Lecture 3

Bio 103
Biology I
Lecture-1
Macromolecules
❖ Carbohydrate

❖ Lipid

❖ Proteins

❖ Nucleic Acid 2
Introduction / at a glance
Living
Systems

Carbon Organic Inorganic And the

containing! compounds compounds rest!

Assembling into Macromolecules

complex form

Carbohydrates

Lipids
Building Blocks of
living organism
Proteins

Nucleic Acids
 Terminologies / Definitions

❑ Organic compounds are those in which carbon atoms are covalently bonded
to each other (C-C) and to atoms of other elements, most commonly hydrogen,
oxygen, or nitrogen ( C-H, C-O, C-N) to form the backbone of the molecule.

❑ Inorganic compounds are typically compounds without carbon atoms. H2O,

O2, and NaCl are examples of inorganic compounds.
 Macromolecule
❑ Small molecules assemble in different orientation to make large molecules or
macromolecules.
Example: Glucose molecules assemble to make cellulose (a carbohydrate).

glucose glucose glucose glucose

cellulose

glucose glucose glucose glucose

❑ Monomers are small molecules or building blocks which may be joined
together in a repeating fashion to form more complex molecules called
polymers.

❑ A polymer may be a natural or synthetic macromolecule comprised of repeating

units of a smaller molecule (monomers).

glucose glucose glucose glucose

cellulose
glucose

glucose glucose glucose glucose

Monomer

Polymer
❑ Polymerization is the linking together of monomers to form polymers.

❑ A condensation reaction occurs via the loss of a small molecule, usually from
two different substances, resulting in the formation of a covalent bond.

Molecule A Molecule B

HO H HO H

H2O

Require the
HO H
input
of energy
Molecule C
❑ Hydrolysis, which is the reverse of condensation, breaks apart large organic
molecules into smaller ones.
❑ By breaking the bonds between monomers, Hydrolysis liberates the energy that
polymers contained during condensation; thus, some of the energy required to
polymerize is returned upon hydrolysis.
Molecule A

HO H

H2O

Liberation of
HO H HO H energy

Molecule B Molecule C

*Try to link up with the context of Metabolism that we’ve learned earlier…!!!
 Carbohydrates
Glucose

Building Blocks / monomers

Macromolecules

Proteins
Amino acids

Lipids
Fatty acid and
glycerol

Nucleic Acids
Nucleotides 9
CARBOHYDRATE
❑ Carbohydrates are most abundant energy containing bio-molecules on Earth and certain
carbohydrates are a dietary staple in most parts of the world. The basic building block is a
monosaccharide.

❑ Common symbol: (CH2O)n

❑ Most common is Glucose. In glucose, Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O) makes a molecule
of glucose in 1:2:1 ratio.

❑ Chemical formula: C6H12O6 or (CH2O)6

❑ Structural materials, storing and transporting energy.

❑ Three types: Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, and Polysaccharides.

1. Monosaccharide
Chemical Structure:
❑ Monosaccharides are ‘simple sugars’.
❑ Monosaccharides are the common base unit of all carbohydrate molecules
(‘Mono’ means ‘One’).
❑All common monosaccharides have names ending with the suffix ‘ose’.

❑ Characteristics:
❑ Soluble in water.
❑ Sweetness varies (with individual monosaccharide).
 Examples:
❑ Fructose ("Fruit Sugar")
❑ Main sources are many kinds of fruits, as well as honey.

❑ Glucose
❑ Glucose is the form of sugar that is used by the body for energy.

❑ Galactose
❑ Present in mammals' milk .
2. Disaccharide
❑ Chemical Structure:
Disaccharides consist of (exactly) TWO (2) monosaccharides joined together by
glycosidic linkage.
❑ Remember: "Di“ = "Two (2)"
❑ Characteristics:
➢ Soluble in water.
➢ Must be broken-down into monosaccharides before they can be absorbed into the
body.
Examples:

Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose) (Table Sugar)

Lactose (Glucose + Galactose) (Milk Sugar)

Maltose (Glucose + Glucose) (Barley/germinating seeds)

Sucrose

❑ Sucrose is a typical example of disaccharide and consists of the six-carbon sugars D-

glucose and D-fructose.

❑ Present in sugar cane, and in some other fruits and vegetables.

 Lactose

❑ Chemically, Lactose = Glucose + Galactose.

❑ Present in mammals' milk, hence associated with diary products.

Maltose
❑Chemically, one Maltose molecule consists of two Glucose molecules
attached together.

❑ Present in cereals (e.g., barley); also known as "Malt Sugar"

 Polysaccharide contain
Polysaccharide many sugar units

❑ Polysaccharides consist of repeating units (long chain) of monosaccharide joined

together by glycosidic linkages.

❑ Polysaccharides serve as either structural components (cellulose, chitin) or energy

storage (starch, glycogen) molecules.

Examples:
1. Starch (bread, potatoes)
2. Glycogen (stored in liver
and muscle)
3. Cellulose (lettuce, corn)
Storage polysaccharides

Starch

❑ Plants store glucose as the polysaccharide starch. The

cereal grains (wheat, rice, corn, oats, barley) as well as
tubers such as potatoes are rich in starch.

❑ Starch is a mixture of linear and branched polymer of

glucose.
Structural polysaccharides
Cellulose

 Cellulose is a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several

hundred to over ten thousand β(1→4) linked D-glucose units.

 Cellulose is the structural component of cell wall of green plants.

 Animal can not digest cellulose.

Chitin

• Chitin is a polysaccharide consisting of is a long-chain of glucose

derivative, N-acetylglucosamine.

• Chitin is the structural component of exoskeleton of crustaceans.

 Starch and
Cellulose Chitin
Glycogen
• Starch is • Different • Partly derived
energy bond formed from non-
storage than starch sugars
molecule in • Structural (nitrogen)
plants component in • Composes
• Glycogen is plants exoskeletons
energy • Cannot be of insects
storage digested by
molecule in animals
animals.
• Starch and
glycogen can
be digested 24
by animals.
Functions of Carbohydrates
❑ Providing energy and regulation.
❑ Sparing the use of proteins for energy.
❑ Preventing ketosis and breakdown of fatty acids.
❑ Used as biological recognition processes.
❑ Used in flavors and sweeteners.
❑ Dietary fiber, which is also a form of carbohydrate, is essential for the
elimination of waste materials and toxins from the body
LIPIDS
Lipids
❑ Composed of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O).

❑ Differ from carbohydrates: no specific ratio (C:H:O)

❑ Building blocks are fatty acids and glycerol.

❑ Energy storage molecules “stores the most energy” almost 2X of Carbohydrates

❑ Structurally heterogeneous, Not soluble in water but soluble in hydrophobic

solvents.

❑ Examples: Fats, Oils, Waxes, Phospholipids, Steroid hormones and Triglycerides.

❑ Fats

Fats are solid at ordinary temperatures. Generally, fats are produced by animals. In animals,
fats are stored in adipose cells. Fats are also important as cushions for body organs and as an
insulating layer beneath skin.

❑ Oils

Oils are liquid at ordinary temperatures. Generally, oils are produced by plants. Some common
vegetable oils are peanut, soybean, and corn oil.

❑ Waxes

Both plants and animals produce waxes. The waxy coating on some plants leaves is an
example of plant waxes. Beeswax is an example of a wax produced by an animal.
Phospholipids
❑ In Phospholipids are a variation of triacylglycerol
– One fatty acid is replaced with a phosphate group, which in turn is bound to additional
functional groups.
❑ Structurally and functionally, the important thing about phospholipids is that
– These molecules are simultaneously hydrophobic (at one end, the fatty acid end) and
hydrophilic (at the other end, the phosphate end). Hence, also known as Amphiphile.
Steroids
❑ All steroids possess a common ring structure.
❑ These ring structures vary by attached functional groups.
❑ Cholesterol is example of a steroid; cholesterol is a membrane component
❑ The common steroid structure is the basis of sterol hormones including the
human sex hormones (the estrogens and the androgens, including testosterone).
 Triglyceride
❑A triglyceride is an ester derived from glycerol and three fatty acids.

❑Triglycerides are the main constituents of body fat in humans and other vertebrates, as
well as vegetable fat.

H Structure of Triglycerides
O
Composed of
H-C----O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
1 glycerol and
O
H-C----O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 3 fatty acids.

O fatty acids
H-C----O C-CH -CH -CH -CH
2 2 2

glycerol
Synthesis of triglycerides

Glycerol Fatty acids Triglycerides.

Can be saturated
/unsaturated
Nutrition and Health

❑Most of the lipid found in food is in the form of triacylglycerols,

cholesterol and phospholipids.

❑A minimum amount of dietary fat is necessary to facilitate absorption of

fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) and carotenoids.

❑Essential Fatty Acids.

❑Trans Fat

34
Fat
❑ Is fat always bad for health?
Food for thoughts
❑ How can you differentiate good and bad fat?

❑ We might need only a tablespoon of fat/day to stay healthy.

❑ But the scenario is different in developed countries.
❑ Americans consume 100lb./year (reason of obesity and overweight).

❑ The total quantity of fat we eat may be of less importance to health than the kinds of
fats we eat.
❑ Fats with a certain arrangement of hydrogen atoms around the carbon chain are
called trans fats.
❑ Eating as little as 2 grams a day of hydrogenated vegetable oils increases a person’s
risk of atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries), heart attack, and diabetes.
❑ A small serving of French-fries made with hydrogenated vegetable oil contains about
5 grams of trans fats.

36
The fat guidelines
❑ Limit total fat intake to less than 25–35% of your total calories each day.

❑ Limit saturated fat intake to less than 7% of total daily calories.

❑ Limit trans fat intake to less than 1% of total daily calories.

❑ The remaining fat should come from sources of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats
such as nuts, seeds, fish and vegetable oils and

❑ Limit cholesterol intake to less than 300 mg per day.

37
PROTEINS
Proteins (Polypeptides)
➢ Of all biological molecules, proteins are the most versatile in both structure and
function.

➢Proteins play a central role in the structure and metabolism of all living organisms.

➢ Protein molecules have a huge variety of shapes and sizes. This versatility of form and
function is the key to the role of proteins in the cell.

zwitterion
 PROTEINS
❑ Protein contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur.
❑ Proteins are the polymers of amino acids (monomers) which are bonded together by peptide
bonds (polypeptides).
❑ There are thousands of different kinds of proteins are made from only twenty amino acids.
❑ There are 20 different kinds of amino acids
❑ Most diverse in both structure and function.

40

Monomer Polymer
Amino Acids
❑ Contains an amine group (NH3) (basic/positive).
❑ A carboxyl group (COOH) (acidic/negative).
❑ One or more atoms called an “R group”.
❑ All three groups are attached to the same carbon atom.
Amino Acids: Building Block of Proteins
❑ Amino acids are divided into two groups-
✓ Essential: must be supplied in the diet.
✓ Non-essential: not supplied in the diet.
❑ Amino acids are bonded together by peptide bonds to form protein.
Peptide Bonds
The bond that forms between two amino acids is called a peptide bond.
How amino acids form Protein
❑ Proteins form long chains of amino acids that are
joined together by peptide bonds.
❑ A reaction occurs between the amino group of
one amino acid and the carboxyl group of
another: a molecule of water is removed and the
two amino acids become joined by a peptide bond
to form a dipeptide.
Structure of proteins

All proteins are complex molecules and biochemists look

at their structure at four different levels:

1. Primary Structure
2. Secondary structure
3. Tertiary structure
4. Quaternary structure
Levels of protein structure
Protein stability

❑ Proteins are very sensitive to changes in temperature and undergoes change. The final
shape of proteins is maintained by relatively weak molecular interactions such as
hydrogen bonds that are easy to break.

❑ When a protein is heated, subjected to significant pH changes, or treated with certain

chemicals, its structure becomes disordered, the protein may change its shape or even
unfold. This process is called denaturation.

❑ Any chemical that affect the weak bonds tend to alter the overall structure and even a
slight change in protein shape can mean loss of function.
Main functions of proteins
❑ Protein's main function is to build, maintain and repair all our body tissues.
❑ Protein can also be used as energy source by body.

Biological functions of proteins

❑ Protein acts as storage material of food and energy.
❑ Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze biochemical reactions.
❑ Proteins are molecular instrument through which genetic information is
expressed.
❑ They act as antibodies to prevent disease.
❑ The milk proteins help the growth of infant mammals.
48
Nucleic Acid
Nucleic Acids

❑ The chemical link between generations.

❑ The source of genetic information in chromosomes.

❑ Dictate amino-acid sequence in proteins.

❑ Simple units called nucleotides, connected in long chains.

❑ Nucleic acids are composed of long chains of nucleotides linked by dehydration

synthesis.
 Nucleic Acids
Two types:
a. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA-double helix)
b. Ribonucleic acid (RNA-single strand)
Nucleotides have 3 parts:

Phosphate group (P)

Pentose sugar (5-carbon)

Nitrogenous bases:

Adenine (A); Thymine (T) DNA only

Uracil (U) RNA only

Cytosine (C), Guanine (G)

❑ The secondary structure is similar to the proteins.

❑ The concentration of adenine equals that of thymine.

❑ The concentration of guanine equals that of cytosine.

❑ Why?
 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
❑ DNA are the macromolecule that carries the genetic code, the information for making cells protein.
❑ Double-stranded .
❑ Most of the DNA in a eukaryotic cell is in the nucleus, much smaller amounts are present in the
mitochondria and chloroplasts.
❑ DNA molecules consist of billions of nucleotides per strand.
❑ DNA molecules are the permanent store for genetic information and last for many years.

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

▪ RNA molecules are much smaller than DNA molecules.
▪ RNA is always single stranded.
▪ RNA molecules consist of a few hundred nucleotides.
▪ There are three different forms of ribonucleic acid (RNA) in the cell:
1. Messenger RNA, 2. Ribosomal RNA and 3. Transfer RNA.
DNA: RNA:

A T A U

C G C G
How the bases pair occur?
❑ Thymine, cytosine and uracil belong to a group of
chemicals called pyrimidines and Adenine and
guanine are purines.
❑ Because of the shape of the two types of molecule,
each purine always bond with only one pyrimidine.
So, in DNA , Adenine always bonds with thymine
and cytosine with guanine.
❑ In RNA, cytosine bonds with guanine and adenine
bonds with uracil.
❑ The base pair are held together by hydrogen bonds;
there are two H-bonds between A and T (or U) and
three between C and G.
 How DNA stores the information?
❑ The DNA that makes up an individual gene contains the information needed to build a
particular protein. This information is, known as the genetic code, is held in the sequences of
bases.
❑ In DNA and mRNA, each group of three bases is a triplet code or codon which codes for a
particular amino acid.
❑ DNA contains the genetic codes to make mRNA and the mRNA in turn then contains the codes
for the primary sequence of amino acids to make proteins.

Genetic code Genetic code

Amino Acid
DNA strand mRNA strand
CGA
CGG
CGT
CGC
 DNA
Structural Name Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Medium of long-term storage and
Function transmission of genetic
information
Structure Typically, a double- stranded
molecule with a long chain of
nucleotides.
Bases / Sugars Long polymer with a deoxyribose
and phosphate backbone and four
different bases: adenine, guanine,
cytosine and thymine.
Base Pairing A-T (Adenine-Thymine),
G-C (Guanine-Cytosine)
RNA
Ribonucleic Acid
Transfer the genetic code needed
for the creation of proteins from
the nucleus to the ribosome.
Without RNA, proteins could never
be made.
A single-stranded molecule in most
of its biological roles and has a
shorter chain of nucleotides.
Shorter polymer with a ribose and
phosphate backbone and four
different bases: adenine, guanine,
cytosine, and uracil.
A-U (Adenine-Uracil),
G-C (Guanine-Cytosine)