behav-
ioral support teams, a social skills curriculum, and a program of self-
directed professional development for school psychologists. He was
trained in the school crisis response PREPaRE model, Critical Incident
Stress Management, Crisis Prevention Institute (CPI), and Red Cross
Disaster Mental Health. He is an American Red Cross Disaster Mental
Health volunteer. After serving in the Air Force, he practiced social
work and attended graduate school at Temple University, where he
earned his doctorate. During graduate school, Dr. Roth worked as a
recreational therapist at St. Christopher’s Hospital for Children and
taught graduate courses at Arcadia University and Jefferson Medical
College. He is a licensed psychologist and served as adjunct professor
and advisor at Wilmington University, Delaware, for over 25 years. He
co-developed a mentoring program for new school psychologists for
the state of Delaware. Dr. Roth authored School Crisis Response: Refec-
tions of a Team Leader (2015) and co-edited Perspectives on School Crisis
Response: Refections from the Field (2018).
Terri A. Erbacher, PhD, is a licensed psychologist and certifed school
psychologist who has worked with the Delaware County Intermedi-
ate Unit since 1999, and has a private practice at erbacherconsulting.
com. Dr. Erbacher also served as a clinical associate professor at Phila-
delphia College of Osteopathic Medicine from 2007 to 2020, leaving
PCOM as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic to spend more time
with her family. With expertise in crisis management, suicide risk, and
threat assessment, Dr. Erbacher writes extensively on these topics in
book chapters, journal articles, and newsletters, and is a health con-
tributor for Philly.com. Dr. Erbacher has also given over 150 presenta-
tions to schools, parents, police, and community organizations, has
xvi About the Authors
been a frequent guest expert in the media, including NPR and 6abc,
and often consults and responds to local school districts after a criti-
cal incident. Among many board roles, Dr. Erbacher is past-president
for the Philadelphia Chapter of the American Foundation for Suicide
Prevention and past clinical advisor for Survivors of Suicide. She cur-
rently serves as the Crisis Committee chairperson for the Association
of School Psychologists of Pennsylvania and has been actively involved
with Pennsylvania law and model policy related to trauma, suicide, and
threat assessment. She is the lead author of the innovative text Suicide
in Schools: A Practitioner’s Guide to Multi-level Prevention, Assessment, Inter-
vention, and Postvention released in 2015. Dr. Erbacher has received
multiple awards for her service to the community, including being
named Pennsylvania’s School Psychologist of the Year. She resides out-
side of Philadelphia with her daughter, who is her pride and joy.
Illustrations

Figures
5.1 An Indigenous Conceptual Framework: Guiding School
Psychology Practice With Indigenous Children, Youth,
Families, and Communities 81
6.1 Integration of Programs and Practices Under the
Umbrella of MTSS 105
10.1 School Threat Assessment Decision Tree 177
11.1 Comparison of Suicidal Ideation, Planning, and Attempts
Between Heterosexual and LGBTQ+ Youth 190
13.1 Outcomes From Interaction of Multiple Social Competence
and Academic Achievement Program Components:
Systems, Data, and Practices 232
13.2 School-Wide Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS):
Sample Tiered Behavioral and Academic Interventions 235
14.1 Framework for Systemic Social and Emotional Learning 268
18.1 NIRN Hexagon Tool 354

Tables
6.1 Mental Health Program Options for 3 Tiers of MTSS
Service Delivery 103
10.1 ACLU Recommended Ratios of School Psychologists,
School Social Workers, and School Counselors Compared
With the National Average 170
18.1 Getting to Outcomes (GTO) Steps and Accountability
Questions 367
19.1 Professional Development Plan at a Glance Includes
Long-Term Management of Prioritized Training Categories/
Programs, Target Populations, and Scheduled Technical
Follow-Up and Booster Sessions 383
Foreword

Children will always be the most fulflling aspect of my career as a school

psychologist. After 13 years serving elementary, middle, and high school
students, whatever is best for their overall health and wellbeing remains
at the center of my scholarship and professional practice. Coupled with
the joy that children bring is the dynamic nature of school psychology
and the feld of education in general. In fact, it’s a Heraclitean truth: the
only constant in life is change. As toddlers become children, and children
grow into adolescents, similarly, our respective disciplines are constantly
evolving. But despite the ever-changing challenges, it’s exciting to be an
educator in the 21st century.
School safety and mental health are two of the most pressing concerns
for educators. From school shootings that involved students as the per-
petrators, to young people who have died by suicide, the past 25 years
have been rife with tragedies that seem too numerous to name. But, as
it is in life, so it is in education: these all-too-familiar events can become
catalysts for signifcant practice and policy changes; those that will lead to
safer and more inclusive schools and positive outcomes for young people.
As the de facto providers of mental health services, whether children’s
diffculties stem from their homes (e.g., abuse, neglect), communities
(e.g., chronic exposure to police violence and other traumatic events),
or larger societal ills (e.g., systemic racism), because of their access to
large numbers of children and adolescents, schools, particularly public
schools, are defensibly the most appropriate setting for providing com-
prehensive evidence-based prevention and intervention programs.
As members of multidisciplinary teams, school psychologists, school
social workers, school counselors, nurses, teachers, administrators, and
policymakers work tirelessly to meet the social, emotional, behavioral,
and mental health needs facing real students, living with real families,
and attending real schools that are embedded within real communities.
Consequently, critical information must be accessible to and specifcally
address the realities of school-based professionals. Moreover, given the
differential experiences of students and families from racially and ethni-
cally minoritized (REM) backgrounds, it is incumbent upon practitioners
 Foreword xix
to develop meaningful relationships with families; understand cultural
nuances; partner with them; and implement practices that are respectful
of, and responsive to, their values and beliefs. Especially given the scant
consideration of cultural factors in many undergraduate and graduate
training programs, educators must engage in ongoing professional learn-
ing in order to effectively serve an increasingly REM student body.
In Developing Comprehensive School Safety and Mental Health Programs: An
Integrated Approach, Jeffrey C. Roth and Terri A. Erbacher offer a resource
that is not only comprehensive in nature but also accessible in its organi-
zation and flled with much needed, essential content for contemporary
educational practice. Framing school safety and mental health as shared
responsibility and interdisciplinary collaboration between stakeholder
groups, the book is a must read for both emerging professionals as well
as those already serving students and families in schools.
As noted by the ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus, change is inevi-
table. And the degree to which we are responsive to change ensures that
our practices remain effective for all children and families. Roth and
Erbacher have also underscored a fundamental truth that has both chal-
lenged and inspired me as a school psychologist and educator: If we are
doing the same things that we were doing many years ago, we are likely doing
something wrong. It’s easy, and sometimes enticing, to become comfortable
and complacent in our approaches. Innovation, however, requires new
information that inspires new ideas. Balancing research and practice, but
not at the expense of being overly prescriptive, Developing Comprehensive
School Safety and Mental Health Programs helps professionals examine their
current systems and structures and exposes them to more effcient pro-
cesses and effective practices.
If we are truly committed to supporting the whole child and every
child, we can no longer separate school safety and mental health from
students’ academic achievement. Children who feel physically and emo-
tionally safe, supported, and included are not only ready to learn but also
more likely to succeed. Jeff Roth and Terri A. Erbacher have provided a
unique, valuable resource that clearly helps school communities to sup-
port the safety and mental health of the whole child and every child.
Charles Barrett, PhD, NCSP, lead school
psychologist, Loudoun County Public Schools,
Ashburn, Virginia; graduate educator; consultant;
author; www.charlesbarrett.org.
Acknowledgments and Dedications

The authors wish to acknowledge the ongoing support, guidance, and

encouragement of Amanda Devine, our Editor at Routledge, and Grace
McDonnell, Editorial Assistant.
The authors wish to thank the many special people who contributed
valued ideas to the development of this book. We appreciate our school
crisis response teams, with whom we have been honored to work and
from whom we have learned so much.
We appreciate the following colleagues and loved ones who have sup-
ported and inspired us:

Charles Ashbach; George Bear; Best-Bearden Family “for their con-

stant love and support”; Jeff’s daughter Leah, Raleigh, and sweet
granddaughter Autumn Booze; Debby Boyer; Jacqueline Brown;
Cecilia Cannon; Donna Carroll; Marqueia Davis; Doug DiRaddo;
Terri A. Erbacher; Autumn Erbacher, Terri’s inspiration to be the
best mom, psychologist, and person she can be; Marika Ginsberg-
Block; Sarah Hearn; Melissa Heath; Belle Heffer, Jeff’s 2nd and
3rd grade teacher; Sol and Shirley Hirsch, Carol’s parents; Cindy
Holms, Terri’s work mom; Joanna Krupp; Steven and Deborah
Krupp; Teri Lawler; Yolanda McKinney; Joel Meyers; Patricia
Minuchin; Cathy and Dan Moore; Janet Newsome; Megan Pell;
Scott Poland; John Rafter; Melissa Reeves; Eric Rossen; Bill Roth,
Terri’s frst supervisor and mentor who helped begin her career
in crisis response; Carol Roth, patient wife and editor to Jeff;
Jacob, Kate, and Jenny Roth, Jeff’s grandparents; Martin and Yetta
Roth, Jeff’s parents; Jeff’s son Michael Roth and Esther Nivasch;
Linda Smith; Leah and David Spector, Jeff’s grandparents; Pat
and Becky Stone; Craig Stoneking for being Terri’s support when
she’s supporting others; Tracey Tilghman; Marty and Peggy Tracy;
Maritsa, Aaron, Amelia, and Noah Wagner; Ted and Joanne
Weiner; Naomi S. Wilson, Jeff’s 4th grade teacher.
Section I

Background
1 Introduction

Nothing in life is to be feared, it is only to be understood. Now is the time

to understand more, so that we may fear less.
~ Marie Curie

Purpose of the Book

There is a critical need for a user-friendly guide illustrating an integrated,
long-term process to develop comprehensive school safety and mental
health programs. There is a vital need for school safety measures, cri-
sis preparedness, suicide and violence prevention, and student mental
health services, but multiple programs must be effciently implemented,
given increasing educator challenges and responsibilities.
The multicultural population of our schools and the necessity for
interpersonal understanding and culturally responsive teaching under-
score the need to address social, emotional, and behavioral supports
essential to positive learning environments and academic achievement.
School safety and mental health programs and practices, and the training
needed to implement them, are designed for teachers to become more
confdent, more skilled, and better able to educate students with diverse
backgrounds and needs. Unfortunately, increasing professional develop-
ment expectations and program requirements can leave teachers feeling
less confdent, de-skilled, and discouraged.
Developing Comprehensive School Safety and Mental Health Programs: An Inte-
grated Approach promotes continuous learning, professional collaboration,
supportive leadership, and a long-term plan to develop evidence-based
programs that are effcient and effective. This book offers wide-ranging
information and a practical process to help school leaders and teams
implement and integrate programs that work. This book provides a clear
process to effectively assess needs, select programs, encourage and train
staff, develop resources, and implement, evaluate, and sustain desired
programs (Fixsen, Naoom, Blase, Friedman, & Wallace, 2005; Forman
et al., 2013; Ogden & Fixsen, 2014). This task can start with small steps
but gain momentum as innovative programs succeed and structures are
established, making further implementation more feasible.
4 Background
This book advocates for teacher personal growth, professional collabora-
tion, and wellbeing. It also expresses the need for more school-based men-
tal health professionals – school psychologists, school counselors, school
social workers, and also school nurses – who are often presented with
increasing and urgent tasks. This book informs administrators and school
mental health professionals about facilitating multi-tiered service delivery,
organizational development, and implementation science. It highlights the
complementary roles of school administrators, school mental health pro-
viders, and other school leaders and liaisons to effectively provide edu-
cators with time, resources, and ongoing support to develop knowledge,
strengthen skills, and sustain programs they have embraced (Eagle, Dowd-
Eagle, Snyder, & Holtzman, 2015; Mazzer & Rickwood, 2015).
The infuence of school administrators advocating for and facilitating
innovative change is paramount. Lead teachers and leadership teams,
who inspire fellow educators, also play an immense role in creating posi-
tive change. Comprehensive programming must also include engagement
with and education for parents, families, and community stakeholders.
This book emphasizes respect and appreciation for students, educators,
families, and the community.
The lessons in this book address the challenges of those who lead the
development of school safety and mental health programs, facilitate imple-
mentation, and support change processes. New programs and practices
cannot succeed without the acceptance, enthusiasm, and dedicated work
of teachers, administrators, and support staff. In addition to receptive edu-
cators, there must be structures and resources such as an effective model
of service delivery, shared leadership and teamwork, data collection and
analysis, and ongoing training, funding, and community partnerships.
In summary, here are themes and objectives of this book:

• Understand the research on school safety, student mental health,

and the impact of crisis events
• Illustrate and advocate the benefts of, and overcome barriers to,
implementing school safety and mental health programs
• Apply best practices to the process of implementing comprehensive,
integrated school safety and mental health programs
• Utilize the unique opportunity schools provide for prevention, iden-
tifcation, and early intervention to promote student mental health
• Develop a practical, integrated, long-term planning approach to
multiple program training and implementation
• Utilize needs assessment and prioritized program selection to deter-
mine the direction of training initiatives
• Assess and build school infrastructure – leadership functions,
resource mapping, logistics and personnel, structures such as deliv-
ery systems, funding, strengths, and needs to determine readiness
for new programs
 Introduction 5
• Establish positive school climates; culturally responsive teaching and
services; family–school collaboration; monitoring of social media;
safety and crisis teams; violence prevention and threat assessment;
suicide prevention, intervention, and postvention; mental health
screening; positive behavior supports; social-emotional learning; and
trauma-informed schools
• Inform selection and planning of safety and mental health programs
and practices
• Apply best practices for stakeholder buy-in and professional
development
• Apply implementation science to guide effective program implementation
with follow-up to support, evaluate, and sustain desired outcomes

Learning themes for leaders and facilitators of program development:

• Apply principles and skills of organizational development and imple-

mentation science to facilitate ongoing school safety and mental
health programs
• Empower and support a school leadership team, professional learning
communities, and encourage teacher collaboration and continuous
learning
• Develop delivery systems and partnerships to support school safety
and mental health programs
• Facilitate assessment, research, and selection of needed school safety
and mental health programs that ft a school’s climate, population,
and culture
• Facilitate and inspire an effective, ongoing professional development
process
• Implement and manage the long-term development of multiple,
integrated programs and practices
• Evaluate, improve, and sustain multiple school safety and mental
health programs

The themes of each chapter are designed to follow the practitioner’s

experience of developing and establishing school safety and mental
health programs:

• Chapter 2 advocates and describes the need for, benefts of, and
barriers to developing school safety and mental health programs
• Chapter 3 reviews essential structures, resources, practices, and
service delivery models needed to enable successful planning, devel-
opment, and implementation of comprehensive school safety and
mental health programs
• Next, school leaders and leadership teams must educate themselves
about the kinds of programs and practices designed to address
6 Background
school safety and mental health. Chapters 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 empha-
size foundational practices, including Chapter 4: positive school
climate; Chapter 5: culturally responsive mental health services
and education; Chapter 6: Multi-Tiered System of Supports; Chap-
ter 7: family–school collaboration and caregiver education; and
Chapter 8: monitoring social media and technology, all of which
provide a receptive environment in which innovative practices can
succeed
• Chapters 9, 10, and 11 focus on types of programs and practices
that support school and student safety, including Chapter 9: crisis
prevention, preparedness, and response; Chapter 10: violence pre-
vention, threat assessment, and intervention; and Chapter 11: suicide
prevention, intervention, and postvention
• Chapters 12, 13, 14, and 15 describe school-wide programs and
practices that promote positive behavior and mental health, such
as Chapter 12: universal mental health screening; Chapter 13: Posi-
tive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS); Chapter 14:
Social and Emotional Learning (SEL); and Chapter 15: Trauma-
Informed Schools (TIS)
• Next, Chapters 16 and 17 describe applying best practices to prepa-
ration for training and professional development of selected pro-
grams. Chapter 16 describes the process of developing effective
professional development for school safety and mental health pro-
grams, including stakeholder buy-in and leadership, assessing and
prioritizing needs, and selecting evidence-based programs that ft
the school culture. Chapter 17 focuses on providing highly effective
training and follow-up technical assistance
• Chapter 18 is a culminating description of best practices in imple-
menting with fdelity and applying implementation science and drivers;
evaluating for evidence of program effectiveness, treatment integrity,
and adjustments to improve desired outcomes; and sustaining and
fostering institutionalization of successful school safety and mental
health programs
• Chapter 19 summarizes essential ideas for integrating and managing
ongoing school safety and mental health programs and training
• The Appendix provides a non-exhaustive list of highly rated, evi-
dence-based programs that address various aspects of school safety
and mental health
• Online resources are also available on the Routledge website. Supple-
mental materials include:
• Online Resource 1: Appendix lists highly rated, evidence-based
programs
• Online Resource 2: Resources and websites organized by rele-
vant topics
 Introduction 7
• Online Resource 3: Tips and strategies on selected topics of
interest to teachers, administrators, and parents/caregivers
• Online Resource 4: Sample Universal and Follow-up Mental
Health Screening Instruments
• Online Resource 5: Sample scales to follow up and further
evaluate indicated trauma and possible post-traumatic stress
• Online Resource 6: Sample scales to indicate emotional impact
of the COVID-19 pandemic on youth and families
• Online Resource 7: Sample Workshop Evaluation Form
• Online Resource 8: Parent Interview Form that incorporates
history of potential trauma and symptoms

Developing school safety and mental health programs relates to several

domains of the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP)
Model for Comprehensive and Integrated School Psychological Services (NASP,
2020). These domains include “data-based decision making,” “consulta-
tion and collaboration,” and especially “mental and behavioral health
services,” “school-wide practices to promote learning,” and “services to
promote safe and supportive schools.”

Defnition of “School Safety”

School safety is defned as school attributes that constitute the condition
and perception of physical and psychological safety such that students,
educators, families, and members of the school community function in
a secure learning environment that is reasonably free from fear of harm
or disruption.
Reeves, Kanan, and Plog (2010) explained that an aspect of creating
a safe school is preventing crises from happening, or being prepared
to respond to and mitigate negative impact when crises cannot be pre-
vented. However, they asserted that a safe school involves more than crisis
preparedness and response capability – a safe school also “establishes and
maintains a positive school climate and implements good prevention and
intervention programs” (p. 5).
The groundbreaking Early Warning, Timely Response: A Guide to Safe
Schools (Dwyer, Osher, & Warger, 1998) emphasized the contribution of
all members of the school community, including staff, students, parents,
and community members, in establishing safe school environments. They
described these environments as creating a focus on:

• Academic achievement
• Meaningful family involvement
• Mutual respect and caring among students and staff
• Good citizenship and character
• Open discussion of safety issues
8 Background
• Ways for students to feel safe expressing concerns and feelings
• Early identifcation of students with problems
• Comprehensive response to student needs

Defnition of “Mental Health”

Mental Health First Aid USA (2012, 2015) states that the term mental
health is defined in different ways, with some definitions emphasizing
“positive psychological wellbeing,” while others view it as an absence
of mental health problems. Culture also influences the ways mental
health is defined. Hernandez, Nesman, Mowery, Acevedo-Polakovich,
and Callejas (2009) pointed out that “culture influences what gets
defined as a problem, how the problem is understood, and which
solutions to the problem are acceptable” (p. 5). The World Health
Organization (2007) defined mental health as a state of wellbeing
in which individuals realize their own abilities, cope with normal life
stresses, work productively, and are able to contribute to their com-
munity. The organization further stated that mental health impacts
education, employment, and interpersonal relationships throughout
life, contributing to perceived self-efficacy, autonomy, competence,
and the realization of one’s potential (World Health Organization,
2014).
A public health approach to children’s mental health seeks to bal-
ance the focus on problems with a focus on positive mental health. This
approach emphasizes not only treatment but also prevention, early inter-
vention, and education to improve mental health outcomes. The public
health approach also seeks to create environments that promote and
support mental health, and skills that enhance resilience, or the capacity to
overcome life’s challenges (Kelly, Kitchener, & Jorm, 2017; Mental Health
First Aid USA, 2012, 2015).

The Reciprocal Nature of School Safety and Mental Health

This book proceeds from the premise that school safety and mental
health share a reciprocal relationship. When students and educators feel
that their learning environment is physically and psychologically safe and
supportive, they are more likely to experience mental wellness, a sense of
security, positive attitudes and emotions, and readiness to learn. When
students and educators feel that their school supports mental health and
emotional wellbeing, they are more likely to contribute to school safety,
have a sense of connection and mutual respect for peers and educators,
be more resilient when coping with crises, communicate potential prob-
lems or threats, and seek help when help is needed. The extent to which
safety and mental health are promoted or ignored can have a profound
impact on students.
 Introduction 9
A Story From School
In the early 1950s, I was destroyed by a 1st grade teacher and repaired by
the competent, caring teachers who came afterward. Perhaps my travail
was foreshadowed when, at the end of our kindergarten year, we were
paraded in front of next year’s 1st grade teacher to tell her our names.
My shy, barely audible 5-year-old voice squeezed out “Jeffrey Roth” and
she responded with “Jeffrey Wolf.” “No, Roth.” “Wolf?” Just move along.
Maybe my last name did sound like the howl of a baby wolf. Anyway, it
went downhill from there.
From the beginning of the school year, when she perceived resistance,
the 1st grade teacher threatened to “hang you from the chandelier.”
While she did not threaten me directly, I personalized her intention every
time and pictured myself dangling from the light fxture on the ceil-
ing. I became frightened to utter a word and wished I could learn how
to disappear. What made things worse was that for those responding to
her queries with the right answer, she sometimes offered a “sucker” (lol-
lipop). I was almost in tears knowing that my self-imposed mutism was
costing me a crack at a mouth-watering treat. There was no invisibility
when my fne motor defcits did not allow me to string even one of the
colorful wooden beads or when I was standing at the blackboard being
yelled at for using my fngers trying to solve a simple arithmetic problem.
But it got worse . . .
I was afraid to ask permission to go to the boy’s room. The result was
catastrophic. I became a serial puddle maker. The evidence of my trans-
gression was obvious from the wet area on my pants and of course, the
puddle on the foor. Perhaps it was because I denied being the transgres-
sor that she added to the embarrassment by feeling my pants to confrm
the indiscretion, accompanied by a gleeful chorus of “pish-ma-shame”
from little girls in the front row. My mother came in for a conference
and the problem seemed solved. I would simply raise my hand and when
recognized, leave the room to do my business. Well, how do you raise your
hand and leave the room while reciting the Pledge of Allegiance? By the
time we reached “liberty and justice for all” there was another puddle to
ruin my reputation as a civilized 1st grader. There was something terribly
wrong with me.
My teacher for the next year, and thankfully a second year after that,
not only picked up the pieces, but her frm, supportive style and love of
students gradually gave me permission to feel comfortable, worthwhile,
and believe I could learn. Learning in Ms. Heffer’s classroom meant not
only the “3 Rs” but also music and art, and a world of color and beauty. I
was able to come out of my shell and even appreciate my classmates and
their talents.
My next teacher was another who understood how to challenge and, at
the same time, support her students. I was still a slow and grudging reader
10 Background
by 4th grade. I recall trying to read the Carl Sandburg poem, “The fog
comes on little cat feet . . .” during reading circle. As I struggled might-
ily, others in the circle raised their hands wanting a chance to take over,
show their skill, and put me out of my misery. But my teacher must have
sensed that I was determined to get through that poem. She signaled for
the would-be readers to cease their grunts and cries and put down their
hands. “Let him do it,” Ms. Wilson said. She somehow knew that her
patience might give me the confdence and time needed to succeed. I
continued turtle-slowly, and fnished reading the poem. I had become a
person again. School had become a place where I wanted to be.

References
Dwyer, K., Osher, D., & Warger, C. (1998). Early warning, timely response: A guide to
safe schools. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
Eagle, J. W., Dowd-Eagle, S. E., Snyder, A., & Holtzman, E. G. (2015). Implement-
ing a Multi-tiered System of Support (MTSS): Collaboration between school
psychologists and administrators to promote systems-level change. Journal of
Educational and Psychological Consultation, 25(2–3), 160–177.
Fixsen, D. L., Naoom, S. F., Blase, K. A., Friedman, R. M., & Wallace, F. (2005).
Implementation research: A synthesis of the literature. Tampa, FL: University of South
Florida, Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute, The National Imple-
mentation Research Network (FMHI Publication @231).
Forman, S. G., Shapiro, E. S., Codding, R. S., Gonzales, J. E., Reddy, L. A., Rosen-
feld, S. A., . . . & Stroiber, K. C. (2013). Implementation science and school
psychology. School Psychology Quarterly, 28, 77–100. https://doi.org/10.1037/
spq0000019
Hernandez, M., Nesman, T., Mowery, D., Acevedo-Polakovich, I. D., & Callejas, L.
M. (2009). Cultural competence: A literature review and conceptual model for
mental health services. Psychiatric Services, 60(8), 1046–1050.
Kelly, C. M., Kitchener, B. A., & Jorm, A. F. (2017). Youth mental health frst aid
manual (4th ed.). Melbourne: Mental Health First Aid International.
Mazzer, K. R., & Rickwood, D. J. (2015). Teachers’ role breadth and perceived
effcacy in supporting student mental health. Advances in School Mental Health
Promotion, 8(1), 29–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/1754730X.2014.978119
Mental Health First Aid USA. (2012). Mental health frst aid USA for adults assisting
young people. Washington, DC: National Council for Behavioral Health.
Retrieved from www.mentalhealthfrstaid.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/
Youth_Mental_Health_First_Aid-One_Pager.pdf
Mental Health First Aid USA. (2015). Mental health frst aid USA. Washington, DC:
National Council for Behavioral Health. Retrieved from www.mentalhealth-
frstaid.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Mental-Health-First-Aid-Adults-
One-Pager_2019.pdf
National Association of School Psychologists. (2020). Model for comprehensive and
integrated school psychological services: The NASP Practice Model 2020. Retrieved
from www.nasponline.org
 Introduction 11
Ogden, T., & Fixsen, D. L. (2014). Implementation science: A brief overview and
a look ahead. Zeitschrift fur Psychologie, 222, 4–11. https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-
2604/a000160
Reeves, M., Kanan, L., & Plog, A. (2010). Comprehensive planning for safe learning
environments: A school professional’s guide to integrating physical and psychological
safety – Prevention through recovery. New York: Routledge.
World Health Organization. (2007). Mental health: Strengthening mental health pro-
motion (Fact Sheet No. 220, p. 1). Geneva: WHO.
World Health Organization. (2014). Mental health: A state of well-being. Retrieved
from www.who.int/features/mental_health/en/
2 The Case for Comprehensive
School Safety and Mental
Health Programs

Educating the mind without educating the heart is no education at all.

~ Aristotle

Imagine your school district has just experienced a student suicide. In

the aftermath, shocked parents fear for their own children’s wellbeing,
complain about excessive academic pressure, and worry about their chil-
dren experiencing anxiety or depression. Students, parents, and teach-
ers express concerns about the prevalence of bullying. How should the
school respond and what procedures are in place?
Many schools experience problems with student mental health, behav-
ior, and ineffective discipline, with questions about appropriate response.
Lack of strategic planning can lead to lowered staff morale, decreased
student involvement in extracurricular activities, and an absence of con-
nection between students and their schools. School-based mental health
professionals often highlight these problems and advocate for programs
designed to address them. Most district superintendents and school
administrators are interested in learning about programs that support
school safety and mental health. But what are best practices to proceed
with developing these programs?

Need for School Safety and Mental Health Programs

Mental health problems can take many forms. While some students face
situational challenges such as conficts with peers, parental divorce, military
deployment, or a death in the family, others experience ongoing emotional
stressors that cause psychological harm. These stressors can include poverty,
societal inequities, community violence, homelessness, or abuse. Still other
students struggle with emerging or chronic mental illness such as anxiety,
depression, and emotional-behavioral disorders (Rossen & Cowan, 2015).
Mental health problems generally don’t go away on their own, but
often become worse if not identifed or left untreated (Suldo, Gorm-
ley, DuPaul, & Anderson-Butcher, 2014). The average delay between the
 School Safety and Mental Health Programs 13
onset of mental illness symptoms and treatment is a staggering 11 years
(National Alliance on Mental Illness, 2019). The effects of untreated
mental illness can impact every aspect of school life, including safety,
discipline, school climate, learning, and teacher stress (Rossen & Cowan,
2015). Schools are in a unique position to address student mental health
through screenings, prevention, early intervention, and a continuum of
services, which can vastly improve school and life outcomes for all stu-
dents (Eklund & Rossen, 2016; Mental Health America, 2016).
How can we encourage, create, and support the kind of change that
benefts students and teachers? Critical elements must be in place for
safety and mental health training and programs to yield optimal results:

• Administrators, teachers, and staff must recognize the need and

buy into training
• Administrators must plan a user-friendly professional development
timeline and develop structures and resources conducive to program
implementation
• There must be suffcient staffng of school-based mental health
professionals
• There must be an effective system of service delivery that supports
a continuum of coordinated programs and practices to meet the
needs of all students – especially those most vulnerable
• Training must be followed by approaches such as consultation,
coaching, booster sessions, and professional collaboration to support
and institutionalize programs and practices that instill teacher con-
fdence, knowledge, and skills
• There must be a positive school climate and messaging to students,
staff, families, and the community that informs about services and
seeks input
• Evaluation of outcomes and decision making must be driven by
data that sustains and strengthens needed programs, service provid-
ers, and school teams

There is a recognized need for school safety measures and mental health
services, but little discussion of how to develop multiple programs, given
increasing educator challenges and responsibilities. Innovative programs
are most effective when teachers and administrators feel camaraderie and
enthusiasm for adopting new practices so that even those skeptical about
change perceive efforts as practical, worthwhile, and not simply retreads
of worn-out ideas.

Need for School Safety Planning

Safety teams can conduct needs assessments to identify and establish
resources, such as a Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) and Positive
14 Background
Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) that help create safe learn-
ing environments. Crisis teams not only respond to crises but are also
involved in preparation for and prevention of traumatic incidents (Brock
et al., 2016). Chapters 9 and 10 elaborate on crisis and violence prevention.
Schools can support student participation in safety planning and shar-
ing responsibility for the wellbeing of their school. When schools create
a culturally responsive climate where all students feel a sense of security
and belonging, they are more ready to learn. School connectedness and
resilience produces individuals who are more involved in promoting
safety and prevention, less vulnerable to crisis reactions, and better able
to cope, recover, and return to learning (Brock et al., 2016; Doll, Cum-
mings, & Chapla, 2014; Masten, 2014).
Schools must prepare for a variety of traumatic events. In addition to
campus and community violence, there are natural disasters, transporta-
tion accidents, deaths of students and staff members, deaths by suicide,
and other crises (Reeves, Kanan, & Plog, 2010; Roth & Fernandez, 2018).
School violence prevention strives to reduce the risk of violent behavior
and mitigate the effects of emotional trauma. When schools establish
strong community connections, they are better able to help families,
teachers, and students with a continuum of services to restore hope and
security (Castro-Olivo, Albeg, & Begum, 2012).
Schools must prevent, prepare for, and confront a continuum of violent
acts, including catastrophic shootings and terrorism, homicides in the
community, and more pervasive threats such as bullying. Bullying is a dif-
ferent form of violence, generally not attracting headlines, but recognized
as a pervasive threat to student wellbeing. Educators have the challenge
of balancing programs for physical safety with efforts to create a positive
psychological learning environment (Paine & Cowan, 2009). Chapter 10
elaborates on violence prevention, threat assessment, and intervention.

Need for School Mental Health Programs

The Adverse Childhood Experiences study (ACEs) demonstrated that
between half and two-thirds of all school-age children are exposed to one
or more adverse childhood experience that can cause emotional trauma
(Felitti et al., 1998). Educators must learn to recognize what trauma looks
like and how to use a trauma-informed approach that fosters student
resilience (Rossen, 2020; Souers & Hall, 2016). Chapter 15 provides more
information on Trauma-Informed Schools.
It is estimated that about one in fve students experience serious men-
tal illness at some time during their schooling (Perou et al., 2013). Ros-
sen and Cowan (2015) anticipated that in a high school of 750 students,
150 of them might experience a mental illness that interferes with their
learning – issues related to thinking, mood, or behavior, affecting their
ability to concentrate, have positive relationships, or cope with adversity.
 School Safety and Mental Health Programs 15
Many high school students report excessive school-related stress (Vella-
Brodrick, 2016). A survey of Australian youth aged 15–19 years found that
coping with stress was a primary concern for 38.4% of respondents and
that school or study problems was a signifcant concern for 33.6% of the
study sample (Cave, Fildes, Luckett, & Wearring, 2015).
Prothero (2018) pointed to an estimated 32% of adolescents experi-
encing an anxiety disorder, and 12% of youth between 12 and 14 years
of age reporting a major depressive episode during the previous year.
The World Health Organization (2019) estimated that 50% of mental
disorders begin before age 14, and 70% before age 18. Increasing num-
bers of students appear diagnosed with anxiety, depression, and bipolar
disorders. Mental health problems can make learning extremely diffcult
and destroy relationships. While mental health concerns leading to cata-
strophic events such as school shootings are extremely rare, they often
lead to disruption, disrespect, and unhappiness in learning environments.
Suicide has become epidemic among young people. Safe schools
require education and programs to prevent death by suicide. Nation-
wide, 18.8% of students reported seriously considering a suicide attempt
(CDC, 2020b). Since 2007, the teenage suicide rate has risen 30% among
boys and doubled among girls between the ages of 15 and 19. Suicide is
the second leading cause of death among youth between ages 15 and
19 (CDC, 2020a). Educators must know risk factors, protective factors,
warning signs, and how to talk with a distressed student. When a death by
suicide happens, schools must have the specialized knowledge and skills
to address complicated grief and work to prevent contagion (Erbacher,
Singer, & Poland, 2015). Chapter 11 elaborates on suicide prevention,
intervention, and postvention.
In summary, the need for school safety and mental health programs
is based upon:

• Unique opportunities for schools to address student mental health

challenges and foster readiness for learning
• Epidemic of suicidal intent and deaths of school-age youth
• Increasing awareness and threats of violence in schools
• Pressures for academic achievement contributing to student and
teacher anxiety, stress, and depression
• Increasing student diversity, the need for cultural responsiveness
and creating inclusive learning environments for all students
• Societal mistrust, inequities, and polarization of communities based
on race, ethnicity, faith, sexual orientation, and immigrant status,
emphasizing the need to recognize common values and aspirations,
and to appreciate diverse cultures

Broadening the role of schools as de facto mental health providers

requires more training for school-based mental health professionals.
16 Background
They are often expected to provide counseling and therapeutic support
for students, organizational development and team leadership, train-
ing and consultation for staff, and coordination with outside agencies.
Similarly, teachers and administrators are increasingly viewed as primary
change agents addressing student social and emotional needs.
Given these challenges and responsibilities, both early career and
experienced teachers and mental health providers need professional
development and systems of support. New and experienced adminis-
trators similarly need ongoing learning for innovative roles. The basic
needs for school safety and mental health must be addressed to create
effective, satisfying learning environments. The vital need for a process
advocating school safety and mental health is presented in the National
Association of School Psychologist’s NASP Policy Playbook for School Psy-
chology (2019) (www.nasponline.org/research-and-policy/advocacy/
policy-playbook).

Creating a Drive for Ongoing Program Development

Establishing multiple programs to achieve comprehensive school safety
and mental health is a major task requiring substantial planning and
development. What can inspire teachers, administrators, and school-
based mental health professionals to learn and use school safety and
mental health programs? They must believe these programs are needed,
will make their work more satisfying, and will produce improved aca-
demic and behavioral outcomes for students. Teachers must trust they
will gain the knowledge and skills to implement the programs through
effective professional development and that ongoing technical support
will continue to strengthen their skills and sustain programs they have
embraced (Mazzer & Rickwood, 2015).

Benefts of School Safety and Mental Health Programs

Major benefts of school safety and mental health programs include:

1. Promote prevention and early intervention.

2. Support learning and academic achievement.
3. Promote resilience and social-emotional competence.
4. Develop teacher knowledge, skills, and wellbeing.

Promote Prevention and Early Intervention

Compounding the problem of untreated mental illness, many economi-
cally and racially marginalized children lack access to community-based
mental health, instead relying on services at school (Bruhn, Woods-Groves,
 School Safety and Mental Health Programs 17
& Huddle, 2014). Schools are attempting to face this challenge, becoming
more proactive by training staff to identify mental health needs, rather
than assuming a reactive, “wait to fail” referral approach (McGrath,
2010). Schools can provide access to early intervention and health promo-
tion programs that prevent a pattern of mental illness from becoming
more pervasive and severe (Sawyer et al., 2012). It is estimated that nearly
70–80% of youth mental health services are provided in schools (Teich,
Robinson, & Weist, 2008).
Universal mental health screening can identify students at risk for
future diffculties (Eklund & Dowdy, 2014). Dowdy, Ritchey, and Kam-
phaus (2010) advocated the use of universal screening as a key step in
moving school-based psychological services from being only for students
at highest risk, to service delivery throughout the system, including early
intervention (Dowdy et al., 2010). Chapter 12 provides more about uni-
versal screening.

Support Learning and Academic Achievement

Research has demonstrated that students struggling with physical and
mental health related problems have lower academic achievement, atten-
dance, school engagement, and connectedness (Michael, Merlo, Basch,
Wentzel, & Wechsler, 2015). Conversely, physical and mental health
improve academic achievement (Bradley & Greene, 2013; Michael et
al., 2015). A positive school climate that supports school safety and stu-
dent mental health was found to signifcantly improve students’ social,
emotional, and academic functioning (Thapa, Cohen, Guffey, & Higgins-
D’Alessandro, 2013). Positive student–teacher relationships also appear
to enhance student engagement, behavior, and academic success (Pianta,
Hamre, & Allen, 2012).
Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS), a school-wide
approach for teaching expected behaviors, has been associated with
decreased discipline referrals, more time for learning, and improved aca-
demic outcomes (Sugai & Horner, 2006, 2009). Chapter 13 provides a
description of PBIS. Another school-wide program, highlighted in Chap-
ter 14, Social and Emotional Learning (SEL), emphasizes developing a
variety of social and emotional competencies that have been associated
with improvements in academic achievement (Durlak, Weissberg, Dym-
nicki, Taylor, & Schellinger, 2011; Taylor, Oberle, Durlak, & Weissberg,
2017).
Reupert (2019) discussed models and strategies that beneft the “whole
child,” ensuring the promotion of both academic development and men-
tal health and emphasizing the potential positive or negative impact of
everyday classroom practices and curriculum. Effective professional
development for teachers in recognized areas of social and emotional
need enhanced student learning and academic achievement.
18 Background
Promote Resilience and Social-Emotional Competence
Proactive mental health measures can foster student resilience when cop-
ing with crises such as a death in the family, bullying, and other situational
stressors. Social-emotional learning can support resilience by providing
educators and students with the language and permission to talk about
feelings and reactions. Teachers can model resilience. When educators
and parents care for themselves, they are better able to promote chil-
dren’s mental health and resilience.

Promoting resilience and preventing stress – tips for teachers

and parents:

• Be aware of children’s behaviors and emotions, help them fnd

enjoyable interests, encourage talking about problems and bouncing
back from failure to continue striving for goals
• Set realistic expectations, consistent with the child’s developmental
level, recognizing accomplishments with positive feedback and
encouraging self-effcacy
• Encourage but do not force the expression of emotions, modeling
the use of “I” statements of feelings when talking with children
• Teach children to problem solve – taking responsibility for solving
problems builds a sense of self-esteem and personal control
• Teach and model emotion regulation – learning how to use emo-
tions constructively enhances children’s response to stress
• Encourage children to develop a sense of belonging through healthy
relationships with family, faith, school, and friends that buffer against
stress
• Provide opportunities to engage in prosocial behaviors and construc-
tive activities that reinforce contributing to the community
• Encourage exercise, mindfulness, and artistic expression as a means
of stress release and relaxation
• Realize that children, often beginning in middle school, will be exposed
to tobacco, drugs, and alcohol, and must be taught that self-medicating
is a harmful way of coping with stress and does not solve problems
• Keep children’s schedules manageable between competitive and
cooperative activities, balancing regular routine with fexible adapta-
tion to change
• When a child makes a poor choice, listen uncritically, encourage
alternative behaviors, and use natural consequences rather than
punishment, whenever possible
• Seek professional help or advice when signs of stress do not diminish,
or if the child or adolescent has diffculty coping with emotional trauma
Adapted from Copeland (2004),
Whelley, Cash, and Bryson (2004)
 School Safety and Mental Health Programs 19
Note: Further helpful tips to promote resilience and stress reduction
are provided in Online Resource 3: Tips and strategies on topics of
interest to teachers, administrators, and parents/caregivers.
Social and emotional learning (SEL) is a school-wide approach that ori-
ents educators to support the social and emotional competence of all
students, including those experiencing emotional and educational chal-
lenges. It includes curricula, lessons, and strategies that help students
become:

1. More self-aware, including the ability to recognize their emotions

and strengths.
2. Better able to manage and control their impulses and stress, and
to set goals.
3. More socially aware, empathic, appreciative of diversity, and respect-
ful of others.
4. Better at relationship skills, such as communicating, socially engag-
ing, and building relationships and teamwork.
5. More responsible decision makers, including identifying, analyzing,
and solving problems, refecting, and taking responsibility.
Adapted from Collaborative for Academic
and Social Emotional Learning (2016)

Research on SEL program outcomes has demonstrated improved student

mental health, social-emotional skills, social behavior, attitudes, and aca-
demic achievement (Durlak et al., 2011; Taylor et al., 2017).

Develop Teacher Knowledge, Skills, and Wellbeing

Any discussion of school safety and mental health should include the
safety, mental health, and wellbeing of teachers. Teachers are often over-
worked, overstressed, and undercompensated. Teachers experiencing
high levels of stress are more likely to criticize students, lose their temper,
and use punitive discipline (Shernoff, Mehta, Atkins, Torf, & Spencer,
2011). Teacher burnout has been associated with increased student anti-
social and oppositional behaviors. Urban settings have been reported as
especially stressful and challenging for many teachers (Kokkinos, 2007).
Teachers need more time for planning, emotional support, and profes-
sional learning, and deserve more fnancial compensation. Meeting these
needs will likely improve the ability to attract and retain effective teachers
(Little, Guess, & McCane-Bowling, 2020; Wronowski, 2018).
Johnson and Kardos (2002) described schools as integrated professional
cultures that encourage supportive teacher collaboration. They explained
that the uncertainty of new teachers requires more than orientation
meetings, mentors, directions to the supply closet, and a copy of the
school discipline policy. New teachers need experienced colleagues who
20 Background
listen to them and take their daily dilemmas seriously. Experienced col-
leagues can observe their teaching and give constructive feedback, help
them develop instructional strategies, model effective teaching, and
share insights about student learning. Essentially, new teachers need on-
site professional development fostered by principals and teacher lead-
ers and guided by expert, responsive colleagues throughout their early
years. Principals can plan schedules that enable expert teachers to teach
model lessons or meet with new teachers one-on-one or in small groups.
New teachers in schools with integrated cultures were better able to serve
students and remained for longer tenures (Johnson & Kardos, 2002).
Nieto (2009) asserted that teachers need environments that promote
meaningful learning to remain enthusiastic and committed to their work.
She urged that teachers be given the opportunity to select professional
development topics and work collaboratively on strengthening programs.
Partnerships should be encouraged between districts and universities that
support research opportunities and long-term collaboration. She also
cited open climates that foster shared decision making, respect teacher
opinions, and encourage teachers to remain in the profession. See Chap-
ter 3 for discussion of professional learning communities and professional devel-
opment schools.
Nieto discussed three necessary actions teachers should take to thrive:

Action 1: Learning about themselves. Teachers learning more about

themselves can be more effective working with students who are
different from themselves (Gebhard, Austin, Nieto, & Willett,
2002).
Action 2: Learning about their students. Teachers need to be open
to learn about their students, go into their neighborhoods, and
meet their families. Knowing what happens in their students’
world is especially necessary for teachers who do not share those
realities.
Action 3: Developing allies. Nieto advises novice teachers to “make
a friend” because teaching can be a diffcult, lonely profession.
Collaborating with colleagues can help teachers remain commit-
ted and hopeful. Supportive dispositions include love of students
and subjects taught, view of self as life-long learner, commitment
to social justice, comfort with uncertainty, resilient patience, and
a sense of humor.

Teachers Affected by Student Trauma

Because many students have experienced some form of emotional
trauma, educators often fnd themselves taking the role of counsel-
ors, supporting not only academic growth but also emotional recovery.
This expanded role dictates a need to understand how student trauma
 School Safety and Mental Health Programs 21
affects teachers. Vicarious trauma can occur in which witnessing dev-
astation and hearing painful stories can have an emotional effect on
caregivers. Teachers, counselors, administrators, and other staff may
be aware of cumulative job stressors but not realize their symptoms
are a common reaction to working with traumatized children (Lander,
2019).
School leaders can build a culture of awareness by acknowledging that
teachers and support staff are vulnerable to vicarious trauma, and that they
are not alone. There are ways to appreciate staff publicly and privately,
not only by valuing their work, but also by acknowledging that their work
is hard. Schools should connect staff who may be experiencing vicari-
ous trauma with supportive resources and emphasize that there is no
stigma associated with getting help. Educator support groups facilitated
by school-based mental health professionals can also help prevent and
cope with trauma.
Cultivating Awareness and Resilience in Education (CARE) is a unique,
evidence-based program that helps teachers, administrators, and other
educators manage stress, support social and emotional learning, and
rediscover wellness and the joys of teaching (Schussler et al., 2018;
Schussler, Jennings, Sharp, & Frank, 2016). School leaders can also take
a school-wide approach, creating Trauma-Informed Schools (TIS) that inte-
grate trauma-informed practices into their teaching and culture, and
support students and community members affected by traumatic stress
(Lander, 2019).

Teacher Self-Care
Since educators working with students who have experienced trauma
are at risk for vicarious trauma, it is critical that they take care of
themselves.

Suggestions for teacher stress relief and trauma-informed systems:

• Embed vicarious trauma awareness in existing structures such as

mentoring, supervision, and ongoing professional development
• Use a multi-tiered support framework for staff, with tangible inter-
ventions for responding to teacher stress at universal, targeted, and
intensive levels
• Invest in “pinch hitters” – roving teachers with timely response to
support or stand in for teachers as needed
• Identify “buddy classes” – classrooms in proximity allowing teachers to
take over or look in on each other’s classes if one needs a brief break
• Encourage self-care with realistic workloads and effective time man-
agement, but also by creating a comfortable social, emotional, and
physical space
22 Background
• Create a sense of belonging for staff as well as students, caring for
each other and having fun together
• Collaborate with professional peers: collaboration is a source of
strength, while isolation can be a source of despair
• Engage in mindfulness or meditation (Emerson et al., 2017; Hwang,
Bartlett, Greben, & Hand, 2017; Klingbeil & Renshaw, 2018)
• Create a care plan individually and/or with systems of support,
including “partners” at work and at home
• Get good sleep, nutrition, and enjoyable exercise, and engage in
activities enjoyed with others
• Listen to music, read, or write for pleasure, or engage in creative
arts and crafts
Adapted from Sweeney and Caringi (2020)

Note: Further tips to promote educator wellness are provided in

Online Resource 3.
Ansley, Meyers, McPhee, and Varjas (2018) recognized that chronic
stress could impact teacher physical and mental health, adversely impact-
ing job performance. They emphasized active engagement and positive
student–teacher relationships, suggesting that school leaders cultivate sup-
portive working conditions that help reduce stress and increase job satisfac-
tion. Administrative and collegial supports include constructive feedback,
school-wide strategies to promote positive student–teacher interaction, and
a comprehensive plan for teacher self-care (Ansley et al., 2018).

Teachers Supporting Student Mental Health

Mental health literacy training such as Psychological First Aid (Brymer et al.,
2012) or Mental Health First Aid (2012) can help teachers to recognize
student emotional problems, support mental health, and make appropri-
ate referrals when necessary.
The Mental Health Technology Transfer Center (MHTTC, 2020)
identifed:

1. Educator roles supporting student mental health

• Build relationships with students
• Create safe, supportive, and welcoming classroom environments
• Promote positive behaviors and teach social-emotional skills
• Act as gatekeepers identifying students needing mental health
services
• Use classroom strategies to support students with mental health
concerns
• Collaborate with school and community mental health
professionals
 School Safety and Mental Health Programs 23
2. Challenges faced by educators supporting student mental health
• Lack of clarity about roles and responsibilities supporting mental
health
• Lack of time to collaborate with mental health professionals
• Lack of understanding confdentiality limits when communicat-
ing with mental health professionals
• Lack of relevant knowledge and training during pre-service
education and professional development
3. Mental health professional development needs cited by educators
• Recognizing mental health problems
• Providing classroom supports for students with mental health
problems
• Understanding school procedures and resources for student
mental health
• Making appropriate school and community referrals
• Implementing classroom interventions that promote mental
health
Adapted from Ekornes (2017), Mazzer and
Rickwood (2015)

The MHTTC (2020) addressed the concept of educator mental health

literacy – knowledge and beliefs that support achieving mental health,
reducing stigma attached to mental illness, increasing the effcacy of
help-seeking, and understanding mental health concerns and how to
address them (Jorm, 2012; Kutcher, Wei, & Coniglio, 2016). Training
such as Youth Mental Health First Aid (Kelly, Kitchener, & Jorm, 2017; Men-
tal Health First Aid, 2012, 2015) has been developed to enhance educator
mental health literacy, including online courses, websites, and workshops.
Resources and training can target interrelated components of educator
mental health literacy:

1. Mental health knowledge

• Signs and symptoms of mental health concerns
• Effective treatments for mental health concerns
2. Mental health promotion
• Promoting mental health school-wide, in the classroom, and in
the community
3. Providing support
• Identifying students needing support and linking them to appro-
priate services
• Supporting students with mental health problems at school
24 Background
4. Reducing stigma
• Improving attitudes about mental health and illness across stu-
dents, school staff, and families
• Providing support in ways that reduce stigma and increase
dialogue and help-seeking when needed
Adapted from the MHTTC (2020)

Developing Teacher Cultural Responsiveness

Schools can commit to a process of Culturally Responsive Teaching (CRT),
personal insights, and understanding diverse cultures and their history of
oppression and marginalization. Teaching can confront racism, remove
barriers to building mutually respectful, supportive student–teacher rela-
tionships, and recognize the value of students’ culture, community, and
experiences as foundations for learning. Issues of culturally competent
services, CRT, and social justice advocacy are elaborated in Chapter 5.

Developing Teacher Knowledge of Other Student Support Needs

There are many training topics about which teacher knowledge can be a
critical resource for student care. Provided on the Routledge website are
online supplemental resources, and specifcally Online Resource 3, that
include tips for promoting student mental health, promoting resilience
and stress reduction, helping support bereaved children and adolescents,
supporting teachers after the death of a staff member, and supporting
maltreated children.

Barriers to School Safety and Mental Health Programs

Many educators and citizens believe that schools are not meant to solve
societal problems. They argue that holding schools responsible for solv-
ing everything will burden them, defect from their “teaching” mission,
and not solve the problems. Instead, a concerted response is needed by
families, communities, and institutions of faith to marshal the resources
necessary to address mental health. While this position raises valid points
about the need for family, faith, and community resources, the daunting
challenges of supporting safety and mental health require that schools
and educators share a vital task that ultimately affects student learning.

Barriers to school safety and mental health programs and

training include:
1. Finding time and resources.
2. Incentivizing and funding programs.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
aged naturalist, who had withdrawn from civilization and the life of
white people to settle in one of the remotest recesses of the
Amazonian jungle. Whether he was related to him, Bomba did not
know and had never wondered. He would not have known the
meaning of relative. He only knew that he loved Casson and that
Casson loved him, although the latter seldom demonstrated any
affection in words, spending days at a time in moody abstraction.
The old man’s state had grown worse after a certain memorable day
when he had fired a gun at an anaconda which was threatening to
attack Bomba and the weapon had burst in his hands. The reptile
was wounded by the flying missiles and retreated, but Casson had
received a serious injury to his head. Bomba nursed him back to
some degree of physical health, but Casson from that time on was
half-demented, and the care of providing for the two had fallen on
the lad’s shoulders.
For such youthful shoulders it was a heavy burden, but it helped to
develop the lad into a wonder of strength and daring. Dangers of all
kinds surrounded him, wild beasts and reptiles with which the jungle
swarmed, and only quick wit and dauntless courage could preserve
his life. But necessity is a hard taskmaster, and under its spur
Bomba learned all the craft of the jungle. Keen of eye, swift of foot,
supple of muscle, and strong of heart, he matched himself against
his foes and so far had come out the victor. He was now about
fourteen years old, but few grown men had his strength and
resources.
Of the outside world he knew nothing. All his life was circumscribed
by the jungle. Casson had started to give him a smattering of
learning, but the explosion of the rifle had brought this to an abrupt
stop.
So Bomba roamed the jungle like a young faun at the beginning of
the world. His face was as bronzed as that of an Indian from
constant exposure to sun and storm. But there was undeniable proof
in his features, in his aquiline nose, his firm jaw, his brown hair and
eyes, that he was of white blood. He wore the native tunic, or
mendiyeh, and a puma skin was slung across his breast—that of
Geluk the puma that he had come across and killed when it was
trying to slay the friendly parrots, Kiki and Woowoo. Beneath his
bare arms and legs powerful muscles glided and rippled. Homemade
sandals encased his feet.
His weapons consisted of a bow and arrows, and he wore at his belt
a machete, or two-edged knife, fully a foot in length, a fearful blade
when it came to hand-to-hand fighting. In addition he had a five-
chambered revolver, the only firearm of which he was possessed,
and which had been given to him by two white rubber hunters after
he had rendered them a signal service.
Despite its perils, he loved the life of the jungle, and but for one thing
would have been reasonably happy. That thing was the
consciousness of his white blood. It tugged at his heart, and while it
gave him pride, it also tormented him. The call of the blood was
strong within him. He knew that, somehow, he was out of place.
Something was always calling him to go elsewhere, beckoning him
on to new horizons, telling him that he belonged to the white people.
He had a great yearning to know of his parentage. He had not the
slightest memory of his father or mother. Again and again he had
questioned Casson on this point, but the old man’s memory always
failed him at the very moment of revelation. In these efforts to recall
the past Casson had frequently muttered the words “Bartow” and
“Laura,” and Bomba had inferred that the names were those of his
father and mother. But the further knowledge he craved was denied
him.
How Bomba saved the camp of Gillis and Dorn, rubber hunters, from
a night attack by jaguars—how he trapped the deadly cooanaradi,
the most dreaded serpent of the South American wilds, when it
pursued him; his adventures with alligators and anacondas; the
besieging of his cabin by the headhunters; how his friends of the
forest came to his aid when he was fearfully beset; all this is narrated
in the first volumes of this series, entitled: “Bomba, the Jungle Boy;
or, The Old Naturalist’s Secret.”
Later on, Casson told Bomba that, though he himself could not
remember the facts about the lad’s parentage, the latter could get
that information from Jojasta, the medicine man of the Moving
Mountain. Bomba, therefore, after providing for Casson’s safety
while he should be gone, set out to see Jojasta. From the very outset
his path was beset with perils. Flood and earthquake, man and beast
sought his life. He was instrumental in delivering from the hands of
the savages a Mrs. Parkhurst and her son, Frank, and his
association with the two deepened his desire to know more of that
white civilization with which they were so familiar. He was hurled into
a subterranean cavern, escaped by a hair’s breadth and finally
reached Jojasta and the Moving Mountain.
There disappointment awaited him; but he was told that if he could
find Sobrinini, the witch who dwelt near the Giant Cataract, she
might give him the knowledge for which his soul longed.
Baffled for a time but not disheartened, Bomba resolved to search
out Sobrinini, though warned that great peril would attend the
attempt. How true that warning was he soon had reason to learn. He
fell into the power of Nascanora and was doomed by him to torture
and death. How his quick wit saved him; the terrible dangers to
which his indomitable spirit refused to yield, and which he finally
surmounted; how he found Sobrinini at last on her island of snakes
and brought her back with him, only to be tantalized with imperfect
revelations that made it still necessary to hunt out Japazy on Jaguar
Island is told in the preceding volume of this series, entitled, “Bomba,
the Jungle Boy, at the Giant Cataract; or, Chief Nascanora and His
Captives.”
And now to return to Bomba as he writhed and struggled to shake
himself free from that terrible grip on his throat!
He knew that he was fighting for his life.
What was it that had waited for him with the stealth of the panther to
leap upon him as he passed?
That one of the headhunters of the tribe of Nascanora had him in his
grip, Bomba knew at the first touch of those fingers of steel about his
throat.
Few could break the grip of the jungle Indian. Only those bred as
Bomba had been among the very wild beasts of that tangled region
could have hoped to free himself of that strangle hold.
With a tremendous heave of his powerful young shoulders Bomba
flung himself upon his back, the Indian half over him. With frantic
fingers the lad tore at that clutch about his throat.
Above, the thunder rumbled dourly. Dim flashes of sheet lightning
served to deepen by contrast the darkness that enveloped the
antagonists.
Strain as he would the lad could not force that hold to break. His
head was reeling, his brain confused and black spots danced before
his glazing eyes.
A flash of lightning brighter than the rest showed him the Indian, on
whose face was an expression of fiendish gloating.
That look was a spur to Bomba’s failing senses. He thought of
Casson, left defenseless with Bomba dead, and by a mighty effort
raised himself and drove his knee with all his strength into the flesh
beneath the ribs of his antagonist.
The blow was a surprise to the Indian, who counted his adversary as
already beaten. He grunted with dismay and pain. For the fraction of
an instant his grip relaxed, and in that instant Bomba had burst the
iron ring about his throat and was on his feet.
With a bellow of rage the savage also sprang upright, whipping out a
short knife from his belt.
But quick as he was, Bomba was quicker. He saw the gleam of the
Indian’s steel, drew his own machete and with one stroke sent his
enemy’s weapon whizzing off into the underbrush.
Like a panther, the Indian sprang upon the white boy, and before
Bomba could strike home with the machete had seized upon the
lad’s hand, striving to bend it backward and possess himself of the
machete.
But if the Indian was strong, so was Bomba. He was fighting for two
lives, his own and Casson’s, and, moreover, one of his fierce rages
was upon him; one of those wild bursts of fury that for the moment
gave him the strength of the jaguar, the wile of the fox, the quickness
of the snake.
Bomba was all these in one now, as he fought with the Indian,
straining backward and forward, resisting the pressure upon his knife
arm, striving with all the power in him to drive downward the shining
point of his machete, to sink it to the hilt in his enemy’s flesh.
For some minutes the fierce struggle went on. Then, with a sudden
twist, Bomba broke the Indian’s hold, leaped backward several feet,
and threw his machete.
It would have found its mark had not the savage fallen forward with
the sudden releasing of Bomba’s pressure. The knife grazed his
head. Thrown off his balance, the savage tried to recover himself.
But the slime of mud and leaves made treacherous footing and the
Indian plunged headlong.
Bomba was upon him with the swiftness of a jaguar!
 CHAPTER III
THE BLAZING CABIN

At such close quarters Bomba could not use his bow, and he dared
not fire the revolver lest it attract the attention of lurking foes.
Rising into the air, he came down with both feet on his enemy’s
head. Then he stamped the head into the mud and ooze till the
savage lay still.
Whether the man breathed or not, Bomba did not stop to inquire. It
was enough that he had been put out of action. The noise of the
struggle, muffled as it had been, might already be drawing others to
the scene. Bomba must act swiftly, if he were to leave the spot alive.
One of his precious minutes he gave to the search for his machete.
With its aid he might still win through to Casson at the hut of Pipina.
By a stroke of good fortune he found the weapon where it had stuck
in the trunk of a tree.
With a smothered cry of elation, Bomba leaped upon it and
wrenched it from its hold. Again and again that knife had saved his
life, and it might do it again before the night was over.
Bomba’s body was bruised, he was dead tired, but his spirit was
unhurt. The thirst of battle was still in him. His blood was hot with it.
Twice to-night he had outwitted his enemies. Nascanora and his half-
brother Tocarora would again realize that he, Bomba, was as
slippery as the cooanaradi and as deadly.
He wasted no time. He set his feet in the direction of the cabin of
Pipina, the squaw, and went stealthily yet swiftly through the jungle.
The storm had felled great trees across his path. Some of these he
climbed over, while he took the smaller ones with a leap. Where the
ground was impassable he swung himself along from creeper to
creeper and branch to branch. No inhabitant of the jungle save the
monkeys were as skilled in this method of progress as Bomba, and
he made his way with amazing celerity. Never had that
accomplishment stood him in better stead.
His eyes and ears were alert for the slightest sight or sound that
might forebode danger. But this did not prevent his mind from being
in a tumult of varied emotions.
His most anxious thought was of Casson, Casson alone in the jungle
hut save for Pipina. Again the headhunters sought the life of Casson.
Again was Bomba hunted like the veriest wild beast.
Bitterness welled up in the heart of the lad against these savages,
whom he had never injured except in self-defense. Why was he
doomed to spend his life among these people so alien to him?
Bomba was white. All his yearnings were toward those of his own
race.
Who were his parents? He thought of the picture of the beautiful
woman that had hung in the little back room of Sobrinini’s hut on the
island of snakes. That face had stirred his heart as no other had ever
done. Was the beautiful woman his mother?
Who was he? What had happened to his parents and why had he
become at so early an age the sole companion of old Cody Casson?
He reviewed the strange behavior of the half-mad old woman,
Sobrinini, she who had once been the operatic idol of Europe, she
who had had kings at her feet. Why had she not finished the story of
the man named Bartow, his wife, Laura, and the child they called
Bonny?
Sobrinini had called him, Bomba, by the name of Bartow. She had
thought in her poor twisted mind that Bomba was Bartow. Was it
possible that Bomba was the boy who had once been called Bonny?
Bomba heaved a heavy sigh. Questions, questions always, and no
answers. Cody Casson had the key to the mystery. But poor Casson
must first find the key to that closed door in his mind beyond which
he could not go.
His mind in a whirl of unrest and longing, Bomba at last reached the
river which he must cross to reach the hut of Pipina.
The storm had now entirely died away. Only the heavy dripping of
moisture from the foliage betrayed its recent passage. The jungle
was still again with an unearthly stillness. The slight swish made by
Bomba as he swung himself from branch to branch was the only
sound that broke the silence.
Suddenly he paused and hung motionless, arms and legs entwined
about a bunch of creepers. His quick ear had caught a sound other
than the dripping of water on the sodden earth.
It was a slight sound, but Bomba knew at once what had caused it. It
was the faint dip of paddles in the water. The Indians were traveling
upstream. The headhunters of Nascanora were on their way to the
hut of Pipina to spread terror and death. Fortunate if death were all!
Far worse would be the tortures of any captives who might be
carried off alive to make a holiday for the savages who had been left
at home and who would revel in the screams of their victims.
Bomba had been carrying his machete between his teeth. Now he
dropped lightly to the ground, and, with the double-edged knife held
firmly in his grasp, ran swiftly toward the river.
Upon the banks of the stream he paused, listening. Still the dip, dip
of paddles coming upstream. So faint and stealthy was the sound
that it would have been inaudible to most ears other than those of
Bomba.
The lad wasted not an instant, but slipped from the steep bank until
he was waist deep in the sluggish water. The dense foliage of the
jungle trees grew down to the very edge of the stream, flinging its
rank growth out over the water.
Bomba had a canoe of his own concealed in the bushes some
distance up the stream. Had there been time, he would have made
for that, for he well knew the danger of making the river crossing by
fording or swimming. The deadly alligator, or cayman, infested all the
waters of the jungle, and any daring person that ventured to cross
knew that he might pay for the venture with his life.
But time was everything to Bomba now. The headhunters were more
to be feared than the cayman. The former were awake. The latter
might be asleep. At all costs, he must make the venture. He must
make haste, if he were to save the life of Casson and that of Pipina.
Bomba had let himself go so gently into the water as scarcely to
make a ripple, and he moved on noiselessly, wading where he could,
but soon reaching the deeper channel where he had to swim. Then
most of the time he swam under water lest his presence be declared
to prying eyes. He was almost as much at home in the water as on
land, and only at long intervals had to come to the surface for air.
But swiftly as he swam, the Indians could paddle more swiftly. And a
terrible fear gripped the lad’s heart as the sound of the paddles grew
ever fainter in the distance.
They would reach the hut first. They would find it undefended and
might attack at once. The worst might have happened before Bomba
could reach the only place he called home.
What he would do when he got there he had not figured out. He
would act as the occasion suggested. He would be but one against
many; but he had been in that position more than once and yet won
the victory.
He swam on swiftly until he was arrested by a sight that brought a
growl of fury to his lips.
Turning a bend in the river, a light assailed Bomba’s eyes, a fearful
light, a light such as the native of the jungle dreads above all others.
It was a dull glow, brightening now and then to a vivid red as the
flames swept skyward.
Bomba groaned and his teeth gritted against each other as he
plunged madly forward. For he knew all too well what had caused
the glare. The hut of Pipina was ablaze!
This was the work of Nascanora’s bucks, their revenge upon a
broken, demented old man who had never harmed any one in his
life!
Was Casson in that blazing hut? Was poor Pipina, faithful friend,
caught in that flaming inferno?
Scarcely daring to put these questions to himself, Bomba swam
madly upstream, his one thought now of revenge. He was consumed
by rage. His one desire was to feel the throat of Nascanora beneath
his fingers.
The light was brighter now. The whole jungle was bathed in the
fiendish glow.
Bomba turned toward the bank, but paused abruptly and trod water.
Between him and the shore, blocking his path, was a monster
alligator!
 CHAPTER IV
TERRIBLE JAWS

At sight of the cayman, Bomba’s heart for a moment seemed to stop

beating.
A wild hope that perhaps the brute was asleep and would not
perceive his presence was quickly dispelled as the lad caught sight
of two fiery eyes fixed upon him. Then the huge mouth opened,
displaying the horrible array of teeth that, if they once closed on the
lad, would bite him in half as easily as a pair of shears would snip a
thread.
Despairingly, Bomba felt for his machete. He knew that it would avail
little except perhaps to wound. It would simply help him to die
fighting.
Then his heart leaped. His feet felt the river bed beneath them! He
had reached the shallower part of the stream! Now he would have a
footing, something that would give him a purchase and enable him to
use his bow and arrows.
Quick as lightning, he unslung the bow from his shoulder and drew
an arrow from its quiver. With one motion he fitted the arrow to the
string and let fly.
The light from the fire gave him what he needed for his aim, and the
arrow entered the eye of the monster and penetrated to the brain.
With a fearful bellow of rage and pain, the great brute leaped half out
of the water and fell back, only to churn the water into a seething
whirlpool. In its wild flounderings the end of its serrated tail caught
Bomba on one of his legs and threw him farther out into the stream.
Bomba did not mind the blow, so full of exultation was he at the
mortal wound he had inflicted on his enemy. But his elation changed
to fear when he saw the scaly back of another alligator breaking the
water. The brute had been attracted by the uproar created by its
stricken comrade and was coming swiftly.
Luckily, the bank was not far away, and, putting all his power into his
strokes, the boy swam as he had never swum before. He reached
the shore not a moment too soon, for the hideous jaws snapped
close behind him as he pulled himself up the bank.
The impulse was strong on Bomba to shoot another arrow at the
reptile and send it to join its companion. But arrows were precious
now, and all he had would perhaps be needed for human foes.
So he repressed the impulse and hurried along the bank until he had
come near the fringe of trees that bordered the clearing in which
stood the hut. He could not yet see the hut itself. But to reach it he
would have to make a dash across the clearing.
In the dark he could have eluded the eyes of his enemies, for no
snake could move more silently. But now the open space was
flooded with light. No figures were visible, but he knew that many
eyes were watching from the surrounding woods.
Still he must chance it. He had faced death too often to let it daunt
him now.
Summoning all his strength, he darted out into the open. His first few
bounds carried him fifty feet. Then he dropped to the ground as a
dozen arrows whizzed over his head.
It was upon this that Bomba had counted. He had timed his drop for
just the instant that would allow the startled savages to aim and let
fly.
He was up again on his feet, and before arrows could again be fitted
to strings had gained another fifty feet. Again he repeated his
stratagem, but this time not without scathe, for an arrow grazed his
ankle.
“The arrow may be poisoned,” he thought to himself, as he felt the
twinge of pain. “If it is, this is the end of Bomba.”
He reached the shelter of a tree and whirled behind it. On the side of
the clearing he had just left, one of the headhunters, keen after his
prey, had come from behind his shelter.
Like lightning, Bomba fitted an arrow to his string. There was a
twang, a hideous yell, and the savage threw up his hands and fell
headlong.
“There will be one less to fight Bomba,” muttered the lad. “They will
find that Bomba can shoot.”
If any had been inclined to follow the fallen Indian, they had
hesitated when they had seen him drop, and Bomba had a moment’s
breathing space. He flew from behind the tree and, availing himself
of what shelter he could find in his flight, came in sight of what had
been his home.
His heart sank within him. The cabin was a mass of flames. It was
impossible for life to be sustained in that furnace for a minute. If
Casson and Pipina had been trapped there, they were already far
beyond human help. They must be just what the hut itself would be
in a few minutes more, a heap of smoldering ashes.
For a moment Bomba forgot everything save the agony that clutched
at his heart. Then a sound brought him back to the danger that
menaced him personally.
Out from the shelter of the trees, crouched almost double, their
horrible faces illumined by the lurid light of the flames, came a
number of the headhunters.
They approached in a semicircle, cutting off Bomba’s retreat toward
the front and on either side. Back of him was the blazing hut, the
heat from which was already scorching his face and hands.
Bomba felt that he was trapped. His doom seemed sealed. He felt
for the handle of the machete at his belt. He grasped his bow. He
would not allow himself to be taken alive. Better instant death than
the tortures of Nascanora. And he vowed that he would take more
than one of his enemies with him.
He bent his bow, took quick aim and fired. A bronze-skinned buck
clapped a hand to his breast, gave a frightful howl, and fell writhing
in the dust.
But before Bomba could fit another arrow to his string there was a
concerted rush and a dozen hands reached out to seize him.
Bomba leaped back quickly and drew his machete. His eyes blazed,
his muscles tensed.
The Indians yelled and leaped forward.
Bang!
A sharp detonation clashed against their eardrums like a crash of
thunder. The force of the explosion shook the earth and flung the
natives to the ground.
Bomba found himself on his face, half-stunned, bewildered.
Mysterious missiles hurtled over his head, exploding in mid-air.
He raised himself cautiously to his knees and saw a sight that
brought hope to his heart.
The Indians were in full retreat, and as they fled they looked over
their shoulders at him fearfully, as though they blamed him for their
discomfiture.
Bomba well knew the mind of the Indian. The cause of the explosion
and the trembling of the earth were unknown to them. So they
reasoned that it must be a spell thrown over them by Bomba, friend
of the old witch doctor, Casson, to destroy them and save himself.
The Indians stopped in their mad flight at the edge of the jungle and
looked back. One of them, more daring than the rest, raised his bow
and took aim.
But before he could release the string one of the flying missiles
struck the would-be slayer, hurling him to the ground.
This was too much. The savages turned terror-stricken and fled from
that scene of mysterious death.
By this time Bomba had realized what must have caused the
explosion. Their little store of powder, so carefully guarded by
Casson and himself, had gone off when reached by the hot breath of
the fire. The flying missiles were the last of the cartridges belonging
to his revolver, that wonderful gift of Gillis and Dorn, the white rubber
hunters.
Bruised and shaken, Bomba staggered to his feet, hardly able to
believe his good fortune.
But as he turned back toward the cabin a great wave of desolation
flooded his heart.
There lay the cabin, now a heap of ashes. Were the ashes of
Casson and Pipina also there? Had those faithful ones come there to
their death?
With a sob Bomba threw himself on the ground and abandoned
himself to uncontrolled grief.
This, however, was of short duration. A wild rage welled up in his
heart, rage against the wicked Nascanora and his cruel tribe.
“They shall pay!” the lad cried, leaping to his feet. “For every drop of
Casson’s blood they shall pay! There will yet be wailing in the huts of
Nascanora. It is I, Bomba, who swear it!”
He paused, head upflung, listening.
What was that sound?
 CHAPTER V
HOW THE INDIANS CAME

Bomba strained his ears and again heard the thing that had startled
him. It was a faint cry, rising and falling like a wail somewhere in the
bushes.
“Help!” came the voice, eerie as that of a banshee in the darkness.
“Help, Bomba! Help!”
Into Bomba’s heart sprang a great joy. This was the voice of Pipina,
the squaw—the voice that he had never expected to hear again. And
where Pipina was, must be Casson!
He was off like a deer in the direction from which the cry had come.
“Bomba hears you,” he called softly. “Bomba is coming.”
“Help!” came the feeble voice again. “Pipina is caught and cannot
get loose. Come quickly.”
Bomba wondered why he did not hear Casson’s voice, if Casson still
lived. But he said nothing and hurried on, hacking a passage through
the undergrowth.
He came nearer and nearer to the wailing woman until, pushing
aside a tangle of vines, he saw her. The moon, following close on the
heels of the tropical storm, was now riding high in the heavens and
shedding a soft luster over the jungle. By its light, Bomba caught
sight of Pipina as she stood holding out helpless hands to him.
She had been caught in a thorn thicket that had cruelly scratched her
hands and arms as she had struggled to free herself. Her wrinkled
face was drawn with pain.
By the deft use of his machete Bomba cleared away the clutching
branches and released her. The old squaw staggered dizzily, and the
lad put this arms about her shoulders to support her.
“Casson!” muttered Bomba hoarsely. “Tell me, Pipina! Tell me quick!
Where is Casson?”
The old woman drooped her head and stood there like a bowed
statue of grief, but said nothing until Bomba, mad with anxiety, shook
her gently by the shoulders.
“Do you hear, Pipina? Where is the good white man, Cody Casson,
my friend?”
Then the old woman raised her hands above her head and gave
vent to a wailing, desolate cry.
“Pipina no can tell. Casson her friend, too, good friend. He is gone.”
Bomba’s face darkened and again his heart contracted under the
cold hand of anguish.
“Tell me, Pipina,” he commanded. “Where has he gone? What has
become of him?”
“We sit down and I will tell you,” returned the squaw. “Pipina weak,
sick—”
For answer, Bomba cleared a space and, taking the old woman,
placed her as comfortably as he could with her back resting against
a giant tree.
He sat down opposite her, his arms folded, his glance full upon her
face.
“Now, Pipina, tell Bomba all,” he urged.
The old woman looked about her and shuddered. She wrapped her
skinny arms about her as though they were a garment and had
power to ward off the chill of the night.
“Headhunters—they gone?” she asked fearfully.
“Gone,” said Bomba tersely. “Where is Casson?”
“Bomba make them go away all by himself,” continued the squaw
admiringly. “Bomba great man some day—”
Bomba bent toward her.
“Do not talk foolishly, Pipina. Bomba not care about himself. Pipina
tell about Casson.”
The old woman gave her wailing cry and rocked herself back and
forth drearily.
“We have bad time, Casson, Pipina,” she said. “We all alone in hut,
wishing Bomba come. Storm come, but not Bomba. Thunder like
roar of pumas, many pumas.”
“Bomba caught in storm,” explained the lad. “No could come till
storm stopped.”
“Pipina listen for sound of Bomba’s feet,” went on the squaw. “Pipina
afraid. She think danger near. Wish Bomba would come quick.”
She said this, leaning forward, in a quick, hissing whisper. Now she
relaxed against the tree and stared gloomily into the heavy shadows
of the jungle.
“Casson not too good,” she muttered. “Pipina worry about Casson.
Worry hard.”
“What was wrong with Casson?” cried Bomba, exasperated beyond
measure by the slowness with which Pipina got on with her story.
“He very sick,” returned the squaw. “He not right.” She touched her
forehead significantly. “He walk back and forth, back and forth, and
talk to himself. He say: ‘Laura, Laura, dear sweet Laura. Must tell
Bomba. Bartow and Laura and little boy—’”
Bomba caught the arm of the old woman in an eager grip.
“Go on,” he commended. “What else did Casson say? Tell Bomba.”
But Pipina shook her head.
“He not say more,” she said. “Only those words he say again and
again. Then he stop, listen at door of hut, listen and then walk up
and down, up and down.”
“Go on,” cried Bomba.
“Then we hear things. We think you come. We happy. We sing. We
dance. But no, Bomba not come. It is the headhunters that come to
try to kill Casson and Pipina—”
Bomba gave a low growl like that of an animal and ground his teeth
together.
“They come.” The voice of the old woman rose again in eerie wailing.
“Casson, Pipina, we close door, push bolt, as Bomba tell us. We
heap things against door. Casson he take down old gun, but it not
work. He put fire stick through hole in hut. He think frighten bucks of
Nascanora.”
Bomba groaned as he saw the picture of old Cody Casson, brave to
the last, defying death, his only weapon a “fire stick” that would not
work.
“It happen quick,” went on Pipina with a helpless shake of her head.
“One, two, three—like that,” with a snap of her bony fingers. “The
headhunters come. They have heads, fresh heads, women, children
heads, on string at waists. They want more heads, Casson’s head,
Pipina’s head. They beat on door. They say: ‘Open. No hurt.
Nascanora friend of Casson.’”
Again came that growl as of an angry jaguar from the clenched teeth
of Bomba.
“Forked tongues! Black hearts!” he snarled. The woman nodded.
“Casson no open door,” she resumed. “He know Nascanora. He say
things. Make big chief mad. He beat more hard on door. He shout:
‘Casson witch doctor. He put a spell on sick people of our tribe.
Nascanora burn Casson and hut of Casson with him.’”
A smoldering fire was in Bomba’s eyes that boded no good to the
chief of the headhunters.
“Then Nascanora bring fire to the hut of Pipina,” went on the squaw.
“His bucks come with heaps of vines and leaves. They wet and not
burn at first. But after they burn, burn hot, and the hut of Pipina begin
to burn too.”
“But you got away, Pipina!” burst in Bomba eagerly. “You got away
from the headhunters and the fire. That was good. But how did you
do it? Tell Bomba. Do not make much words.”
The old woman shrugged her shoulders and there was a touch of
pride in her tone as she replied:
“Beneath the hut of Pipina there is a hole, and this hole it lead under
the ground out into the jungle.”
Bomba stared at her.
“A hole!” he exclaimed. “A passage! Why you not tell Bomba?”
The squaw smiled inscrutably.
“None know but Pipina.”
Bomba was listening with the most intense interest and wonder.
“Go on,” he cried, as Pipina paused.
“Pipina take up board in floor of hut,” went on the old woman. “Then
get down and crawl through hole. Casson come too. Long time to
creep through hole. Then come to end. Out into jungle where wet
and cool.”
“Then Casson got out safely?” cried Bomba.
The squaw nodded, and Bomba gratefully took her old wrinkled hand
in his.
“Pipina has saved the life of Casson,” the lad said gravely. “For this
Bomba thanks Pipina. He will never forget.”
The old woman threw her hands above her head, rocking herself
back and forth.
“Ayah, ayah!” she wailed. “Pipina save the life of Casson, but she
lose him after. For when Pipina look around Casson is gone!”