Type of Memories

Basically two type of Memory are existing:-

1. Primary Memory:
Its includes ROM and RAM, is located close to CPU on motherboard , enable
CPU to fetch data very quickly so it does not need to wait

2. Secondary memory:-
It is located separate device like HD or SSD, which is connected directly with
the system or through N/W
Fetching of data is slower.
 Computer
Memory

Primary Secondary
Memory Memory

Magnetic Flash
RAM ROM HDD SSD CD
Tape Memory

SRAM DRAM PROM EPROM EEPROM

 Primary Memory
1.RAM
RAM- Random Access Memory
It is accessed randomly as required that is why its fast access memory but its volatile, as
power goes the system will loses the data
Its expensive.
Here we can read and write as well

Types of RAM:-
• DRAM:- Dynamic RAM
Its most common type of RAM used in the system
Before, we had DRAM with SDR, (Single DATA Rate) but now we have DRAM with DDR
(double Data Rate), with many versions of DDR that is DDR2, DDR3,DDR4 consists of
transistors and capacitors
• SRAM:- Static RAM
It is faster than DRAM because its contain around six transistors and capacitors in
each cell to fasten data access But as it contains expensive devices its very
expensive and bulkier.
SRAM doesn't need much energy for constant refreshing its data and maintaining
data integrity but as compare to the DRAM it needs more power to maintain
integrity
2.ROM :

• ROM reads only memory cannot write on it as RAM and it can be fetch
even after power cut directly by the CPU without help of drivers
• Usually it contains “ Boot Strap Code” which is basic set of instruction
needed to start operating system and peripheral device to make it ready
to use

Types of ROM :
1. PROM- Programmable Read Only Memory, It is made in a empty state ,
Later programmed and used and once programmed cannot be
overwritten.
2. EPROM- Erasable Programmable Read only Memory, data can be erased,
used UV lights and rebounded it.
3. EEPROM:- Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM, not strictly reads
only but write process is comparatively very slow so normally only
used to updated programmed code such as BIOS code
 Secondary Memory
• Computer memory that is non-volatile, persistent and not immediately
accessible by a computer or processor. It allows users to store data and
information that can be retrieved, transmitted, and used by apps and
services quickly and easily. Secondary storage is another name for
secondary memory
Uses of Secondary Memory:
1. Permanent storage: secondary memory that can keep data indefinitely
even if the power supply is turned off unlike Primary Memory.
2. Large storage – Secondary memory provides a significant amount of
storage space, allowing us to store large amounts of data such as films,
photographs, audio files, and other items permanently.
3. Portable – Some of the secondary devices can be removed. As a result,
one can store data and transfer them effortlessly from one device to
another.
Types of Secondary Memory:

1. Fixed Storage: A Fixed storage device in secondary memory is an

internal media device used to store data in a computer system. Fixed
storage is sometimes known as hard drives or the fixed disc drives. Fixed
storage does not preclude their removal from the computer system . Like
HDD
2. Removable Storage: Removable storage refers to an external media
device that is mainly used to store data on a computer system in
secondary memory. can be inserted or withdrawn from the computer as
needed , can transfer data from any computer to another one simply
using removable storage devices because they are portable.
Secondary Memory Devices :

1. Floppy Disc - A floppy disc refers to a magnetic disc housed in a square

plastic container. It is primarily used to store information and then
transfer it from one device to another. There are two sizes of floppy discs
(a) Size: 3.5 inches, 1.44 MB storage capacity (b) Size: 5.25 inches and 1.2
MB storage capacity. A computer must consist of a floppy disc drive for
using a floppy disc.
2. Compact Disc - A Compact Disc or the CD is a type of secondary
storage media that is widely utilized. Its surface is covered in tracks and
sectors. It is composed of polycarbonate plastic and has a round form.
CDs have a data storage capacity of up to 700 MB. It can be CD-R or CD-
RW
3. Hard Disk - Hard discs are storage devices designed to hold a lot of
information. Hard discs, often known as hard disc drives, are available in
a variety of storage capacities. (For example, 256 GB, 500 GB, 1 TB, and 2
TB).
4. Flash Drive – A flash drive or pen drive is available in a variety of
storage capacities, including 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 GB, and 1 TB. Data is
transferred and stored using a flash drive. To use a flash drive, it must be
plugged into a computer’s USB port. A flash drive is quite popular
nowadays because it is simple to use and small in size.
5. SD Card – A Secure Digital Card (SD Card) is commonly used to store data
in portable devices such as cell phones and cameras. It is available up to 64
GB. can access the data present in the SD card directly from the device by
connecting to a USB Port or can be read by card reader.
6. Digital Versatile Disc – DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disc. It
resembles a CD, but it has a larger storage capacity; up to 4.7 GB of data
can be stored. To use a DVD on a computer, a DVD-ROM drive is required
Three different kinds of DVDs available:
DVD-ROM or Digital Versatile Disc Read-Only Memory
DVD-R or Digital Versatile Disc Recordable
DVD-RW or Digital Versatile Disc RW (Rewritable and Erasable)
OUTPUT DEVICES
• An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment
which converts information into a human-understandable form .
• It takes data from the computer and translate it into a form suitable
for use of outside world.
Categories of Output Devices:
1. Monitors
2. Printers
3. Plotters
4. Screen image Projector
5. Voice response system
Output Device generate computer outputs
broadly of following two types:

1. Soft copy Output:

A soft copy Output is temporary in nature because it
does not appear on paper or any material user can carry.
Example , content displayed on terminal screen , words
spoken out by voice response system are soft copy Output.

2. Hard –copy Output:

A Hard-copy Output is permanent in nature because it
appear on paper or any material that user can carry .
Example , Output generated by printer , plotter are hard –
copy Output.
1. Monitor:
commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), is soft –copy Output and the main
output device of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are
arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the
number of pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
• Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
• Flat-Panel Display(LCD)

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller
the pixels, the better the image clarity or resolution.
There are some disadvantages of CRT −
• Large in Size
• High power consumption
Flat-Panel Display Monitor
The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced
volume, weight and power requirement in comparison to the CRT. Current
uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop
computer, and graphics display
CRT LCD
2. Printers:
Most popular hard –copy output devices used today.
There are two types of printers −
• Impact Printers
• Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers:
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon,
which is then pressed on the paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −
• Very low consumable costs
• Very noisy
• Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
• There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types −

• Character printers
• Line printers
Character Printers:
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types:
• Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)
• Daisy Wheel
Dot Matrix Printer:
One of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers
are popular because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each
character printed is in the form of pattern of dots. It has a print head
that move horizontally from left to right.
Daisy Wheel:
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like
petals of Daisy (flower) which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer.
These printers are generally used for word-processing in offices that
require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality.
Dot Matrix Daisy wheel
Line Printers:
• Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.
These are of two types −
• Drum Printer
• Chain Printer
Drum Printer
• This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The
surface of the drum is divided into a number of tracks.
• Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a paper width of
132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is
embossed on the track.
• Fixed Characters fonts i.e. cannot be changed depending on the
character imposed on the tracks.
Chain Printer
In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain
Printer. It consist of metallic chain on which all the characters of
character set are embossed. Font size can be changed.
Drum Printer Chain Printer
Non-impact Printers

Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon.

These printers print a complete page at a time, thus they are also called
as Page Printers.
These printers are of two types −
• Laser Printers
• Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers
• Faster than impact printers
• They are not noisy
• High quality
• Supports many fonts and different character size
Inkjet Printers
• Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively
new technology. They print characters by spraying small drops of ink
onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output with
presentable features
• They make less noise because no hammering is done
• these have many styles of printing modes available.
• Color printing is also possible.
Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers.
They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the characters
to be printed on a page.
It is faster then inkjet printer.
Inkjet printer Laser Printer
3. Plotters:

Many engineering design application like architectural plan of a

building, design of mechanical component of a aircraft or a car , etc.
often require high-quality , perfectly proportioned graphic output on
large sheets. Here such plotters are used where non of the above types
of printers works. Its ideal for architects , engineers, city planners etc.
Drum Plotter:
• In Drum Plotters, the pen moves in a single axis track and the paper
itself moves on a cylindrical drum to add the other axis or dimension.
• The size of the graph is therefore limited only by the width of the
drum and can be of any length
Flatbed Plotter:
• This is a plotter where the paper is fixed on a flat surface and pens are
moved to draw the image.
• This paper can use several different color pens to draw with.
• The size of the plot is limited only by the size of the plotter’s bed.
Inkjet plotter Flatbed plotter
Inkjet Plotter:
The inkjet plotter produces an image using spraying small droplets of ink
onto paper. Generally, the inkjet plotters use for large outputs, such as
advertising banners, graphic designing. Inkjet plotters are the most
popular plotter because it is generally available at a low cost. It has
more features the ability to print in color without any loss of quality.

4 . Screen image Projector

A projector or image projector is an optical device that projects an

image (or moving images) onto a surface, commonly a projection
screen. Most projectors create an image by shining a light through a
small transparent lens, but some newer types of projectors can project
the image directly, by using lasers. The most common type of projector
used today is called a video projector. Video projectors are digital
replacements for earlier types of projectors such as slide
projectors and overhead projectors. The newest types of projectors
are handheld projectors that use lasers or LEDs to project images.
Slide Projector handheld Projector

Laser Projector
5. Voice response system:

A voice response system (VRS) is a computer interface which responds

to voice commands, instead of responding to inputs from a mouse or
a keystroke. It is a type of speech synthesis where sentences are
organized by concatenating pre-recorded words saved in a database.
It is a type of speech synthesis where sentences are organized by
concatenating pre-recorded words saved in a database.
Some applications are presently available for VRS systems to operate
standard household activities, such as turning lights and fans on and
off
DATA ORGANIZATION
Data Organization is basically organizing the data in the best possible
way so, that fetching it , can be easy and faster.
That means arranging it in the most logical and orderly fashion.
Example : Data can be stored in excel sheets in blocks , tabular form
Data can also be stored in the form of hierarchy i.e. in
Pie charts , Graphs.
 Data should be “structured” i.e. formatted , sorted , Its tagged (with
proper headings ) rather than “unstructured”.
 Data is organized or stored in many forms may be in Tables ,files ,
then directories and then stored in a drive.
Files.

Directories

Drives.
 FILES
• Computer files is a computer resource for recording data in a
computer storage device , Identified by it’s file name.
• Files can be shared or transferred between computer and mobile
devices via removable media , network or internet.
• Different types of computer files are meant to store different kinds
of data . It can be a image file , video file , program files etc
Ex :
 .doc , .txt , .docx :- word related files or can sat text files.
 .cpp , .c , .java :- these are program files .
 .jpg , . Png , .jpeg :- these are all image files
 .html , .script , .xml :- these are few of the web page based files run
on the browser.
 Attributes of files :-

•Name : Each file carries its own name, can’t have two file with same in a
directory
•Identifier: Each file has its own extension, which identifies the type of file
•Location: where the file is stored in the file system
•Size: we mean the no. of bytes acquired by the file in the memory
•Protection: Each file contains its own set of permissions

Operation :-
•Create a file
•Open a file
•Read data from file
•Write data to file
•Delete a file
•Close a file
•Truncate / Compress a file
 DIRECTORIES
A Directory is the collection of the correlated files on the disk. In simple
words, a directory is like a container which contains related file and
folder.
Directory can contain another directory called as sub directory or child
directory.
A directory can be comprised of various files. With the help of the
directory, we can maintain the information related to the files.
Master File
Directory

Dir 1 Dir 2

Dir 3 Dir 4

F1 F2 F3 F4
Types of information which are stored in a directory :
1. Name: - Name is the name of the directory, which is visible to the
user.
2. Type: - Type of a directory means what type of directory is present
such as single-level directory, two-level directory, tree-structured
directory, and Acyclic graph directory.
3. Size: - Size means number of bytes in the file
4. Protection: - Protection means access control on the
read/write/delete/execute.

Operations on Directory :
1. Creating: - In this operation, a directory is created. The name of the
directory should be unique
2. Deleting: - If there is a file that we don’t need, then we can delete
that file from the directory. We can also remove the whole
directory only when it is empty
3. Searching: - Searching operation means, for a specific file or
another directory, we can search a directory.
4. List a directory: - In this operation, we can retrieve all the files list in
the directory. we can also retrieve the content of the directory
entry for every file present in the list
Types of Directory Structure :
There are various types of directory structure
1. Single-Level Directory: -
Single-Level Directory is the easiest directory structure. There is
only one directory in a single-level directory, and that directory is
called a root directory . the user cannot create the subdirectories.

Dir1 Dir 2 Dir 3 Dir 4 Dir5

f1 f2 f3 f4 f5

2. Two-Level Directory :
• In this, it is possible to create an individual directory for each of the
users. There is one master node in the two-level directory that include
an individual directory for every user.
• Without permission, no user can enter into the other user’s directory.
• In a two-level directory, searching is more effective because there is
only one user’s list, which is required to be traversed.
User 1 User 2 User 3

D5 D6
D1 D2 D3 D4

f3 f4 f5 f6
f1 f2

3. Tree-Structured Directory:-
A Tree-structured directory is another type of directory structure in
which the directory entry may be a sub-directory or a file.
• The tree-structured directory reduces the limitations of the two-
level directory. We can group the same type of files into one
directory.
• The system administrator only has full access to the root directory.
• In this, searching is quite effective and we use the current working
concept.
• In the tree-structure directory, the same files cannot exist in the
multiple directories, so sharing the files is the main problem in the
tree-structure directory.
User 1 User 2 User 3

D5 D6
D1 D2 D3 D4

f4 f1 f3
f2

D7 D8 D9 D10

f2 f2 f2
4. Acyclic-Graph Directory :-
• With the help of the acyclic-graph directory, we can provide the
sharing of files.
• In the acyclic-graph directory, more than one directory can
point to a similar file or subdirectory. We can share those files
among the two directory entries.
• In the acyclic-graph directory, because of different paths,
searching is easy.
User 1 User 2 User3

Dir1 Dir2 Dir3

f1 f2
 DRIVES

• A drive is a location that is capable of storing and reading

information that is not easily removed, like a disc.
• All drives store files used by your computer.
• When you save the document, it's saved to the hard drive or
other disk or drive.
The picture is an example of different drives listed in Microsoft
Windows My Computer
• drive A: is the floppy drive.
• C: is the primary hard drive
• D: and E: are partitions
• F: is the CD-ROM drive
Why would a drive not open?
1. New drive and has not yet been partitioned and formatted so
that it can be read by the operating system.
2. Drive has removable media that is not inserted. For example,
a floppy drive without a floppy disk inserted or a disc drive
without a disc inserted.
3. External drive that is not connected.
4. Drive is corrupt or has other problems.
 NUMBER SYSTEM
• Number systems are systems in computers that are used to
express numbers in various forms and are understood by
computers
• A number is a mathematical value used for counting and
measuring objects, and for performing arithmetic calculations.

Types of Number Systems:

• Binary number system (Base - 2)
• Octal number system (Base - 8)
• Decimal number system (Base - 10)
• Hexadecimal number system (Base - 16)
Binary Number System:
• The base 2 number system is also known as the Binary number
system wherein, only two binary digits exist, i.e., 0 and 1
• Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2).
Example 20 .
• Later positions in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2).
Example 2x where x represents the other place values but not 0

For example, 110101 is a binary number

Example:
Converting Binary number to decimal number:
100111 = (1 × 25) + (0 × 24) + (0 × 23) + (1 × 22) + (1 × 21) + (1 × 20)
= (1 × 32) + (0 × 16) + (0 × 8) + (1 × 4) + (1 × 2) + (1 × 1)
= 32 + 0 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 1
= 39
Converting Decimal number 13 to Binary number

13 ÷ 2 6 1 (LSB)

6÷2 3 0

3÷2 1 1

1÷2 0 1 (MSB)

So the binary number is 1101 for 13

Decimal number system (Base - 10)
• Decimal number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9.
• In decimal number system, the successive positions to the left of the
decimal point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands, and so on.

The weightage of each position can be represented as follows −

Example Decimal number 1234 has this kind of representation.

(1 x 1000)+ (2 x 100)+ (3 x 10)+ (4 x l)
(1 x 103)+ (2 x 102)+ (3 x 101)+ (4 x l00)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234
Octal number system (Base - 8):
• In the octal number system, the base is 8 and it uses numbers
from 0 to 7 to represent numbers
• Each position in a octal number represents a 0 power of the
base (8). Example 80 As position increases the power value i.e.,
0 for now keep on increasing till last position-1.

Example: Convert Octal number 2158 into decimal.

Solution:
2158 = 2 × 82 + 1 × 81 + 5 × 80
= 2 × 64 + 1 × 8 + 5 × 1
= 128 + 8 + 5
= 14110
Hexadecimal number system (Base - 16)
• Hexadecimal number system has 16 symbols – 0 to 9 and A to F
where A is equal to 10, B is equal to 11 and so on till F.
Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0, power of the
base (16 )increases the power value till last position-1.

Decimal equivalent of hexadecimal number 27FB16

27FB16 = 2×163 + 7×162 + 15×161 + 10×160
= 8192 + 1792 + 240 +10
= 1023410
Arithmetic Operations of Binary Numbers:
• In the Binary System, there are only two symbols or possible digit
values, i.e., 0 and 1
• You can add, subtract, multiply, and divide binary numbers using
various methods.
Binary additions
When we perform binary additions, there will have two outputs: Sum
(S) and Carry (C) .
There are four steps in binary addition

Binary Subtraction:
Binary subtraction is just as simple as addition subtraction of one bit
from another obey the following four basic rules.
Binary Multiplication
Binary multiplication is similar to decimal multiplication.
It is simpler than decimal multiplication because only 0s and 1s are
involved.
There are four rules of binary multiplication.
• Example for Binary addition:

Example for Binary subtraction:

Example for Binary multiplication: