The failure mechanisms that can occur in a component in service are discussed.

Component The mechanisms are categorized into three major classes: low-life failures,
lifing macroscopically non-localized damage accumulation, and macroscopically
localized damage accumulation. The methods used to avoid these failure
mechanisms are discussed in detail. The problem of fatigue life prediction is
highlighted and the 'traditional' initiation life calculation method is compared and
contrasted with fracture mechanics based methods. The importance of performing
full scale component tests for highly stressed gas turbine parts is highlighted, both
from the traditionallifing viewpoint and to validate fracture mechanics based
calculations. Finally, some examples are given of the comparison of fracture
mechanics fatigue life predictions with full scale component rig test results.
MST/520

A. C. Pickard © 1987 Rolls-Royce PLC. The author is with Rolls-Royce PLC, Derby.

validation of critical part lifetimes, it is clearly of

Introduction - the need for component commercial benefit to minimize the number of safe engine
lifing failures by ensuring that non-critical parts also meet
specified life targets.
Failure of a component in service is at best inconvenient; at
worst, it can be extremely hazardous to those in the
immediate vicinity. It is essential in these circumstances
that account should be taken of possible component failure
Failure mechanisms
mechanisms at the design stage.
For aeroengine components, it is required that a failure
mode and effect analysis (FMEA) be performed to assess Failure mechanisms can be divided into three general
the possible consequences of failure of an individual part, classes.
and of multiple failures, in service.! From this analysis, 1. Low-life failures, usually associated with the incorrect
components are categorized as 'critical' or 'non-critical' application of design codes or unexpected overloading of
depending upon the consequences of their failure. In these the component.
circumstances, the following definitions apply. 2. Macroscopically non-localized damage accumulation
'Safe' engine failure: a 'safe' engine failure is one in failure mechanisms; uniform creep, corrosion, or erosion of
which the only consequence on the aeroplane is partial or a component are good examples of this.
complete loss of thrust or power (and associated engine 3. Macroscopically localized damage accumulation
services) from one engine and should be regarded as a failure mechanisms; these are usually associated with the
minor effect. 2 nucleation and growth of cracks.
Minor effects: minor effects will not occur at a rate in For low-life failures, good design consists of avoiding the
excess of that defined as reasonably probable.3 following:
Reasonably probable: unlikely to occur often during the
(i) excessive elastic deflections, resulting in jamming or
operation of each aircraft of the type but which may occur
rubbing
several times during the total operational life of each
(ii) elastic instability - buckling
aircraft of the types in which the engine may be installed4
(iii) plastic instability - necking
(probability normally defined as in the range 10-3-10-5
(iv) gross plastic deformation - net section yielding
per aircraft flying hour).
(v) fast fracture by unstable crack propagation.
Components whose failure would result in a 'safe' engine
failure are normally classified as non-critical. Of these, the first four are relatively well understood and
Critical part: where the failure analysis shows that a part have been avoided successfully in recent years for most
must achieve and maintain a particularly high level of engineering structures (although there have been
integrity if hazardous effects are not to occur at a rate in exceptions). For gas turbines, overspeed requirements are
excess of extremely remote, then such a part shall be normally arranged to ensure that none of these low life
identified as a critical part.5 failure mechanisms is present. 8 Fast fracture resulting from
Hazardous effects: the following effects should be unstable crack growth, however, has been the cause of a
regarded as hazardous number of major structural failures outside the aeroengine
industry; fracture mechanics methods were originally
(A) significant non-containment of high energy debris
developed in response to this.
(B) an unacceptable concentration of toxic products
Macroscopically non-localized failure mechanisms are
being generated in air supplied to the aeroplane
usually avoided by applying time limits to the service use of
passenger or crew compartments
a component; the life limits are normally evaluated by
(C) significant thrust in the opposite direction to that
examining the response of the entire component or by
intended by the pilot, or complete inability to
statistical analysis of past experience. A good example here
shut the engine down.6
is creep growth of an uncooled turbine blade aerofoil,
Extremely remote: unlikely to occur when considering where 'failure' may consist of excessive growth and tip
the total operational life of a number of aircraft of the type rubbing. The prediction of the minimum life of a blade
in which the engine is installed, but nevertheless, has to be could be based at one extreme on a full-scale creep analysis
regarded as being possible 7 (probability normally defined of the blade using minimum creep properties, and at the
as in the range 10-7-10-9 per aircraft flying hour). other extreme on an examination of the scatter in growths
While from a safety point of view most of the of blades in engines and the application of statistics to
component lifing activity centres around the prediction and predict maximum growth at a particular life. An alternative
744 Pickard Component lifing

~- ----------~-~-(-----------
~--------~ 6~5 '1" l-------} roo

:i)0

------- I --------
L.OO

0'15--RJ
50'
0·915
";'E

~300

~
Schematic of axisymmetric circumferentially Ul200
notched specimen of high-temperature Ti alloy;
dimensions in mm
100

[a)
approach which is occasionally adopted is to monitor the 0
10 100 1000 '0000
growth of all blades in service and to replace those which 600
have grown by more than a prescribed amount in a given
life increment - effectively a retirement for cause approach. :i)0
Macroscopically non-localized damage accumulation
mechanisms are often microscopically localized; for
~400
instance, creep damage is frequently localized to grain :::E
boundaries, but there are usually sufficient grain Ill"
boundaries suitably oriented to the stress direction to ~300
c
ensure overall non-localized behaviour. 0
=t
Macroscopically localized failures are associated with ~200
"tV
the nucleation and growth of cracks, usually resulting z
from fatigue, creep, or environmental mechanisms or to' 100

their interaction. Occasionally, localized damage (b)

accumulation occurs from the start of service; a typical
example is the fatigue failure of a component which
contains a material inhomogeneity sufficiently severe to
behave as a crack from the start of cycling. More
frequently, however, this type of mechanism follows the
accumulation of some non-localized damage; fatigue failure
of a smooth, polished specimen is one such example, where
the accumulation of macroscopically non-localized slip
results in the formation of a number of incipient cracks,
one of which dominates in the subsequent failure. Life
prediction for macroscopically localized damage
accumulation mechanisms is usually accomplished either
by statistical analysis of past experience, including
specimen and full scale component rig test results, or, more
recently, by analysis of crack propagation behaviour using
fracture mechanics principles.
Fracture mechanics methods for fatigue life prediction
have become very important since it has been realized that
most, if not all, structural materials contain inhomo-
geneities which can act as fatigue crack nucleators. The
statistical nature of the distribution of inhomogeneities and
the relative stressed volumes of components and specimens
usually result in the risk of cracking from a large
inhomogeneity being considerably higher for a component
than for a specimen, highlighting the importance of
performing full scale component tests and incorporating
the results in life calculations.
Component life prediction
Avoidance of in-service failure by any of the three
mechanisms discussed above requires a sound knowledge
of the following.
1. The environment and loads to which the component
is subjected. This understanding is fundamental to the
design process.
2. The macroscopic response of the component to the
applied loads and environment - temperatures, stresses
and strains, corrosive/erosive conditions, etc. Accurate
techniques for predicting local temperatures and stresses
are essential here; finite element methods are generally
used, correlated with full scale instrumented component
test experience.
0
10 100 1000 10000
stress ruphxe life. h
a plain specimen; b circumferentially notched specimen
2 Typical stress rupture life data at 6000e for high-
temperature Ti alloy
3. The microscopic response of the material from which
the component is fabricated to the local temperature,
stress, and environment conditions. This requires a
thorough understanding of material behaviour and
applicable life prediction techniques.
The subsequent discussion addresses this last
requirement by examining the prediction of notched
feature creep life from plain specimen results, and by
comparing and contrasting various methods of component
fatigue life prediction; these are illustrations of component
lifing for macroscopically non-localized (prediction of creep
life) and localized damage (prediction of component fatigue
life) accumulation mechanisms, respectively. Both are
relevant to the prediction of critical part lifetimes.
Notched feature creep life prediction
A series of creep tests has been performed on axisymmetric
circumferentially notched specimens (the design of which
is illustrated in Fig. 1) manufactured from a high-
temperature titanium alloy. Testing was performed at
600°C, and a creep strain map was also produced for the
material by testing conventional plain creep specimens at
this temperature, at various initial stress levels, under
constant load conditions. In Figs. 2a and b are shown the
stress rupture lifetimes observed for the plain and notched
specimens, respectively, plotted on a net section axial stress
basis. Clearly, the use of the notched specimen net section
stress to predict the notched specimen lifetimes from the
plain specimen information is invalid.
A series of creep strain accumulation analyses has been
performed9 using the MARC finite element stress analysis
program 10 to investigate the elastic-plastic-creep response
of the notched specimen at various stress levels. Plain
specimen creep strain behaviour was input into the
analyses in the form of a 'hyperbolic law' fit,ll which was

Materials Science and Technology September 1987 Vol. 3

 Pickard Component lifing 745

filO
-----------
Rupture ductility

": 500

~
E .~
~4oo
~
§
13300
~
~ __ Typical circumferertially nolched specimen chta
Predicticn Prediction Prediction Prediction 200
Method 4
Prediction from plain specimen data, method 1 [elash: Von M ises stress I
Method 3 Method 2 Method 1
• Prediction, method 2 [plastic analysis I
-- Increasing refinement
100 • Prediction, method 3 [plastic + initial creep analysis I
Time __

3 Schematic of creep life prediction methods for high- o

10 100 1000 DO(()

temperature Ti alloy Stress rupture life. h

4 Correlation of notched and plain specimen lifetimes

observed to represent well the experimental data. The for high-temperature Ti alloy
conventional routines within MARC were used to control
plastic and creep behaviour (Von Mises yield criterion,
element stress analysis methods to assess creep life,
associative rule for inelastic incremental strain partition,
especially where the component geometry and boundary
and Von Mises effective stress in creep and plastic strain
conditions imposed are not as simple or symmetrical as in
accumulation calculations). As anticipated, the analyses
a notched specimen. The use of such methods to assess the
indicated significant yielding and creep strain accumulation
creep lifetimes of components, however, is clearly
at the notch root, resulting in redistribution of the stresses
generally dependent on an accurate knowledge of the
across the specimen net section. It was noted in particular
multiaxial elastic-plastic-creep behaviour of the material,
that the Von Mises stress distribution rapidly approached
together with some validation of the analysis methods
a uniform value across the specimen net section, and that
used. For critical parts, it is normally required that
this uniform value could be assessed from the results of an
analyses should be correlated with growth measurements
elastic analysis by calculating the average Von Mises stress
on rig tested or engine-run components where creep or
across the net section of the specimen. Furthermore, the
plastic deformation is anticipated.
average rate of creep strain accumulation in the notched
specimen, following the initial redistribution, could be
predicted simply from plain specimen results using this
uniform Von Mises stress. The creep rupture life of the
specimen could subsequently be calculated by invoking a
Component fatigue life prediction -
creep ductility exhaustion criterion.
traditional method
Four levels of complexity of analysis have been proposed
based on these results,9 as illustrated schematically in The fatigue process can conveniently be split into four
Fig. 3. stages, as illustrated in Fig. 5. An initial period of cycling is
1. At the most basic level, an elastic analysis of the spent nucleating a crack in the microstructure of the
notched specimen is performed, and an average Von Mises material. Subsequently, this crack grows; initially, while
stress across the· net section is calculated. The notched the crack is short compared to the microstructural unit
specimen creep life is then predicted directly by comparison dimensions, crack growth rates are observed to vary
with plain specimen data at this stress. significantly depending upon the microstructure through
2. At the next level of complexity, an elastic-plastic which the crack propagates. When there are sufficient
analysis of the notched specimen is performed, and the grains around the crack front to average out these
plastic strain accumulated at the notch root is subtracted microstructural variations in growth rate, the crack is
from the creep rupture ductility of the material. Creep termed long, and linear elastic fracture mechanics methods
strain is then assumed to accumulate at a rate set by the are frequently found to be capable of correlating crack
average Von Mises stress until this reduced ductility is growth behaviour. Finally, there is a rapid fracture phase
attained. where, when linear elastic fracture mechanics methods are
3. A further level of complexity may be introduced by valid, the stress intensity of the crack attains the fracture
performing an elastic-plastic-creep analysis for the initial toughness of the material.
creep redistribution only, and offsetting the creep rupture
ductility by the sum of the notch root plastic and creep
strains; the remaining creep life is predicted as in the
previous level by assuming that creep strain accumulates at
a rate set by the average Von Mises stress until this stage 4
reduced ductility is attained. This method is particularly Rapid
attractive where a full creep analysis would require Crock

excessive computational time.

4. At the most complex level, a full elastic-plastic-creep
t Stage 3
Growth
and
Fracture

analysis to ductility exhaustion at the notch root is Steady

Stage 2 Long
performed, and the life is calculated directly. Crack
Microstructure
The correlation of notched specimen creep lifetimes with Sensitive
Growth

plain specimen data obtained using the first three of these Stage 1
I Short
I Crack
analysis methods is shown in Fig. 4. Nucleation I Growth
From these results, there is some justification in the I
I
assumption that the Von Mises stress may be used as the
effective stress for multiaxial plastic and creep strain
accumulation calculations for this material. Perhaps more Life --.
importantly, it highlights the potential for using finite 5 Stages of fatigue crack nucleation and growth
746 Pickard Component lifing

Following the calculation of a predicted safe cyclic life

(PSCL) the traditional safe-life approach allows a fraction
t (usually!) of this life to be cleared into service.13 Then, at
I Number of certain specified intervals, samples are withdrawn from
I components
I Best component likely service and rig tested to confirm the life usage. Based on
to be selected for test the results of these tests, extension of the service life up to
"'- I
",I
~
/ the PSCL is allowed.14 A modification of this procedure
I'
1 ,

-
i'-.... •.......• 5% of components
exists, based on the observation that ex-service testing of a
limited sample of components as a means of monitoring
-,..
""-

£. 5 5-- service usage is statistically invalid.15 Here, the full PSCL

i
r -1: Life scatter factor ---..
+30" +30"
curve
is declared into service, and a life management plan is
Average predicted ••.....•••.•......
agreed which includes detailed inspection of ex-service
safe cyclic life (PSCL) -30-.x- -... Mean
curve curve components at a number of stages during service usage.
Number of cycles(N)-----+- The traditional safe-life approach to lifing of critical
parts in gas turbine engines has proved to be very
6 Log-normal Gaussian life distribution: traditional
successful over the years in preventing in-service failures.
fatigue life prediction method (average life is
Two major problems have arisen with the approach over
increased by developing PSCL to • -30". i.e. x '·7; if
all components could be used to their individual recent years, however. First, it has been realized that
lifetimes average life increase is x 2'5) most materials contain inhomogeneities. At low stress
levels, premature fatigue crack nucleation from these
inhomogeneities is relatively rare, and fatigue life
The traditional safe-life approach to fatigue life predictions based on tests on material without inhomo-
prediction for critical parts relies on consistency of geneities are valid. With the drive to use high-strength
manufacture of a component, both in terms of material materials at high stress levels it has been observed that
structure and surface finish, to exploit the nucleation phase material inhomogeneities can behave as fatigue crack
of the fatigue process. In its simplest form, the safe-life nucleators; severe fatigue life reductions compared to safe-
approach involves cyclic testing of a component or of a life predictions based on tests on material without
specimen cut from a component. If a single test result is inhomogeneities have been noted in these circumstances.
obtained, this is assumed to come from a sample in the top Second, the approach requires that all components are
5% of a log-normal Gaussian distribution of component withdrawn from service at a life consistent with that of a
fatigue lifetimes, and a life factor of 4 is applied to obtain 'minimum fatigue properties' part. In consequence, the
the minimum (- 3a) life, based on an assumed scatterband majority of components will be withdrawn with
width (- 3a to + 3a) of x 6 on life,12 as illustrated in- considerable safe life unused, because of the statistical
Fig. 6. If multiple specimens are tested, the statistical nature of fatigue, and material usage is poor.
factors applied are adjusted accordingly.12 The overall
scatterband of x 6 on life is confirmed by laboratory
specimen testing.
Component fatigue life prediction -
One complication that arises in the procedure is that
fracture mechanics methods
component tests are often performed with an overstress
factor compared to service stress levels. In these
circumstances, a standard stress-life curve slope is assumed The .realization that most structural materials contain
( x 4 on life = -;-1· 3 on stress) and confirmed by laboratory inhomogeneities which may act as cracks has over recent
specimen testing. 12 Flight cycling effects are normally years resulted in the adoption of a number of different
allowed for by breaking the flightplan stresses into cycles fracture mechanics based design and lifing philosophies.
using appropriate cycle counting methods (e.g. the These all attempt to avoid failures which occur by stable or
Rainflow method), converting all cycles to equivalent zero- unstable crack growth from inhomogeneities or stress
to-maximum cycles using an appropriate range-mean concentrators. In all cases, the feasibility of the fracture
diagram (e.g. a Goodman diagram), and summing damage mechanics approach depends upon a knowledge of the
using the stress-life curve (Fig. 6) and Miner's law to following.
obtain a cyclic exchange rate of equivalent major cycles per 1. The size of initial crack which has to be assumed to
flight. be present in the material.
A more major complication arises in the'definition of the 2. The stress field in the component and a set of
life end-point: of the two approaches which are currently suitable relationships for obtaining the crack growth
used, the 'life to a constant fraction of the failure life' characterization parameter from the stress field and
(typically ~ x failure life) method ensures that there is a crack geometry. Where linear elastic fracture mechanics
constant safety margin between the declared life and the correlations apply, a set of suitable stress intensity
life-to-failure of the component. The 'engineering crack' calibrations are required.
approach is based on the inspection of components during 3. The crack growth properties of the material from
rig test to identify the life to formation of an engineering which the component is manufactured.
crack, which is typically taken to be a surface semicircular A number of different approaches have been taken to the
crack 0·75 mm in length. An alternative approach to assessment of crack sizes in components; the following are
detecting this crack by inspection is to use striation three of the most common.
counting to extrapolate back from a larger crack detected 1. Proof testing, which is used to ensure that cracks
during rig testing. The main problem with the engineering above the critical size at proof test conditions are not
crack approach is the lack of a consistent safety margin; for present. In particular, cryogenic proof testing is
a high-strength, low-toughness material used at high stress, occasionally performed to reduce this critical crack size by
the critical crack size for fast fracture may be of the same exploiting the decrease in fracture toughness of some
order as, or smaller than, the engineering crack size. materials with temperature.
However, for many moderate strength and toughness 2. Non-destructive evaluation, where the most
materials, it is observed that the crack size at ~ x failure life significant parameter is the maximum size of crack which
is typically of the order of the engineering crack size, and can be missed on inspection. Investigations of the
the two approaches give equivalent safety margins. reliability of various non-destructive evaluation methods

Materials Science and Technology September 1987 Vol. 3

 Pickard Component lifing 747

-
&on

front face

m inclusion
h\i;:rj par ticle cia uds
a o light etching area final crack shape
b

a schematic of defect size, shape, and distribution; b scanning electron micrograph of crack area
7 Bore cracking from inclusion in Waspaloy turbine disc bore; ratio of predicted to actual life for crack
grovvth observed is 0-86 using compact tension specimen data and 1-07 using corner cracked
specimen data; dimensions in inches, 1in = 25·4 mm (After Ref. 16)

have revealed that the human operator is consistently the orientation 16 allows the results to be reduced to a common
weak link in the reliability chain. Thus, considerable growth curve. 17
emphasis is placed on the development of fully automated Where a fracture mechanics approach to life prediction
inspection systems which, although they may not currently is feasible, crack growth behaviour may be integrated using
have the sensitivity of a good human inspector, at least appropriate initial and final crack lengths and stress
have consistent reliability. intensity solutions to obtain a predicted propagation life.
3. Process capability: here, a process is introduced This operation may be performed manually,16 although for
during the manufacture of the material which limits the size complex geometries, stress fields, and material behaviour it
of inhomogeneity which can be present in or on the surface is usual to incorporate appropriate stress intensity
of the material. This limiting size can then be used in a solutions in a computer-base integration routine.
fracture mechanics calculation to predict the minimum life A number of examples have been presented in previous
of a component from inhomogeneity-induced cracking. If publications 16,18 of the validation of fatigue crack
the allowed maximum inhomogeneity size is small, it is propagation life predictions by tests on full-scale
possible that failure will occur preferentially by a components containing artificially - and. naturally -
conventional surface slip-induced initiation mechanism; induced cracks. As an illustration of these correlations, in
this has to be allowed for in the life prediction method. Fig. 7, taken from Ref. 16, the growth of a crack from a
Accurate stress field calculations are generally required non-metallic inclusion just below the surface of the bore of
for good fatigue life predictions; for components of a Waspaloy turbine disc is shown. The dimensions,
complex geometry and loading systems, this normally position, and shape of the inclusion are also given in the
requires the use of finite element stress analysis methods. figure, derived from incremental sectioning of the material
Where crack growth behaviour can be characterized using on either side of the crack. Crack growth from the
linear elastic fracture mechanics methods, generalized inclusion has been modelled by assuming that the inclusion
stress intensity solutions exist for cracks in complex cracks through to the bore surface on the first cycle, and
component geometries and stress fields. 16 Where that the crack adopts a semielliptical profile corresponding
significant material non-linearity occurs, other charac- to the maximum dimensions of the inclusion in the axial-
terization parameters have been proposed, but no radial plane. Subsequent crack growth has been modelled
generalized solutions are available for any of these using corner cracked and compact tension specimen data,
parameters. In practice, linear elastic fracture mechanics is and an allowance has been made for residual stresses in the
an extremely powerful tool for life and failure prediction, disc bore. The ratios of predicted to actual life obtained are
but it must be used with caution, in particular for low yield given in the figure caption, and reveal that the prediction
stress materials at high stresses, and at temperatures where using corner crack information is accurate to within 10% of
time-dependent effects are significant. the actual life.
The crack growth behaviour of many of the materials As a further illustration, in Fig. 8, also taken from
used in gas turbine engines, and in particular in critical Ref. 16, the behaviour of three naturally induced bore
parts in those engines, may in general be characterized surface cracks in a rig tested Ni-Cr-Fe superalloy disc is
adequately using linear elastic fracture mechanics methods shown. Fracture mechanics based fatigue crack growth
when the crack size is large compared to the material predictions are also shown; these have been correlated to
microstructure. When small crack effects are present, the .match the observed final crack lengths at the end of the
situation is not quite so clear, although it is possible that test, since these may generally be measured more
linear elastic correlations which use stress intensities which accurately than intermediate crack lengths. The final crack
reflect the anisotropy of the surrounding microstructure lengths correspond to the end of testing, not to the onset of
may be successful. Some correlations of nickel-base fast fracture. The agreement observed between predicted
superalloy single-crystal crack growth behaviour in and measured crack lengths is good, with most of the
different orientations of specimens suggest that the use of scatter in the measured lengths being a result of the optical
stress intensity solutions which model the crack plane monitoring technique used. Clearly, validation of fracture

Materials Science and TechnoloQY September 1987 Vol. 3

748 Pickard Component lifing

0-015

• Observation, crack 1 [12' from disc datum mcrk I

.~
I
• Observation, crack 2 [I.' from disc datum mark 1 I
0010 • Observation, crack 3 [31.0' from disc datum mark 1 I
____ Prediction. crack 1 • I
• I
---_ Prediction, cracks 2 and 3
/
/
. /
/
/

0-005 /
/.

//
". /

0-1 0-2 0-3 0-1. 0-5 0-6 0-7 0-8 0-9

N/Ntotal • cycles/cycles

8 Analysis of growth of three bore cracks in a

Ni-Cr-Fe superalloy disc; predictions based on crack 9 Life and replace (left-hand side) v. life and look
sizes at end of test (N/Ntotal = 1 )16 philosophies

mechanics life predictions by analysis of cracking in full behaviour of materials is-usually considerably smaller than
scale rig tested components is essential to the generation of that present in the nucleation and short crack growth
confidence in the analysis methods used. phases of fatigue. Thus, scatter allowances are usually
Although a number of different fracture mechanics based smaller than for the traditional approach. There is a
lifing philosophies have been proposed, these in general penalty to be paid for this, however; for current levels of
reduce to two main types, which may be termed 'life and reliable non-destructive inspection or material process
replace' and 'life and look'. The life and replace philosophy control capability, fracture mechanics calculated initial and
is in many ways similar to the traditional safe-life incremental lifetimes are frequently found to be
approach, in that a minimum life is calculated, and each unacceptably low at normal operating stress levels. Three
component is withdrawn from service and scrapped when approaches may be adopted to rectify this situation.
it achieves this life. The minimum life is now calculated by 1. Develop improved capability reliable non-destructive
evaluating the crack propagation life of the component for inspection or material process control techniques. Care has
various crack locations, with initial sizes based on the to be exercised with this approach, since linear elastic
maximum values likely to be present at the start of service, fracture mechanics lifing methods are currently applicable
assessed using the methods discussed above. The lowest life only to the prediction of long crack growth behaviour.
obtained is then divided by a safety factor to give the This places a lower limit of the microstructural unit size on
minimum life (PSCL). Clearly, if there is a risk of large the extent to which this approach can be followed. It also
inhomogeneities being present in the component, this can emphasizes the need in the long term to develop an
be taken into account in the assessment of the initial crack understanding of short crack growth behaviour and
size, and one of the major problems with the traditional appropriate life prediction methods.
safe-life approach is thus overcome. 2. Develop materials with improved long fatigue
The life and look philosophy has been developed in crack propagation behaviour.
recent years as an extension to the life and replace method, 3. Develop materials with reduced sensitivity to the
in an attempt to improve material usage. Both the 'life on presence of inhomogeneities. This method is only
condition' (UK) and 'retirement for cause' (USA) methods applicable to initial life fracture mechanics calculations,
fall into this category. As in the life and replace method, an and care has to be exercised to ensure that surface slip-
initial life is calculated based on the initial estimates of induced initiation mechanisms are allowed for in the lifing
maximum inhomogeneity size likely to be present. When procedure.
this life has been attained, each component is withdrawn
from service and inspected. Any components which are
found to contain cracks are then rejected. A life increment,
including safety factors, is then calculated for the remaining
Summary
components, based on an initial crack size equal to the
maximum which could be missed during inspection.
Following this incremental life, each part is inspected Three major classes of failure mechanism which can occur
again, and the entire process is repeated until every part is in components in service have been identified: low-life
found to be cracked; thus each part is used to its own failures, macroscopically non-localized damage accumula-
capability, rather than that of the worst in the set. In tion, and macroscopically localized damage accumulation.
practice, there are usually limits to the number of The requirement for all aeroengine components to be
inspections which can be allowed, because of surface assessed with respect to these failure mechanisms has been
damage during pre-inspection preparation, and the identified, although safety considerations impose this
incremental life is usually less than the initial release life, requirement only in the case of critical components. The
because of the requirement that the incremental life be methods used to assess and control creep and fatigue
based on in-service inspection sizes, which are usually lifetimes have been highlighted as examples of macro-
larger than process control or manufacturing inspection scopically non-localized and localized failure mechanisms,
sizes. Both of the above lifing philosophies are summarized respectively. For fatigue life prediction, the traditional safe-
in Fig. 9. life approach has been discussed in detail and has been
Fracture mechanics based lifing philosophies have an compared to fracture mechanics based lifing philosophies,
additional advantage over the traditional safe-life which have been divided into two main types: 'life and
approach; the scatter in the long crack propagation replace' and 'life and look'.

Materials Science and Technology September 1987 Vol. 3

 Pickard Component Iifing 749

7. 'British civil airworthiness requirements' (BCAR), Section Cl-

Acknowledgments
This paper is published by permission of Rolls-Royce PLC.
The author would like to thank Mr P. S. Webster for the
provision of the notched specimen creep test analysis
results.
References
I. 'British civil airworthiness requirements' (BCAR), Section C3-
2, Para. 1.2, Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), London, 1981.
2. 'British civil airworthiness requirements' (BCAR), Section C3-
2 Appendix, Para. 1.1.1, Civil Aviation Authority (CAA),
London, 1981.
3. 'British civil airworthiness requirements' (BCAR), Section C3-
2 Appendix, Para. 1.2, Civil Aviation Authority (CAA),
London, 1981.
4. 'British civil airworthiness requirements' (BCAR), Section Cl-
2, Para. 4.1.1, Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), London, 1981.
5. 'British civil airworthiness requirements' (BCAR), Section C 1-
2, Para. 1.10, Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), London, 1981.
6. 'British civil airworthiness requirements' (BCAR), Section C3-
2 Appendix, Para. 1.1.2, Civil Aviation Authority (CAA),
London, 1981. .
2, Para. 4.1.3, Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), London, 1981.
8. 'British civil airworthiness requirements' (BCAR), Section C3-
2, Para. 1.3, Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), London, 1981.
9. P. S. WEBSTER and A. C. PICKARD: J. Strain Anal. Eng. Des.,
1987, 22, (2).
10. MARC-CDC, developed by MARC Analysis Research
Corporation, Providence, RI, 1980 (Level 12), 1983 (Level Kl).
11. A. J. GIBSON: personal communication, Rolls-Royce PLC.
12. 'British civil airworthiness requirements' (BCAR), Section C3-
2 Appendix, Para. 1.3.1, Civil Aviation Authority (CAA),
London, 1981.
13. 'British civil airworthiness requirements' (BCAR), Section C3-
2 Appendix, Para. 1.5, Civil Aviation Authority (CAA),
London, 1981.
14. 'British civil airworthiness requirements' (BCAR), Section C3-
2 Appendix, Para. 1.6, Civil Aviation Authority (CAA),
London, 1981.
15. G. ASQUITH: personal communication, Rolls-Royce PLC.
16. A. C. PICKARD: 'The application of three-dimensional finite
element methods to fracture mechanics and fatigue life
prediction'; 1986, Warley, Engineering Materials Advisory
Service.
17. C. HOWLAND and c. w. BROWN: in 'Fatigue '84', (ed. C. 1.
Beevers), 1349; 1984, Warley, Engineering Materials Advisory
Service.
18. A. C. PICKARD, C. W. BROWN, and M. A. HICKS: in Int. Conf. on
'Advances in life prediction methods', (ed. D. A. Woodford
and 1. R. Whitehead), 173-178, 1983, Philadelphia, Pa,
American Society for Mechanical Engineers.

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