Electric Vehicle Components and Charging Technologies: Design, Modeling, Simulation and Control (Transportation) Professor Sanjeev Singh

Electric Vehicle Components and
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IET TRANSPORTATION SERIES 39
Electric Vehicle
Components and
Charging Technologies
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Electric Vehicle
Components and
Charging Technologies
Design, modeling, simulation and control
Edited by
Sanjeev Singh, Sanjay Gairola and Sanjeet Dwivedi
The Institution of Engineering and Technology

Published by The Institution of Engineering and Technology, London, United Kingdom
The Institution of Engineering and Technology is registered as a Charity in England &
Wales (no. 211014) and Scotland (no. SC038698).
† The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2024
First published 2023
This publication is copyright under the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyright
Convention. All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research
or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any
form or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in
the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued
by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those
terms should be sent to the publisher at the undermentioned address:
The Institution of Engineering and Technology

Futures Place
Kings Way, Stevenage
Hertfordshire, SG1 2UA, United Kingdom
www.theiet.org
While the authors and publisher believe that the information and guidance given in this
work are correct, all parties must rely upon their own skill and judgement when making
use of them. Neither the authors nor publisher assumes any liability to anyone for any
loss or damage caused by any error or omission in the work, whether such an error or
omission is the result of negligence or any other cause. Any and all such liability is
disclaimed.
The moral rights of the authors to be identified as authors of this work have been
asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this product is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-83953-671-7 (hardback)

ISBN 978-1-83953-672-4 (PDF)
Typeset in India by MPS Limited

Printed in the UK by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Eastbourne
Cover image: Peter Dazeley/The Image Bank via Getty Images
Contents
About the editors xiii

Preface xv
1 Electric vehicles and its components 1

Sanjeet Dwivedi, Sanjay Gairola and Sanjeev Singh
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 History of EVs 2
1.3 Conventional vehicles and hybrid EVs 3
1.4 EV and major components 3
1.4.1 Drive motor 4
1.4.2 Battery 4
1.4.3 Battery charging circuit 4
1.4.4 Power electronic converters 4
1.4.5 Supercapacitors 4
1.4.6 Flywheels 4
1.4.7 Energy management system 5
1.4.8 Regenerative braking system 5
1.5 Economics and impact of EVs 5
1.6 Important aspects of EV technologies 5
1.6.1 Motor drive technology 5
1.6.2 Energy source technology 6
1.6.3 Battery charging technology 6
1.6.4 Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology 6
1.7 Main configurations of EVs 6
1.7.1 All EV (AEV) 6
1.7.2 Hybrid EV (HEV) 6
1.7.3 Plug-in hybrid EV (PHEV) 7
1.7.4 Gridable EV 7
1.7.5 Fuel cell EV 7
1.8 Summary 7
References 8
2 Electric vehicle fundamentals 9

Sanjay Gairola, Sanjeev Singh, Sanjeet Dwivedi and Rahul Dubey
2.1 Evolution of Electric Vehicles 9
2.2 General vehicle dynamics 11
vi Electric vehicle components and charging technologies
2.3 Economic and environmental impact of conventional vehicle

leading to selection of EV 13
2.3.1 Environmental impact that is handled by EVs 14
2.4 Types of EVs 14
2.4.1 BEVs 14
2.4.2 HEVs 16
2.4.3 PHEV 16
2.4.4 FCEV 16
2.5 Configurations of EVs 16
2.6 General EV setup 17
2.7 Energy sources 18
2.8 Electric motors 18
2.9 High-voltage system in EV 20
2.10 EV automakers legacy 20
2.11 Market and technology trends for EVs 21
2.11.1 Market and energy usage 21
2.11.2 Technology trends 23
2.12 Summary 26
References 28
3 Electric energy sources and storage device 31

R. Kalpana, Kenguru Manjunath, Vinod R. Chiliveri and R. Kiran
3.1 Introduction 31
3.1.1 Electric energy sources 31
3.1.2 Storage devices 32
3.2 Electric batteries 34
3.2.1 Preliminaries 35
3.2.2 Working of a cell 37
3.2.3 Different types of batteries 39
3.3 Fuel cell 45
3.3.1 Introduction 45
3.3.2 Working of fuel cell 46
3.3.3 Applications of fuel cell 49
3.4 Ultracapacitors 50
3.5 Fundamentals of electric battery 51
3.5.1 Battery cell structure 51
3.5.2 Battery parameters 52
3.6 Modeling of electric battery 55
3.6.1 Equivalent circuit model 56
3.7 Various electric battery technologies 59
3.8 Selection of electric battery 62
3.9 Battery management system 64
3.9.1 Cell balancing 64
3.9.2 Types of cell balancing techniques 64
3.10 Summary 68
References 70
Contents vii
4 Power electronic essentials in electric vehicle 73

Siddhant Gudhe and Sanjeev Singh
4.1 Power electronic circuits in electric vehicles 73
4.2 MCU 74
4.2.1 VSC 75
4.2.2 Condition monitoring and control of electric motor 76
4.2.3 Regenerative braking of traction motor 76
4.3 DC–DC converter 76
4.3.1 Multi-output DC–DC converter 76
4.3.2 Multi-source converter 77
4.4 BMS 78
4.4.1 Power factor correction (PFC) 78
4.4.2 Cell balancing system 79
4.5 Other applications 79
4.6 Summary 80
References 80
5 Design, modeling, simulation, and control of electric vehicle 83

Peng Guan
5.1 Introduction 83
5.2 EV modeling 84
5.3 Critical aspects of EV design 91
5.4 Tools and techniques for modeling and simulation of EVs 93
5.4.1 Aerodynamics 94
5.4.2 Finite element 95
5.4.3 MBD 97
5.4.4 EV control simulation and verification 97
5.5 EV motor control 98
5.5.1 Control modules 98
5.5.2 Classic motor control model 100
5.6 EV control optimization and condition monitoring 101
5.6.1 EV control optimization 101
5.6.2 EV condition monitoring 102
5.7 Summary 103
References 103
6 Design, modelling, simulation and control of electric machines and

drives used in electric vehicle 105
Faz Rahman
6.1 Introduction to motor drives for electric vehicles 105
6.2 Torque–speed capability requirements for EVs 105
6.3 The evolution of IPM machines for EV application 109
6.3.1 The IPM rotor 110
6.3.2 The fractional-slot concentrated winding (FSCW) stator
winding of the IPM machine 110
viii Electric vehicle components and charging technologies
6.3.3 IPM machine performance from FE analysis 112

6.3.4 Steady-state performance from measured stator parameters 113
6.4 The dynamic model and control of IPMSMs 117
6.4.1 dq Current controls below base speed and above with
field weakening 118
6.4.2 Power converters for EVs 119
6.4.3 Torque control 119
6.5 Optimum control trajectories 120
6.5.1 The condition for maximum torque per ampere (MTPA)
characteristic 120
6.5.2 Operation under current and voltage limits 122
6.5.3 The crossover speed wc 122
6.5.4 Operation with MTPA and field-weakening under
maximum current and voltage limits 124
6.5.5 The characteristic current and flux-weakening control
conditions 124
6.6 Selection of control modes 125
6.6.1 Operation with MTPA below base speed 125
6.6.2 Operation between base and crossover speeds 126
6.6.3 Operation with field-wakening above the crossover speed 126
6.6.4 MTPV trajectory control 127
6.7 Controller implementation issues 128
6.7.1 Voltage compensation for avoiding current controller
saturation 128
6.7.2 Prevention of controller saturation during field-weakening 129
6.8 Current controller gains for FOC IPMSM drives 131
6.9 Dynamic responses and trajectory following 133
6.10 Variation of machine parameters and impacts 137
6.11 Summary 138
References 140
7 Battery management system for electric vehicle 147

Khare Mangesh, Mandhana Abhishek, Gudhe Siddhant, Singh Sanjeev
and D Giribabu
7.1 Introduction 147
7.2 BMS overview 148
7.2.1 Common concepts in BMS 149
7.3 Measured parameters 151
7.3.1 Voltage, current, and temperature measurement 151
7.3.2 Gas sensors 153
7.3.3 Inferred parameters 153
7.4 BMS system architecture 157
7.4.1 Centralized architecture 157
7.4.2 Distributed architecture 157
7.4.3 Factors influencing choice of architecture 159
Contents ix
7.5 BMS functionalities 159

7.5.1 Protections 159
7.5.2 Cell balancing 160
7.5.3 Battery-inferred parameter estimation 162
7.6 BMS hardware 162
7.6.1 BMS hardware architecture 162
7.6.2 HW design considerations BMS performance parameters 170
7.6.3 BMS software 171
7.7 Future trends in BMS 179
7.7.1 Wireless BMS 179
7.7.2 Cloud-connected BMS 179
7.7.3 Switchable architecture 179
7.7.4 Battery swapping 179
7.8 Summary 180
References 181
8 Fault–tolerant operation of electric vehicles 183

Paramjeet Singh Jamwal, Vinay Kumar and Sanjeev Singh
8.2 Types of faults in a VSC and their detection 184
8.2.1 OC fault in VSC 184
8.2.2 SC fault in VSC 186
8.3 Identification of faulty phase in VSCs 187
8.4 Removal of fault in VSCs 188
8.4.1 Isolation of faulty phase switches of VSCs 188
8.4.2 Activation of additional phase switches of VSCs 188
8.5 Fault–tolerant VSC topologies for EVs 189
8.5.1 Two-level VSC topologies 189
8.5.2 Three-level VSC topologies 190
8.6 Results and discussion 190
8.7 Summary 196
References 198
9 Design, simulation, and control of battery charger for

electric vehicle 201
Anjanee Kumar Mishra and Ankit Kumar Singh
9.2 Classifications of chargers 202
9.3 Integrated charging system 204
9.4 Assessment of existing integrated charging circuits 208
9.5 Modified zeta-based integrated converter for battery charging 209
9.6 Working of integrated converter 209
9.6.1 PIC mode of operation 210
9.6.2 Charging through solar power 211
9.6.3 Driving mode of vehicle 211
x Electric vehicle components and charging technologies
9.6.4 Regenerative braking mode 212

9.7 Design of the battery-charging converter 212
9.7.1 Design of switching devices 213
9.7.2 Aspects of passive component selection 213
9.7.3 Size of capacitor (Cm) 215
9.7.4 Size of capacitor (Cb) 215
9.8 Control strategy 216
9.8.1 Control for the modes of propulsion and
regenerative braking 217
9.9 Result and analysis 218
9.10 Summary 222
References 224
10 Power quality control of battery charging system 229

Shailendra Kumar, Rheesabh Dwivedi, Sanjay Gairola
and Miloud Rezkallah
10.2 PQ control for battery charger 231
10.2.1 Passive methods 232
10.2.2 Active methods 233
10.2.3 PQ standards 234
10.3 Topologies for PQ control of battery charger 234
10.3.1 Uncontrolled rectifier topologies 234
10.3.2 Controlled rectifier topologies 236
10.3.3 Bidirectional converter topologies 236
10.3.4 BL converter topologies 239
10.3.5 Dual active bridge converter topology 245
10.4 Multi-pulse and multi-level topologies 248
10.4.1 Multi-pulse converters 248
10.4.2 Multi-level converters 256
10.4.3 Design of single-phase multilevel EV charger 260
10.4.4 Modeling, simulation, and performance of single-phase
multilevel EV charger 262
10.4.5 Operation of three-phase multilevel EV charger 263
10.4.6 Hardware parameter design 264
10.4.7 Performance simulation of three-phase multilevel
EV charger 264
10.5 Summary 266
References 267
11 Wireless power transfer for electric vehicle 269

Sumit Pramanick and Anandarup Das
11.1.1 Wired charging and its challenges 270
Contents xi
11.1.2 Potential gain with wireless charging 270

11.1.3 Challenges with WPT 270
11.1.4 Capacitive wireless charging 271
11.2 Inductive wireless power transfer 271
11.2.1 Modeling of coils 272
11.2.2 Compensation networks 277
11.2.3 Power transfer and efficiency 279
11.2.4 Converter control and MATLAB simulation of
IWPT system 283
11.3 Standards of wireless power charging 291
11.3.1 IEC standard 291
11.3.2 SAE J2954 standard 292
11.3.3 ISO 19363 standard 292
11.4 Summary 293
References 295
12 Grid integration of electric vehicles 297

Bindeshwar Singh, Pankaj Kumar Dubey, Varun Kumar
and Mukesh Kumar
12.1.1 Categorization of EVs 299
12.1.2 Charging station 300
12.1.3 Grid integration of EVs 303
12.2 Case study of analysis of EVs planning in 16 bus systems
for ZIP-LDMs 311
12.2.1 Mathematical modeling of EVs planning 311
12.3 Result and discussion 317
12.3.1 Equations relying on several objectives functions 317
12.4 Future aspects of grid integration EVs 325
12.4.1 EVs scenario in India 326
12.5 Summary 327
12.5.1 Conclusions 327
12.5.2 Future scope 328
References 330
13 Regulations and standards of electric vehicles 333

Rahul Arora, Paramjeet Singh Jamwal and Ujjwal K. Kalla
13.2 EV batteries standards 334
13.3 Grid interface standards 335
13.4 Charging standards 336
13.4.1 IEC standards 336
13.4.2 SAE standards 336
xii Electric vehicle components and charging technologies
13.5 Safety standards for charging infrastructure 337

13.6 International test standards for chargers 338
13.6.1 Standards and codes for connectors 339
13.6.2 Standards and codes for communications 340
13.7 Summary 340
References 342
Index 347
About the editors
Sanjeev Singh is a professor in the Electrical Engineering Department at Maulana

Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal, India. He has 23 years’ experience
in teaching and research. His research interests are focused on energy management,
renewable energy integration, electric vehicles, power electronics, and drives. He is
a senior member of the IEEE, fellow of Institution of Engineers (IE) India, The
Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers (IETE) India, and
System Society of India (SSI) and a life member of the Indian Society for Technical
Education (ISTE).
Sanjay Gairola is a professor in the Electrical Engineering Department at Govind

Ballabh Pant Institute of Engineering and Technology (GBPIET), Uttarakhand,
India. His fields of interest include power quality, power electronics, electric
machines, drives, electric vehicles, and renewable energy. He is a senior member of
the IEEE and a life member of the Indian Society for Technical Education
(ISTE), India.
Sanjeet Dwivedi is a senior technology leader at green hydrogen based Danish

MNC Everfuel A/S. Previously, he worked as a technology leader in Danfoss
Global R&D in Denmark. His research interests include control methods of PM
motors, induction motors, and synchronous reluctance motors, sensor-less control
of AC drives, energy efficient control of drive, and power quality. He is a senior
member of the IEEE and fellow of IET (UK).
This page intentionally left blank
Preface
The last decade of the 21st century has witnessed a profound shift in the way we
perceive and interact with transportation. Electric Vehicles (EVs), once considered
a niche concept, have now firmly established themselves as a transformative force
in the automotive industry. As we stand on the cusp of a greener and more sus-
tainable future, the need for a comprehensive understanding of the intricate com-
ponents and advanced charging technologies that power this electric revolution has
never been more critical.
“Electric Vehicles: Components and Charging Technologies” is an exploration
into the heart and soul of the EV revolution. This book is a result of an extensive
collaboration among experts and researchers who have dedicated their knowledge,
skills, and passion to decipher the intricate working of electric vehicles and the
infrastructure that supports them.
In this ever-evolving landscape, it is crucial for industry professionals, engi-
neers, students, and enthusiasts to grasp the fundamental building blocks of electric
vehicles. This book offers a comprehensive journey through the various compo-
nents that make up an electric vehicle, including the battery technology, electric
motors, power electronics, and control systems. Each chapter delves into the prin-
ciples and innovations behind these components, offering insights into the tech-
nological advancements that have made EVs not only viable but also superior in
many aspects to their internal combustion engine counterparts.
Moreover, we recognize the pivotal role that charging infrastructure plays in
the widespread adoption of electric vehicles. This book also extensively covers the
myriad charging technologies, from home charging solutions to fast chargers and
the emerging field of wireless charging. Understanding these technologies is
imperative to address the practical challenges of range anxiety and facilitate the
seamless integration of electric vehicles into our daily lives.
As we embark on this educational journey, our aim is to provide readers with
the knowledge and tools necessary to navigate the rapidly changing landscape of
electric vehicles. We hope to inspire innovation, foster sustainable transportation
solutions, and contribute to a cleaner, more environmentally responsible world.
This book is designed to serve as a valuable resource, providing both a solid
foundation for newcomers to the field and a wealth of insights for seasoned
professionals.
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to the authors and contributors
who have poured their expertise into this work, as well as the readers who are
joining us on this enlightening journey. It is our hope that “Electric Vehicles:
xvi Electric vehicle components and charging technologies
Components and Charging Technologies” will become an essential reference in the

ongoing electrification of the automotive industry, paving the way for a brighter,
more sustainable future.
Let us embark on this enlightening journey into the world of electric vehicles,
with the belief that by understanding their components and charging technologies,
we can contribute to a cleaner, more sustainable world for generations to come.
Last but not the least, we are grateful to our colleagues around the world for
their hard work in writing the chapters and for going through many stages of
checking the final versions of their chapters and for their perseverance through
these processes. The team at the IET, authors and editors have done a tremendous
job in keeping the authors meet certain deadlines and in proofreading the chapters
thoroughly. We would also like to thank our respective families (Mrs Pravina
Singh, Mrs Poonam Gairola and Mrs Alka Dwivedi) for their patience and support
throughout our involvement with the book over the past three years.
Editors
Sanjeev Singh, Bhopal India

Sanjay Gairola, Paudi, India
Sanjeet Dwivedi, Graasten, Denmark
Chapter 1
Electric vehicles and its components
Sanjeet Dwivedi1, Sanjay Gairola2 and Sanjeev Singh3
1.1 Introduction
After the revolution in the field of communication through smartphones and newer
generation of mobile communication technology in last decade, the research around the
globe is focused on the improvement and commercialization of the latest technologies
along with a new mode of transportation, i.e., electric vehicles. Although the mobile
communication technology has improved as an extension of previous technology, the
electric vehicle (EV)-based transportation is entirely a new market. Suddenly everyone
has started talking about EVs and the din of EVs is fast reaching its crescendo. With the
success of electric cars from TESLA, the initial skepticism has started fading, leading to
sure-footed march towards routing of the transportation system that is based on petro-
leum fuel employing an internal combustion engine (ICE). Hyundai, Chevrolet,
Volkswagen, Nissan, Toyota, BMW, Mitsubishi, GM, and Audi along with Tesla are
some car manufacturers who are already competing to improve these vehicles.
In fact, EVs are not a recent occurrence as the first EV was developed before the
ICE that came into the picture in 1885 [1–5]. However, the last century witnessed the
dominance and maturity of ICE-based vehicles due to the availability of crude oil in
abundance, lower cost, efficacy, and reliability of the technology. The major electric
transport that was surviving is one that used rails or ropes/belts such as electric trains,
elevators lifts, and ropeways. With time, the depletion of petroleum fuel started while
electrical and electronics for power control algorithms improved drastically and so the
ICE-based vehicles started losing attraction. Moreover, the pollution due to fossil fuel
has increased to levels dangerous for human life itself and, therefore, the committees
dealing with environmental concerns are regularly demanding to check the use.
The need for EVs was worldwide felt in 1970s when the demand for gasoline
went up and prices also started soaring high. The fear of fast depletion of crude oil
fueled the thought and, since 1990s, serious efforts have been made by researchers,
scientists, industrialists, and governments. The protocols for EVs were discussed in
1
Technology Management, Everfuel A/S, Denmark
2
Department of Electrical Engineering, Govind Ballabh Pant Institute of Engineering & Technology, India
3
Electrical Engineering Department, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology (MANIT) Bhopal,
India
2 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies
Pollution from vehicles Accidents on roads Traffic congestion and

management
Figure 1.1 Problems with vehicles
different platforms and strategies for safety, reliability, and cost were analyzed. The
motivation for EVs is such that the industrialists are focusing on grabbing this
opportunity in every domain of transportation through the adoption of smart tech-
nologies and the manufacturing revolution. The competition to claim the future
market of electric one/two-wheelers, three-wheelers, cars, trucks, buses, airplanes
(small and big), and ships has reached a level where the companies have already
chalked out long-term design, testing, and manufacturing plans.
It is the right time not only for the researchers to look deeper into the techno-
logical aspects of pure EVs but also for the engineering students who are having
some interest in this field. The knowledge of power electronics, motor drives, bat-
teries, fast charging circuits, microcontrollers, programming, optimization, and con-
trol are desired along with mechanical and managerial aspects to prosper by working
in this sector. The pollution, accidents, and traffic congestion on roads are the pro-
blems with the vehicles as shown in Figure 1.1 which need resolution for the safety
and healthy life of any society that can be done through smart EVs and management.
1.2 History of EVs
The first EV was a small toy car that employed a primitive electric motor, built in
1828 by a Hungarian named Anyos Jedlik [1]. After that, some better working
models of electric car, driven mainly by primary cells, was built in Scotland,
Vermont (USA) and Netherlands by individuals. Gaston Plante invented recharge-
able lead–acid battery in 1859, making EVs viable for commercial purposes. The
first electric car production was started in London by inventor Thomas Parker in
1884. In Germany, first electric car was made by Andreas Flocken in 1888. In the
United States, William Morrison built the first car in 1891 that was powered by lead–
acid storage cells, having steering and a top speed of 20 miles/h [5].
EVs powered by lead–acid cells became popular in the late 1890s and early
1900s. Some of the popular names associated with EVs during this period are Karl
Benz of Germany, Walter Bersey of Britain, Dr Ferdinand Porsche of Austria,
Walter Baker of Ohio, and many more.
The decline in the popularity of EVs started by the 1920s when the discovery of
large petroleum reserves all over the world led to the availability of cheap gasoline.
This led to the acceptance of ICE for vehicles. In the year 1912, the electric starter
Electric vehicles and its components 3
was invented by Charles Kettering to eliminate the difficult hand crank needed for
cars with ICE. Moreover, the mass production of ICE cars was started by Henry Ford
in 1913, making them much cheaper than EVs which was another major blow to
EVs. By the end of 1935, almost all EVs had disappeared from roads [1].
1.3 Conventional vehicles and hybrid EVs
The ICE is considered conventional while EVs are modern vehicles as per the new
needs of society. The transition from conventional to EV is happening through a middle
path chosen by a number of vehicle manufacturers like Hyundai, Honda, etc. The phi-
losophy for hybrid vehicles is to take benefit of both modes, reducing the weaknesses
existing in electrical vehicle technology. The main drawback is the capacity of battery
and its charging time and the related infrastructure. EVs are much expensive than their
gasoline counterparts, and that is the main barrier for its adoption as pure EVs at present.
The economics of these vehicles have forced the car manufacturer to adopt the hybrid
approach. The day cost of gasoline reaches sufficiently high and the cost of battery and
its charging cost reduce sufficiently low that the pure EVs shall dominate the vehicle
market. At present, the hybrid EV is the preferred choice.
The four types of hybrid vehicles are possible—series hybrid, parallel hybrid,
series–parallel, and complex hybrid.
1.4 EV and major components

A pure EV essentially has a motor, a battery, and power electronic circuitry for
efficient control. An electric motor is used for propulsion that receives power from
an onboard source of electricity which is a rechargeable battery or fuel cell [2]. The
increase of efficiency in some EVs is done by additionally employing ultra-
capacitors or flywheels. It may or may not have the gear mechanism in it for power
transmission. Even differential axles may also be absent in some designs. The
layout of a typical EV is shown in Figure 1.2 with its components.
Important components of the EV and their basic functions are discussed below.
Accelerator
Braking controller pedal
Motor
controller
Wheel speed
sensor
Differential Reducer Drive
motor
Battery
Figure 1.2 Layout of an EV

1.4.1 Drive motor

The drive motor employed for an EV may be any motor among induction motor,
permanent magnet brushless (PMBL) motor, switched reluctance motor (SRM),
synchronous reluctance motor (SyRM), and other axial flux and magnet less
motors. The motor to be employed must have high efficiency and power density;
therefore, brushless motors employing rare earth material-based permanent mag-
nets like NdFeB are used.
1.4.2 Battery
The popular types of the batteries in the market are Lead–acid battery, Ni–Cd
battery, Li–ion battery, metal–air batteries, etc. The desired features of a battery
are low cost, high specific energy, pollution free without carbon footprints, low
specific weight, easy constituent chemical availability in abundance, fast char-
ging, and long life. The researchers are trying a number of alternatives and the
features determining acceptance of a battery are compared with the corre-
sponding characteristics of ICE fuel for it to be acceptable. It seems at present
the Li–ion batteries are the most preferred source for electric cars. It is desired
that the battery should be able to power an EV for about 620 km continuously on
one charge; however, at present, this is a distant reality.
1.4.3 Battery charging circuit

Charging of vehicle battery should be possible at home during the night; however,
charging stations are needed during long-distance drives. Alternatively, the power
source for charging the battery may be PV supply or wind power. Some wireless
battery charging techniques are also proposed by the researchers through which
batteries can be charged on roads at traffic lights.
1.4.4 Power electronic converters

Mainly efficient DC to DC or DC to AC or AC to DC converter topologies are
needed. Converters based on vector control, direct torque control, etc. may be
needed [3]. Regenerative braking must be employed.
1.4.5 Supercapacitors
The dynamic power supplies and sudden transient disturbance recovery should be
possible by using suitable value supercapacitors having capacity values in the range
of kilo Farads. These can be charged at much higher rates than a battery. This has
led to their suitability in power circuit configurations for EVs.
1.4.6 Flywheels
Flywheels may store kinetic energy in the form of their moment of inertia and return
power back for charging a battery or driving wheel through suitable circuitry.
1.4.7 Energy management system

The energy management system (EMS) monitors control of required functions in
an EV thereby acting as its brain. It is a computer-based system that dynamically
optimizes the charge of batteries to maximize the operating range and improve
performance.
1.4.8 Regenerative braking system

If a battery has to have a better powering distance range, it must be efficiently used
and, therefore, the regenerative braking is a necessary component of EVs.
1.5 Economics and impact of EVs

It is important to understand the problems of EVs for its realization. There are two
major concerns of EVs, namely, cost and range. The cost of an EV depends on the
motor and its controller; battery, its charging, and battery management system; in
addition to the safety and luxury aspects of the vehicle. To compete with the pre-
sent ICE-based vehicles, EV manufacturers have the following concerns as chal-
lenges for researchers.
● Initial cost.
● Vehicle range on full-battery charge.
● Battery charging infrastructure.
● Battery charging time.
● Performance to accelerate, cruise, and climb.
● Fear of running out of power in the middle of drive.
● Safety and reliability.
● Recurring battery cost for EV.
With an increase in EVs, the load on the conventional grid shall also increase
because the primary source of power is still the conventional grid. The use of
renewable energy sources specifically solar and wind are being employed either in
islanded mode or for supporting the grid. The technologies employed to overcome
these difficulties shall decide the economic viability of the EVs based on EVs
individual performance and cost; and, hence, their acceptance by customers.
1.6 Important aspects of EV technologies
The important aspects of EV technologies that must be discussed are as follows.
1.6.1 Motor drive technology

The motor drive technology depends on the type of electric motor employed for the
EV. At present, induction motor drive and PMBL motor drive technologies are
being preferred for most of the EVs [3].
1.6.2 Energy source technology

The researchers around the globe are rigorously searching energy source technologies
that are feasible for EVs in terms of high energy storage with less volume and weight.
As of date, batteries are the most preferred energy source for EVs. Other sources may
be fuel cells, ultracapacitors, and renewable energy if found suitable and economical.
1.6.3 Battery charging technology

The batteries can store a fixed amount of charge, which will deplete after running
the EVs; therefore, the charging of batteries is an essential part. The battery char-
ging takes longer time in conventional mode and needs infrastructure for faster
charging, if wants to compete with ICE-based vehicles. Wireless charging tech-
nology can be used while the vehicle is moving or standing. The conventional
source for charging the EV battery shall be a grid only and this charging method is
called as grid-to-vehicle (G2V) mode.
1.6.4 Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology

The conventional charging of the EV battery from the grid imposes additional load
on the grid, if it happens during the peak load hours. Therefore, the EVs can be
used as a storage of power if they can be used to feed the grid using inverters during
peak load hours. This mode of operation is called V2G mode and the technology
used for this is known as V2G technology.
1.7 Main configurations of EVs
The EVs run solely on electric propulsion or it may also have ICE working
alongside it. The EVs can be classified based on source of power employed in it
and the charging method employed.
1.7.1 All EV (AEV)

The EV that gets it power from battery only is known as all EV (AEV) and
sometimes battery EV (BEV). It can also be called as pure EV. Typically, these
vehicles can cover a range of 100–250 km on one charge. The recharging time for
vehicle batteries may be as high as 8–11 hours to completely replenish the battery.
1.7.2 Hybrid EV (HEV)

To overcome the fear of running out of power in the middle of the drive, some of
the manufacturers have used an ICE additionally with the EV. Such vehicles are
known as hybrid EVs (HEVs) and lead to huge initial costs [4]. HEVs are further
classified based on their arrangement configuration, as (1) series hybrid, (2) parallel
hybrid, (3) series–parallel hybrid, and (4) complex hybrid. In HEVs, the electric
propulsion is used to reduce the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and fuel con-
sumption, especially at low speeds.
1.7.3 Plug-in hybrid EV (PHEV)

PHEVs mainly employ electric propulsion and, therefore, have bigger capacity
battery compared to HEVs [4]. It has the ability to run solely on electricity for most
of the time thereby reducing the carbon footprint drastically.
1.7.4 Gridable EV
The AEVs and PHEVs, having vehicle-to-grid capability, are known as gridable
EVs. These vehicles must have bidirectional converters and can be used as energy
storage devices during the off-peak hours of the grid.
1.7.5 Fuel cell EV

Fuel cell has been used as one of the energy sources for providing electric power. In
the place of batteries, fuel cell can be used and it avoids long charging hours, but
the safety and voluminous space requirements are constraints of such vehicles.
These vehicles may be a game changer in the future, as they have high-energy
density and no pollution at all.
1.8 Summary
The EVs were around us even before the turn of the twentieth century and it has
taken sufficient time to come up to the present stage. The government policies to
reduce pollution and dependence on the petroleum products coupled with the
enhanced use of renewable energy sources for preserving the nature are the boosting
factors for the EVs acceptance. The modern EV is a completely new machine with
special features, even then, its acceptance in the society shall be based on many
factors including its cost, ease of operation, and other convenience features. Based on
the discussions presented in the chapter, the following can be summarized.
● EV is an electric propulsion vehicle that consists of the electric motor, power
converter, and energy source, with its own distinct characteristics.
● It is not just a vehicle but a new system for our society, realizing clean and
efficient road transportation.
● It must have an intelligent system that can be easily integrated with modern
transportation and electrical networks.
● Future designs must involve the integration of art and engineering to fulfill EV
user’s expectations.
Symbols
Ni Nickel
Cd Cadmium
Li Lithium
NdFeB Neodymium iron boron
Glossary
Bayerische Motoren Werke A popular German motor manufacture, producing
GmBH (BMW) elegant cars since 1917 from Munich.
Permanent Magnet These are special motors having permanent mag-
Brushless (PMBL) motors nets on rotor arranged to produce trapezoidal or
sinusoidal flux. The motor is brushless and
requires a power electronics controller along with
information of rotor position/speed.
Direct Torque Control A type of control technique employed in efficient
(DTC) motors like induction motors, controlled through
power electronic controllers.
Photo Voltaic (PV) Photo voltaic cells convert solar irradiation into
electrical energy employing photoelectric effect.
Grid to Vehicle (G2V) The fast charging strategies have been developed
for supplying power to battery from grid. The
protocols and standards have been decided
internationally.
Vehicle to Grid (V2G) The parked electric vehicles can supply power
from their battery back to power grid to meet
demand during peak loads.
References
[1] History of Electric Vehicles – en.wikipidea.org

[2] How Electric Cars Work – auto.howstuffworks.com
[3] C. C. Chan and K. T. Chau, An overview of power electronics in electric
vehicles, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 3–13, 1997.
[4] M. Ehsani, Y. Gao, S. E. Gay, and A. Emadi, Modern Electric, Hybrid
Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles: Fundamentals, Theory, and Design, CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2005.
[5] A. C. Madrigal, All the promises automakers have made about the future of
cars, The Atlantic, July 7, 2017.
Chapter 2
Electric vehicle fundamentals
Sanjay Gairola1, Sanjeev Singh2, Sanjeet Dwivedi3
and Rahul Dubey4
Conventional vehicles use an internal combustion engine (ICE) which burns one of the
petroleum-based fuels, petrol, or diesel mainly, inside a cylinder with a moving piston in
it. The burning of fuel thereby produced motion of piston (and, hence, tires connected to
the piston through some transmission arrangement rotate) and burnt fuel was exhausted in
the form of gases causing pollution. Because of the fast depletion of petroleum and rising
concern for pollution, conventional vehicles are in the process of evolution by slowly
discarding the ICE and adopting its electric counterpart. This has led to newer vehicle
configurations marching towards full electric versions which have better efficiency, con-
trollability with challenges of battery energy storage, and associated difficulties.
In the current scenario, a number of opportunities are available for the transpor-
tation due to drastic improvements in the technology in the field of electrical machines,
control through power electronics, high-speed computers, Internet connectivity for
remote access/poling/driverless trips, high-speed and wireless communication systems,
etc. It is important to glance through the history of electric vehicles (EVs) to under-
stand their initial fall and now rise again due to advancements and social needs.
2.1 Evolution of Electric Vehicles

An EV essentially comprises of a battery as a source of electric power for the motor that
generates the propulsion torque. At times, ICE may also be working alongside it, aptly
called a hybrid EV (HEV). Moreover, fuel cells can also be employed as a power source.
In actual practice, the EVs came into the picture before the ICE vehicles (ICEVs)
became popular, as shown by the timeline in Figure 2.1. It is said that the first crude
EV was developed in the 1830s while an ICEV was in 1885. The early days of EVs
employing lead–acid batteries started mainly from the 1890s [1–5]. By the year 1920,
its popularity started declining due to ICEV that was mass produced by Henry Ford. At
1
Department of Electrical Engineering, Govind Ballabh Pant Institute of Engineering & Technology, India
2
Electrical Engineering Department, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology (MANIT) Bhopal, India
3
Technology Management, Everfuel A/S, Denmark
4
Edge-AI, Doulos, USA
Rechargeable lead acid battery invented by

1859
Plante
Electric car production started in London by

1884 Thomas Parker
1885 Karl Benz designed first practical

ICE car
1891 Electric car build by William Morrison
1898 Porche build his first car with hub-motor
Baker motor vehicle company was

1899 established at Ohio
1908 Petrol powered Ford Model T was introduced
Invention of electric starter for ICE by Charles

1912 Kettering
1920 Ford Model T having ICE becomes popular, cheap

Texas Crude oil found
EVs peak popularity period passed, production

1921 declined
1925 EVs lost their popularity
1935 Almost all initial Evs disappeared
Figure 2.1 Timeline showing the rise and fall of early EV development between
1859 and 1935
the same time, huge reserves of petroleum were found all over the world. The ICEV
had better mileage, speed, low capital, and running cost. These advantages led to the
initial death of EVs and, by the year 1935, they almost disappeared from the market.
Once again, the oil crisis upsurge of the 1970s generated fluctuations in gasoline in
the market, and this led to the renewed interest in EVs [5–8]. By the year 1995, the
digital systems, microprocessors, power electronic circuits, motors, control, and battery
technology had also improved which created a pathway for high-performing EVs. The
international oil shortage and pollution due to ICEV (in the form of air pollutants and
greenhouse effect) also dictated the demand for EVs once again. Tesla, Toyota, Honda,
Nissan, and GM were among the first few manufacturers who make HEV or pure battery
EV (BEV). Some important developments are benchmarked in Figure 2.2. It is predicted
that the gasoline vehicles will be completely wiped out of the market by the year 2042.
Electric vehicle fundamentals 11
GM displayed initial prototype of EV for urban

1973
use
New regulation related to environment made

1991 by US govt.
1996 GM mass produced EV1
1997 Hybrid car Prius was released by Toyota
1998 Hybrid car insight launched by Honda
2008 Roadster EV launched by Tesla
2010 All EV launched by Nissan
2016 Chevy Bolt, an All-EV released by GM
Figure 2.2 Some important events of modern EV development
The vehicle dynamics and various types of arrangements and components are
discussed in the following text.
2.2 General vehicle dynamics
It is well known that the smooth movement of any vehicle requires a smooth road
or track so that the machinery developing tractive effort in it (an ICE or electric
motor) can be accommodated easily at a cheaper cost. The road may take vehicles
uphill or downhill with some gradient, generally limited to 15 . To analyze general
vehicle dynamics, a vehicle going uphill with some gradient is shown in Figure 2.3,
with various forces marked on it [9,10].
For analysis, let us assume the following:
v is the climbing vehicle speed going, in m/s
M is the vehicle mass, in kg
g is the acceleration due to gravity in m/s2
L is the distance between the front and rear wheels
LA and LB are distance of front and rear tires from point C, in m
Hcg is the height of center of gravity of vehicle mass above the ground level, in m
a is the gradient of the road, in degrees
vw is the wind speed in the direction opposite to motion
AF is the vehicle’s frontal area
AF vW
Raero
v
hW
CG Mg
sin α
Rgrad
Rdrag hcg
Rrol α
Wf C
M g cos α
Mg W
α
R
L
A
L L
B
Figure 2.3 Various forces on a climbing vehicle
The dynamics can be analyzed by employing the force balance of various

forces marked in the figure. The developed engine tractive force which is in access
to the forces opposing it shall cause the acceleration of vehicles.
The forces that are opposing the motion can be put in four parts: rolling
resistance, aerodynamic resistance, gradient resistance, and acceleration resistance.
The value of these four resistances can be determined from the following equations:
Rolling resistance, Rrol: The component of force in the vertical direction due to
the mass of vehicle is the cause for frictional opposition at the point of contact with
the ground, given as
Rrol ¼ C rol M g cos a (2.1)
where Crol is the coefficient of rolling.
Aerodynamic resistance, Raero: The air in front of the vehicle opposes the
motion of vehicle and it increases with air density, frontal area, and effective
velocity of vehicles:
1
Raero ¼ r C drag AF ðv þ vw Þ2 (2.2)
2
where Cdrag is the coefficient of drag by wind and is the density of air, in kg/m3.
Gradient resistance, Rgrad: The component of force due to the mass of vehicles
in the inclined direction of the road always acts in the downward direction, which is
given as
Rgrad ¼ M g sin a (2.3)
Acceleration resistance Racc: When the vehicle is accelerating, there is

opposition to movement which is proportional to the rotor inertia constant and total
force in the forward direction
dv
Racc ¼ C rotInt M (2.4)
dt
where CrotInt is the coefficient rotor inertia.
Road resistance Rroad is the addition of rolling resistance and gradient
resistance:
Rroad ¼ Rrol þ Rgrad (2.5)
Therefore, the total resistive force offered to the vehicle going upward is
expressed as the sum of four resistances, given as:
Rdriving ¼ Rrol þ Raero þ Rgrad þ Racc (2.6)
Rdriving ¼ C rol M g cos a
1 dv
þ r C drag AF ðv þ vw Þ2 þ M g sin a þ C rotInt M
2 dt
Vehicle performance parameters
The capacity of a vehicle to speed up or down on a road with varying gradients
characterizes its performance. These characteristics are governed by its type, size,
mass, aerodynamics, and the engine driving it. The performance parameters of a
vehicle are the following: (i) maximum speed, (ii) gradeability, and (iii) accel-
erating performance.
2.3 Economic and environmental impact of conventional

vehicle leading to selection of EV
● The modern world is employing technology in every aspect of life, and the use
of chemicals, composites, and plastics is helping in newer developments. This
is cause for newer challenges, global warming, and irreversible climate change
draws [11,12]. It has only been recently acknowledged that some regulations
have been decided internationally for stopping the global warming.
● The petroleum fuel-based cars and trucks are responsible for almost 25% of
CO2 emissions and other such vehicles account for about 12%.
● A hybrid vehicle essentially combines petrol/diesel fuel along with one dif-
ferent power (energy) sources. The possible second source is generally one of
the following: battery, flywheel, and fuel cell (FC) (sometimes CNG is also
considered by the people).
● The major economic parameters for a customer to purchase any vehicle are the
following: (i) vehicle price, (ii) fuel cost, (iii) maintenance costs and service
station availability, (iv) driving range, (v) availability of the fueling station,
(vi) time required for the fueling, and (vii) battery replacement cost.
2.3.1 Environmental impact that is handled by EVs

During the manufacturing process of a vehicle, the involved harmful gases con-
tribute to the environmental impact through the pollution associated with mainly
three stages: (i) the extraction and processing of material resources, (ii) industrial
manufacturing of vehicles, and (iii) the disposal of vehicles.
Two elements are accounted for deciding the impact on the environment due to
conventional petroleum-based vehicles: (i) air pollution (AP) and (ii) greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions.
● CO, NOx, SOx, and VOCs fall under the category of APs. The weighting
coefficients for these APs are 0.017, 1, 1.3, and 0.64, respectively.
● CO2, SF6 (sulfur hexafluoride), N2O, and CH4 fall under the category of GHGs
which have different GHGs impact weighting coefficients. These coefficients
relative to CO2 are 1, 24,900, 310, and 21 in sequence.
Additional sources of environmental impact are also associated with the fossil–fuel
production and consumption. These stages of various environmental impacts are known
to cause numerous health hazards such as birth defects and infections in the lungs,
kidneys, nervous system, etc. Additionally, the PM10 emission from exhaust pipes and
non-exhaust emissions (from tire, brake, and road surface wear) also led to premature
death due to respiratory problems, breathing diseases, cancer, and lung-associated issues.
Global warming due to GHG emissions has led to record high temperatures,
severe floods, droughts, and rising sea levels. The seashore cities are among the
prime endangered human habitats.
2.4 Types of EVs

An EV essentially comprises of a battery as a source of electric power for the motor
that generates the propulsion torque. At times, ICE may also be working alongside
the motor to make it a HEV. An HEV may have better efficiency, depending on the
prices of battery, battery charging, and petroleum fuel. Therefore, the EVs are
broadly classified as HEVs and pure EVs as shown in Figure 2.4.
The categorization of EVs based on the power source is:
● BEV
● HEV
● Plug-in HEV (PHEV)
● Fuel-cell electric vehicle (FCEV)
The salient features of these different types of EVs are given in the
following text.
2.4.1 BEVs
– BEVs rely solely on power from rechargeable battery packs like Li–ion battery
or metal–air battery.
Transmission
Electric system
Gasoline/ Batteries ICE
motor /regenerative
diesel
braking
(a)
Front wheel Rear wheel
Steering
Differential Transmission
Motor
(b)
Figure 2.4 Two configurations of EVs: (a) HEV and (b) pure EV
– The presence of regenerative braking in BEVs improves its performance

significantly.
– Battery charging takes a significant amount of time.
– Fast battery-charging stations are required, as a substitute or in parallel to
existing gasoline fuel stations.
– BEVs technology is yet to mature and at present range anxiety is associated
with it.
– The BEVs are fast replacing the existing ICE-based vehicles due to the fast
depletion of gasoline and the steep rise in its prices.
2.4.2 HEVs
– HEVs employ ICE along with the electric power train.
– The main power for vehicle propulsion is from ICE and the battery is employed
to improve the vehicle performance by suitable switching of power source.
– Electric propulsion is used when power demand is low.
– HEVs have reduced fuel consumption and GHG emission compared to a
pure ICEV.
2.4.3 PHEV
– In a PHEV, electric propulsion is the main driving force.
– It has bigger batteries compared to an HEV.
– The batteries are required to be charged at regular intervals.
– Batteries can be charged directly from grids.
2.4.4 FCEV
– FCEVs employ fuel cells to generate electric power for the propulsion of
vehicles.
– Fuel cells mainly employ hydrogen as the fuel for the chemical reaction to
produce electricity.
– High-pressure tanks are required in FCEVs to store hydrogen which is
inflammable.
– The hydrogen tank is a substitute for the gasoline tank of ICEV.
– The by-product from a fuel cell is water and, therefore, it has no pollution.
– A FCEV has the advantages of BEV as well as ICEV; however, the technology is
yet to mature.
– Moreover, the cost of hydrogen production is high and the most efficient and
viable process for it is being researched.
2.5 Configurations of EVs

The main components involved in a power train inside an EV besides the battery
are the clutch, differential, gearbox or fixed gearing, and electric motor. The clutch,
gearbox, and differential may be absent depending on the configuration employed
in the architecture of an EV. These vehicles may be front-wheel driven or rear-
wheel driven and, generally, the front engine or rear engine is accordingly installed.
In some designs, in-wheel motors with fixed gearing may be employed thereby
eliminating the need for differential. Based on these choices, the configuration of
an EV may be one of the following:
1. Front (or rear) engine-front (or rear) wheel drive with a single motor drive:
Motor–clutch–gearbox–differential
2. Front (or rear) engine-front (or rear) wheel with a single motor drive:
Motor–gearbox–differential (clutch absent)
3. Front (or rear) engine-front (or rear) wheel with single motor drive:
Motor–fixed gearing–differential (clutch and gearbox are absent)
4. Front (or rear) engine-front (or rear) wheel drive with two motors:
Motor1–fixed gearing–left wheel
Motor 2–fixed gearing–right wheel
(clutch, gearbox, and differential are absent)
5. Front (or rear) engine-front (or rear) wheel drive EV with two motors (the same
as 4 without fixed gearing):
(Clutch, gearbox/fixed gearing, and differential are absent)
6. All-wheel drive (AWD) configuration having in-wheel motors.
7. Wireless in-wheel drive configuration having two/four in-wheel motors.
2.6 General EV setup

As seen from Section 2.3, an EV essentially has a battery, a motor or motors,
transmission system having the clutch/gearbox/fixed gearing/differential car-
rying propulsion power to the wheels. Additionally, control and management of
various components are done with the help of an electronic controller, a driver
circuit, and a suitable power electronic converter. The electronic controller and
driver shall also require power that is generated by an auxiliary supply fed from
the batteries. Moreover, the controller requires feedback through sensors from
the motor, transmission system and wheel about speed/torque, temperature,
pressure, and battery status. Accordingly, the general setup is shown in
Figure 2.5.
Auxiliary
power Batteries
supply
Transmission unit
Driver Power Motor
/ (clutch, gearbox/fixed gearing,
circuit converter generator differential)
Electronic controller & EMS

Wheel
General electric vehicle setup
Figure 2.5 Important components of an EV

2.7 Energy sources

The energy required to power the drive motor in an EV [13] can be obtained from
one or a combination of the following:
1. Battery
2. Ultra-capacitors
3. Flywheels
4. Fuel cells
The important characteristics of any energy source for an EV are as follows:
– It must have high specific energy and high energy density.
– Moreover, high values of specific power and power density are essential.
– Time required to recharge the battery must be small.
– The battery must have the capability to overcome the deep discharge.
– It must have a long life and a high value of the charging/discharging cycle.
– It must be safe for humans, less susceptible to temperature variations, free from
fire, gas emissions, and radiation hazards. The material used in it should be
environmentally sound and recyclable.
– The capital cost, maintenance cost, recharging cost, and replacement cost must
be small.
– The raw material used in its production must be abundant and locally available.
The historic EVs of the nineteenth century (1880–1924) employed batteries like
lead–acid battery, Ni–Cd battery, Ni–iron battery, etc. But these had poor energy density
and power density and therefore could not compete with the advantages offered by ICEV
at that time. Therefore, the modern EVs are employing newer batteries such as Li–ion
battery, metal–air batteries, etc., which have higher life cycle and energy density.
The battery-operated vehicles are expected to provide the propulsion power
and range similar to the well-developed ICEV counterpart. This implies that the
batteries in an EV on single charge should be able to run continuously for more
than 500 km. Moreover, the maximum speed and acceleration should also match.
The EV like Rivian R1T will do 0–60 mph in 3 s.
2.8 Electric motors
The requirements of the EV motor are similar to that of the energy source. These
are listed as follows:
– The motor must have high instant power and a high value of power density. This
means that compact motors with smaller weights shall be preferred. Generally,
brushless permanent magnet (PM) motors have high-power density.
– It should be capable of high torque and wide speed range. The conventional AC
motors with conventional controls are not suitable.
– High efficiency of the motor is very important for long-distance driving on a
single charge.
– High efficiency of regenerative braking is also desired.

– The motor must have a long life and high reliability. This implies that the rugged
motors in which the commutator, slip rings, and carbon brushes are absent shall
be preferred. Synchronous reluctance motor and squirrel cage induction motor
have these features.
– Low capital cost and maintenance-free operation are very important. The con-
ventional DC motors do not suit this requirement.
– The raw material used in it must be abundantly available and recyclable.
– The motor component must not be affected by temperature variation. The motors
having magnets in them may suffer from this problem.
The main motors that are found suitable for EVs are the following: squirrel
cage induction motor (SCIM), permanent magnet brushless motor (PMBLDC or
PMSM), synchronous reluctance motor (SyRM), and switched reluctance motor
(SRM). All these motors are having a rugged structure and employ some
suitable power electronic controlled converter configuration [14], digital processors
generating control signals dynamically based on feedback from position/speed
sensors. However, motors combining the features of these motors are being
investigated and a lot of optimizations are being carried out by researchers in terms
of cost, size, efficiency, and power density.
These motors that have tailored characteristics in general operate in constant
torque mode below the base value of its velocity and in constant power mode above
the base value, as shown in Figure 2.6.
Constant
torque
region
Constant power region

Power curve
Torque curve
0
Speed
Base speed
Figure 2.6 Operation ranges of EV motor

2.9 High-voltage system in EV

The EV batteries are charged at level 1 or 2 or 3 depending on the manufacturer’s
specification or charging available. For fast charging, level 3 is employed. Three-
phase AC voltage is converted by the state-of-the-art fast EV chargers to about 480
V DC for high-voltage battery charging. The conversion stages are made up of two
power electronic circuits. The rectification stage having power factor correction
(PFC) provision changes the input voltage to an intermediate DC, and the second
DC/DC stage changes the intermediate DC voltage into regulated output for char-
ging a battery.
The grid and EV battery generally have a galvanic isolation to protect it from
spurious transients in power systems leading to instability and unwanted dis-
turbances near the point of common coupling. The first option for isolation is to
employ a line-frequency transformer before the rectification and another option for
isolation is to put a high-frequency transformer suitably in the DC/DC converter. A
DC fast charger system of higher power rating can be met by employing multiple
modules in parallel.
2.10 EV automakers legacy

The governments of the developed countries have declared restrictions on the use
of petroleum-based vehicles and this has led to the awakening of global auto
manufacturers. The United Kingdom plans to have 100% ban on petrol and diesel
car sales by year 2040 [5]. These manufacturers work for profit, and therefore, the
innovation is focused not only on technology but also on the economic factors,
market trends, customer behavior, and geo-politics. The threat to ICE from oil price
rise, government restrictions, and the rise of Tesla has initiated a new struggle for
existence among automakers. The legendary automakers have now brainstormed to
overcome these new challenges to retain their market share.
A number of carmakers have announced to release all-EV by certain target
date, if not already done. Volkswagen Group started Roadmap E drive in 2017 and
already spent more than $40 billion (by the end of 2022) on electric cars. It envi-
sages to roll out 80 new electric cars by the end of the year 2025.
The iconic brand Tesla has already crossed 1 million annual EV sales, with its
Model 3 production to about 10,000 per week. The other projects of Tesla include
the solar roof, “Model Y,” and driverless cars which are setting a benchmark for
other automakers. T has also planned to develop more giant Gigafactory for bat-
teries in Nevada with a capacity of 35 GWh production.
Toyota started with the Hybrid Prius and wants its cars to be emission free by
the year 2050. It has planned big for fuel cell-based technology.
Other car manufacturers who have fallen in line are the following: Renault-
Nissan-Mitsubishi, General Motors, Ford, BMW, Audi, Hyundai & Kia motors,
Volvo, Daimer, etc. All the car manufacturers have planned their projects with
challenges to meet battery supply, high-performance motors with their controllers,
charging stations, maintenance teams and strategies, government regulations,

soaring high prices, market trends, and customer behavior.
2.11 Market and technology trends for EVs

Mature technology and large-scale production of EVs are one of the early
achievements of the twenty-first century. The number of EVs is poised to grow in
the coming years. This section discusses the market potential of EVs along with the
technology trends of different subsystems inside an EV. Our reference to EVs in
this chapter is for BEVs.
2.11.1 Market and energy usage

The energy consumption by different modes of transport gives us an indirect esti-
mate of the market size for EVs. In the USA, about 53% of energy consumed by
different modes of transport is by light trucks, cars, and motorcycles. This is seen
by the bar graph in Figure 2.7. The number of EVs sold and used across the world is
growing rapidly and has the potential to capture the existing market of cars,
motorcycles, light trucks, other trucks, and buses. Once we add up the vehicle
categories mentioned above, the EV market size in the USA consists of vehicles
that can use about 80% of transportation energy.
2.11.1.1 The case for electric vehicles

Before the arrival of EVs, improved fuel economy of light vehicles has kept in
check the consumption of gasoline [15]. Daily gasoline consumption in the USA is
close to 400 million gallons per day (Figure 2.8). Due to gasoline price volatility
and environmental concerns from gasoline vehicle emissions, there is a move
towards EVs.
Three categories of EVs are becoming popular across the world – electric cars,
buses, and two wheelers.
Estimated share of US transportation energy

use by mode and type in 2021
Lubricants
Military (all modes)
Boats and ships
Other trucks
Light trucks
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Figure 2.7 Light trucks, cars, and motorcycles account for more than 50% energy
usage. Viable electric options are now available for this group of
vehicles [16].
Million gallons per day Miles per gallon

800 40
600 30
400 20
200 10
0 0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Gasoline consumption Light-duty vehicle fuel economy
Data source: Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, Tables 1.8 and 3.7c, May 2022
Figure 2.8 Improved fuel economy of light-duty vehicles has limited the usage of
gasoline to 400 million gallons per day [16]
Cars: Electric cars are becoming popular in China, Europe, and the USA. In the
USA, the number of electric cars on the road increased with the introduction of Tesla
Model 3 in 2017. In the broad category of EVs, electric car is the most popular EV.
There are several reasons for this. Contemporary battery storage capacity provides a
similar driving range for a car as a full tank of petrol/diesel. The location and weight
of the battery provide a low center of gravity for the car and increases its stability.
Buses: In most parts of the world, buses are used for public transport and
school. These buses have a diesel engine, which emits pollutants. Battery-powered
electric buses use similar approach of an electric car. China has taken the lead in
adopting electric buses.
Two wheelers: Electric two wheelers are growing at a good pace (upwards of
100%) in developing countries [15]. Even though the charging infrastructure and
robustness of electric two wheelers are not as mature as electric cars, it is likely to
be in place within a few years.
EVs such as cars, light trucks, and buses are seeing the maximum growth. The
increased energy density offered by battery, higher efficiency drive train, and
lightweight aluminum body have made EVs at par with their conventional coun-
terparts. Let us evaluate the efficiency of electric cars.
2.11.1.2 Efficiency of EVs

Fuel efficiency of an EV is much higher than gasoline engines [15–17]. In a con-
ventional gasoline-powered vehicle, only about 12%–30% energy is available for
motion, while in an EV up to 87%–91% energy is available for movement.
Table 2.1 tabulates energy losses for a conventional gasoline car, hybrid, and
electric car as shown in Figure 2.9.
Table 2.1 Energy usage of different types of cars [19]
Car type Engine Parasitic Drivetrain Auxiliary Idle Energy to

losses losses losses electrical losses wheels
losses
Gasoline 68%–72% 4%–6% 3%–5% 0%–2% 3% 16%–25%
Hybrid* 65%–69% 4%–6% 3%–5% 0%–3% 0% 24%–38%
Electric** 18% 0%–4% 0% 87%–91%
*Hybrid vehicles recover 5%–9% energy by regenerative braking.

**EVs recover up to 22% energy using regenerative braking.
Engine Losses: 68% – 72%

thermal, such as radiator,
exhaust heat, etc. (58% – 62%)
combustion (3%)
pumping (4%)
friction (3%)
Auxiliary Electrical Losses:

0% – 2%
(e.g., climate control fans,
seat and steering wheel
warmers, headlights, etc.)
Parasitic Losses: 4% – 6%
(e.g., water, fuel and oil
pumps, ignition systems,
engine control systems, etc.)
Energy to Wheels: 16% – 25%

Drivetrain Losses: 3% – 5% dissipated as
wind resistance (8% – 12%)
rolling resistance (4% – 7%)
braking (4% – 7%)
Idle Losses: 3%
In this figure, they are accounted for as part of the engine and parasitic losses.
Figure 2.9 Energy consumption by different parts of gasoline car. The bulk of the
energy goes to meet engine losses. Only a quarter of the energy is used
for locomotion [19].
The data in Table 2.2 clearly show how hybrid and electric cars provide larger
percentage of energy to wheels. Improved efficiency and less pollution on streets
make EVs, the future of road transportation.
2.11.2 Technology trends

Before we get into details of technology trends in the EV space, let us understand
the building blocks of the drive system in an EV. As seen in Figure 2.10, the left
side consists of a circuit that is used to charge the battery. The charging circuit is
Table 2.2 Technology status for EV components
Subsystem Existing technology Existing applications Improvements made

for EV
Three-phase Stable motor Industry workhorse for Light weight, more
electric technology for pumps, servo control, efficient
motor synchronous and and variety of
asynchronous AC motor applications
Power Inverter, convertible Uninterruptible power Robust packaging –
electronics used for rectification supply (UPS), variable compact, vibration, and
converter/ as well as inversion frequency AC motor temperature tolerant
inverter drives (VFD) design
Battery Lead-acid battery Used for UPS, car Modified lithium-ion
battery for starting with larger energy
storage and longer
battery life retention
Regenerative
braking
+
–
DC charger 3 Phase converter
AC–DC
DC bus
M
AC charger Battery
Converter 3 Phase inverter
AC–DC DC–AC
Figure 2.10 Block diagram of electric drive system
active when the vehicle is at a standstill. The right side of the circuit is used to
power the EV’s motor and to recollect energy when the car brakes. Recovered
energy in a conventional vehicle is lost as heat in the wheel’s brake pads. In an
electric or hybrid vehicle, braking energy is fed back to the battery. This is done by
the regenerative braking module.
Location of all subsystems of an electric drive system can be seen in a trans-
parent picture of an electric car (Figure 2.11). The traction battery pack is the
battery that runs the EV. The power electronics controller consists of the inverter
and the regenerative braking modules.
Electric traction motor
Power electronics controller
DC/DC converter
Thermal system (cooling)
Traction battery pack
Charge port
Transmission
Onboard charger
Battery (auxiliary)
afdc.energy.gov
Figure 2.11 Location of electric drive system parts inside an electric car [18]
2.11.2.1 Electric drive technology

Even though EVs have become popular since the start of the twenty-first century,
most of the technology powering has been around for quite some time. The electric
motor and the power electronics to control the speed of the electric motor have
been battle tested in industries throughout the world. Table 2.2 mentions the
improvements carried out to make existing technology suitable for EVs. The most
prominent on-going improvement is the battery technology and its charging.
Recent advances in real-time telemetry have made it possible to analyze battery
performance. Data from laboratory and fleet of EVs has shown that heat and rate of
charge play an important role in life of battery. Higher heat and fast charging accelerate
Li-ion battery degradation. Contemporary EV battery retains 90% of charge storage
capacity after 7 years of service. Research for low-cost, high-density battery storage
technology is ongoing. Lithium-ion is a stable but expensive battery technology [17–19].
Standardization of battery charging connector is converging (see Table 2.3).
High voltage direct current chargers provide fast charging for larger distances. In
the USA, electric car companies have set up large numbers of fast charging stations
in parking lots. It remains to be seen how this is replicated in developing countries.
2.11.2.2 Auxiliary technology trends in telemetry and

autonomous driving
Electric cars have been bought in new auxiliary technology such as vehicle tele-
metry (remote connectivity) and basic level of freeway autonomous driving.
Vehicle telemetry provides over-the-air update of software along with real-time
monitoring of vehicle parameters. New technology such as battery, power elec-
tronics, and motor are remotely monitored and tuned for better performance.
Table 2.3 Electric car battery charging technology [17]
Charging Connector type Charging voltage and charging rate

level
1 J1772 AC charger (120 V). Approximately 5 miles of range
per 1 h of charging
2 J1772, Tesla AC charger (240 V). Approximately 25 miles of range
connector per 1 h of charging
3 CCS, CHAdeMO, High voltage (480 V) direct current fast charging.
Tesla connectors Approximately 100–200+ miles of range per 30 min of
charging
Multiple camera sensors mounted at different locations in the car provide it with
the ability to follow lane markings and have the car maintain its path on a freeway.
Even though auxiliary technology trends such as autonomous driving are not
unique to EVs, they provide an incentive for many customers to switch from
gasoline run vehicles to electric ones.
2.12 Summary
The electrical vehicle market is the focus of the researchers who are working to over-
come the difficulties associated with the aging of ICE-based vehicles. The challenge is
manifold, struggling not only with the prices of petroleum fuels that are depleting fast
but also the environmental and economic impact to meet the social demand and safety
of life on earth. The history of EVs and their modern development has been addressed,
which clearly highlights the focus needed on vehicle dynamics, energy sources, char-
ging technology, EV motors, controllers, engine management, optimal configuration,
battery management systems, connectivity with utility, and power quality. These
aspects shall be discussed in the following chapters in greater depth.
Symbols
M Vehicle mass, (kg)
g Acceleration due to gravity, (m/s2)
L Distance between the front and rear wheels
LA, LB Distance of front and rear tyres from point C, (m)
v Climbing vehicle speed, (m/s)
Hcg Height of centre of gravity of vehicle mass above the ground level, (m)
a Gradient of the road, (degrees)
vw Wind speed in the direction opposite to motion
AF Vehicle’s frontal area
r Density of air, (kg/m3)
Rrol Rolling resistance

Raero Aerodynamic resistance
Rgrad Gradient resistance
Racc Acceleration resistance
Rroad Road resistance
Cdrag Coefficient of drag by wind
Crol Coefficient of rolling
GWh Giga Watt hour
Glossary
Internal Combustion Engine The conventional vehicles used everywhere have
(ICE) internal combustion engine in which mainly
petrol or diesel is used as fuel.
Compressed natural gas This gas is being used in many vehicles as a
(CNG) cheaper substitute of petrol and diesel for about
last two decades.
All-Wheel Drive (AWD) The vehicles in which propulsion power is pro-
vided to all its wheels is an all-wheel drive. Such
vehicles may have separate electric motor inde-
pendently controlled for each wheel.
Squirrel Cage Induction This type of Induction motor has a copper cage
Motor (SCIM) on its rotor rather than windings. This enables it
to become free of brushes, slip-rings and there-
fore making it robust.
Permanent magnet brushless These are special motors having permanent
DC (PMBLDC) magnets on rotor arranged to produce trapezoidal
flux. The motor is brushless and require power
electronics controller along with information of
rotor position/speed
Permanent Magnet These are high power density motors having per-
Synchronous Motor manent magnets on rotor arranged to produce
(PMSM) sinusoidal flux and emf. The motor is brushless and
require power electronics controller along with
information of rotor position/speed at all speeds.
Synchronous reluctance A motor in which winding is absent and rotor
motor (SyRM) construction is such that reluctance variation
provides the fixed high and low reluctance paths
to flux thereby causing field to vary sinusoidal.
Switched reluctance motor A motor having salient rotor in which windings
(SRM) or magnets are absent and capable to run at much
higher speeds. It works on principle of reluctance
torque.
References
[1] The History of Electric Vehicles – www.electricvehicles.com
[2] History of Electric Vehicles – en.wikipidea.org
[3] Basics of Electric Vehicles – Service Training, Self-Study Program,
Volkswagen
[4] How Electric Cars Work – auto.howstuffworks.com
[5] A. Singh, Electric Vehicles and the End of ICE Age, Adhyyan Books, New
Delhi, 2019.
[6] M. Ehsani, Y. Gao, S. E. Gay, and A. Emadi, Modern Electric, Hybrid
Electric and Fuel Cell Vehicles – Fundamentals, Theory, and Design, 2nd ed.,
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2010.
[7] A. J. Hawkins, How Tesla Changed the Auto Industry Forever, www.the-
verge.com, July 28, 2017.
[8] A. C. Madrigal, All the promises automakers have made about the future of
cars, The Atlantic, July 7, 2017
[9] G. Lechner and H. Naunheimer, Automotive Transmissions: Fundamentals,
Selection, Design and Application, Springer, Berlin, 1999.
[10] NPTEL – Electrical Engineering, “Dynamics of electric and hybrid vehi-
cles,” Introduction to Hybrid and Electric Vehicles, Joint Initiative of IITs
and IISc – Funded by MHRD, India. Available online https://archive.nptel.
ac.in/courses/108/103/108103009/.
[11] A. Xue, M. Strabala, D. Lee, P. Lou, and A. Qiu, The Economics and Future
of Electric Powered Automobiles, University of Chicago, Chicago, BPRO
29000 – Energy and Energy Policy, 2015.
[12] A. Nordelof, M. Messagie, A.-M. Tillman, M. L. Söderman, and J. Van
Mierlo, Environmental Impacts of Hybrid, Plug-in Hybrid, and Battery
Electric Vehicles – What Can We Learn from Life Cycle Assessment,
Springerlink.com, August 2014.
[13] S. F. Tie and C. W. Tan, A review of energy sources and energy management
system in electric vehicles, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., vol. 20, pp. 82–102,
2013.
[14] C. C. Chan and K. T. Chau, An overview of power electronics in electric
vehicles, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 3–13, 1997.
[15] Auto Economic Times. (2022 January 6). Electric two wheelers. Retrieved
from https://auto.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/two-wheelers/scooters-
mopeds/electric-two-wheelers-register-a-staggering-132-growth-in-2021-but-
2022-promises-to-be-even-better/88734671
[16] EIA, US Energy Information Administration. (2022 June 28). Energy use for
transportation. Retrieved from https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/use-of-
energy/transportation-in-depth.php
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Fig. 119.—Gastrotricha. (From Zelinka.) A, Chaetonotus bogdanovii, side view (after
Schimkewitsch); B, Gossea antenniger (after Gosse); C, Dasydetes goniathrix
(after Gosse); D, Dasydetes saltitans (after Stokes); E, D. longisetosum (after
Metschnikoff); F, Chaetonotus spinulosus (after Stokes); G, Chaetonotus
schultzei (after Gosse and Bütschli). (Magnified.) B-F, × about 390; G, × about
125.
We shall follow Zelinka in his description of the common species Chaetonotus

larus as a type. The body is nearly circular in section, flattened a little on the
ventral side. The apertures are the terminal mouth; the anus, nearly terminal and
slightly dorsal; the two kidney openings, ventral, nearly half-way down the trunk;
besides the pore of a cement-gland on either terminal process. The short ventral
and post-anal portion of the trunk with its processes therefore corresponds to the
foot of a Rotifer. The integument of the body is a thin nucleated hypoderm, not
distinctly divided into cells, covered by a chitinised cuticle; it bears cilia, sensory
hairs, and peculiar scale-like processes, sometimes produced into long bristles.
The cilia are chiefly arranged in two ventral bands, each extending nearly the
whole length of the body, and composed of a series of transverse rows of single
cilia; along these bands the hypoderm is thickened and more richly nucleated. The
sides of the head also bear numerous long cilia.
The scales are hollow processes of the cuticle overlapping from before
backwards. A ventral row lies between the ciliary bands; two series of alternating
dorsal rows lie on the back and sides of the animal, and in the hirsute species it is
these that are produced backward into bristles. A single large scale, the "frontal
shield," protects the head above and behind, but does not extend down to the
ventral surface. On either side of the head is a pair of flattened oval areas, the
"lateral fields." From between these on either side springs a tuft of motile sensory
hairs. Two pairs of similar tufts arise dorsally on the front margin of the frontal
shield, and a fourth pair spring from the ventral surface a little behind the mouth.
These hairs are distinguished from ordinary cilia by their length, and their insertion
on large nucleated cells receiving nerves; two pairs of similar hairs lie farther back
on the dorsal surface, one in the front of the neck, one near the base of the pedal
processes.
The muscles lie some in the body-wall, and some traverse the body-cavity; only
six pairs occur, simple, unstriated, and longitudinal. There are neither transverse
nor circular muscles.
The alimentary canal is very simple and nearly straight from mouth to anus; it
may be divided into pharynx, gullet, stomach, and rectum. The mouth is circular,
and looks forwards and a little downwards. From the mouth opens the pharynx, a
short chitinous tube, capable of eversion by being pushed forwards by the gullet; it
bears half-way down a circlet of curved hooks, which open out when it is everted;
within these are tooth-like thickenings.
The oesophagus or gullet is thick and muscular, extending through the whole of
the neck of the animal; its cavity, as well as the opening from the pharynx, is
triradiate like a leech-bite, but can be dilated by the action of the muscular walls,
inserted into a firm external cuticle; the internal wall is also cuticulised, not ciliated
as in Rotifers. The hinder end of the gullet is produced into a short, wide,
membranous funnel projecting freely into the midgut or stomach. The latter is
elongated and oval, composed of four rows of hexagonal cells, with large nuclei.
This is separated by a distinct constriction or sphincter from the short pear-shaped
rectum, which opens by a minute anus on the back just in front of the pedal
processes.
The food is chiefly organic débris; but Gastrotricha have been seen to attack large
Infusoria by nibbling, and to swallow the protoplasm as it exudes from the wound
in their prey.
The nervous system is chiefly composed of the large brain, a ganglion lying like a
saddle above and on the sides of the gullet, and in direct continuity with the nerve-
cells of the cephalic sense-hairs. A pair of dorsal nerve-trunks extend along the
whole length of the gullet. The sense-hairs described with the general integument
may be organs of external taste ("smell") or of touch. Eyes have been described in
several species; and though Zelinka has failed to verify this, I have myself seen a
pair of minute red eyes in the back of the head of an animal (probably a
Chaetonotus), whose hasty escape into a mass of débris prevented my
determining its species.
The kidneys are paired tubes lying at the sides of the front of the stomach, and
sending a simple loop into the neck. Each tube is much convoluted, and ends at
the one extremity in a long "flame-cell," like that of a Rotifer much drawn out, and
at the other by a minute pore on the outer side of the ventral row of scales.
Reproductive Organs.—Only the female is with certainty known to occur; and the
eggs, though recalling in their thick ornamented shell the fertilised winter eggs of
Rotifers, are probably unfertilised and parthenogenetic like the summer eggs. The
ovaries are two minute patches of cells lying at the junction of the stomach and
rectum. The eggs, as they mature and enlarge, press against the side and back of
the stomach, where they attain a length of one-third to one-half that of the mother.
The extrusion of the egg has not been observed; but it is laid in the angles of
weeds, the moulted shells of Entomostraca, etc., where its development may be
studied. The sculpture of the shell serves to anchor it if laid among weeds. When
hatched the head, trunk, and pedal processes are of the full adult size, all
subsequent growth being limited to the neck.
The function of testis has been ascribed by Ludwig to a minute granular organ
between the ovaries above the rectum; if this view be correct the Gastrotricha are
hermaphrodite.
The movements of the Gastrotricha are very elegant, recalling those of the long-
necked Ciliate Infusoria, like Amphileptus, Lacrymaria, etc., with the characteristic
exception that they always swim forwards; the grace of their movements being
due to the bending of the head and neck on the body. Those which are provided
with long motile bristles like Dasydetes, alternate their gliding with leaps, like the
springing Rotifers.
The Gastrotricha are divided into two sub-Orders—Euichthydina, with two pedal
appendages, containing the genera Ichthydium Ehr., Lepidoderma Zel.,
Chaetonotus Ehr., and Chaetura Metsch.; and the Apodina, with no pedal
appendages, comprising Dasydetes G. and Gossea Zel.
Their geographical distribution, like that of most microscopic fresh-water

organisms, is cosmopolitan. Few observers have enumerated the members of this
group; of their extra-temperate occurrence we have only the single observations of
Ehrenberg, Schmarda, and Voeltzkow for Nubia, Ceylon, and Madagascar
respectively.
Of the thirty-two species described, twelve are recorded by A. C. Stokes from

Maine and New Jersey only, besides five others that occur also in Europe. In
Europe nineteen species are recorded, one of which, Ichthydium podura, has also
been found in Nubia and Ceylon. One species, Chaetonotus tabulatus Schmarda,
has been recorded by its author from Colombia (in South America). As of the
nineteen European species only seven have been recorded as British, we may
expect to find that careful study will well repay the student in these islands.
The affinities of this group are probably with the Turbellarians and the
Nematodes; they differ from the former in the highly developed alimentary canal,
and from the latter in the possession of the ciliated ventral bands and wreath. The
general chitinisation of the skin, the primitive body-cavity, the character of the
alimentary canal, the ventral opening of the renal canals far in front of the anus are
characters shared by the Nematodes, many of which possess bristles like this
group. But their affinity must be rather to some hypothetical ancestral group than
to any living Nematodes, which are destitute of cilia. To the Rotifers the affinity,
dwelt on by Zelinka, is less close.
Kinorhyncha.
This Class and Order comprises but one genus, Echinoderes (Fig. 120), founded
in 1851 by Dujardin.[289] Reinhard's monograph[290] is the generally accepted
authority on this subject, and contains a full bibliography, with diagnoses of the
individual species, eighteen in number.
Fig. 120.—Echinoderes dujardinii (?), drawn from a preserved specimen taken at

Worthing. × about 210. b, Bristle; c.s, caudal spine; ph, pharynx; s and s', the
spines on the two segments of the proboscis; s.g, salivary glands; st, stomach.
The animals of this group are found in shallow seas with muddy bottom, below
low-water mark, and feed on organic débris. They have been taken in the Black
Sea, Mediterranean, British Channel, and North Sea, and off the Canary Islands
(Lanzarote, Porto Pi, Palma di Mallorca). Their size varies from 0.86 mm. × 0.22
mm. in Echinoderes spinosus, to 0.14 mm. × 0.03 mm. in E. kowalevskii.[291]
The body is protected by a strong chitinous cuticle distinctly annulated, forming

eleven rings, besides a retractile proboscis obscurely divided into two segments at
the apex of which the mouth opens. The anus opens on the extreme end of the
last segment, which is frequently retracted; the genital pores open right and left of
the anus; and the renal pores lie on either side of the back of the ninth segment.
The first ring may be undivided, or else distinctly divided into four plates, one
dorsal, two latero-ventral, and one ventral. In the remaining segments each ring
has only three plates, one dorsal and two ventral, the two latter being sometimes
more or less fused in the last or ventral segment. These plates all overlap from
before backwards.
As the name Echinoderes implies (Thorn-skin), the cuticle is produced into points,
bristles, or spines. The last segment frequently bears a large pair of these, which
have been compared, on the flimsiest grounds, with the furcal processes of
Crustacea and the perforated toes of Rotifers and Gastrotricha.
The proboscis when extruded has the form of a truncated cone, obscurely divided
into two segments, a ring of strong spines marking the boundary between them,
and a second double ring of spines surrounding the apex. The eversion is of the
type termed by Lankester pleurembolic or acrecbolic, the sides being first
withdrawn, the apex first extruded.
As in so many Invertebrata, the epidermis is not separated by boundaries into

distinct cells. This layer sends out processes each of which lies in a hollow in the
thick cuticle, and perforates it to end in a fine bristle. Minute orange pigment-
granules occur at irregular intervals in this hypoderm.
The muscles of Echinoderes are simple striated bands. Numerous bands lie
within and attached to the body-wall, extending its whole length; paired dorsi-
ventral muscles separate the intestine from the reproductive organ on either side,
and a complex system effect the movements of the proboscis.
Alimentary Canal.—The pore at the tip of the proboscis leads into a short thin-
walled tube, which is rarely evaginated; into the base of this tube projects the short
bluntly conical apex of the large ovoid muscular pharynx (or gullet?); this is lined
by an epithelial layer of nucleated protoplasm, which secretes a strong cuticle. The
stomach is a wide tube, somewhat dilated in each segment between the paired
dorsi-ventral muscles, and tapering behind to end in the terminal anus. Four
minute glands open at the junction of the pharynx and stomach.
Kidneys.—These are a pair of blind pear-shaped sacs, ciliated within (the only
case of ciliation in Echinoderes), lying in the eighth segment, and opening by the
taper ends right and left on the back of the ninth segment.
Nervous System.—All that has been clearly defined of this is a small brain or
ganglion lying dorsally at the junction of the pharynx and stomach. From two to
eight eye-spots have been described by earlier writers, but Reinhard was unable
to find them in the (distinct) species which he principally worked at, though he
noted their existence in the solitary specimen of the original species, E. dujardini,
which he obtained.
Reproductive Organs.—The sexes are distinct. The reproductive glands form a

pair of tubular sacs, opening ventrally on either side of the anus, and extending
forwards beside the gut as far forwards as the fifth to the second segment in the
male, but only to the fourth at furthest in the female. The ova are large nucleated
cells embedded in the protoplasmic lining of the ovarian sac, and acquiring a
distinct shell as they approach its opening. Three-quarters of the testis sac is
occupied with granular protoplasm containing a quantity of small nuclei; the lower
part alone contains mature spermatozoa. Adjoining each external opening in the
male are a pair of short hollowed spines, which may perhaps serve as organs of
copulation; but nothing is really known of this process or of the development of the
egg. It is almost certain, from the absence of developing eggs within Echinoderes,
that the genus is not viviparous.
From the foregoing description it is obvious that Echinoderes approaches the

Nematoda very closely: the two main points of difference are its ciliated kidneys
and its bilaterally paired sexual organs. Possibly the study of such forms as
Desmoscolex (Fig. 81, p. 159) may reveal closer affinities.
[Zelinka (Verh. D. Zool. Ges., 1894 and 1898), has given a preliminary
account of a new research on this group. The principal addition is the
discovery of a ventral nerve-cord, with a ganglionic dilatation in each
segment, lying in the ectoderm of the body-wall, as indeed do the brain and
nerve-collar. He divides the genus into two Orders according as the orifice of
the retracted fore-part of the body is slit-like or circular. The former
(Homalorhagae) retract the first two segments with the proboscis; they are
mud-dwellers, sluggish, eyeless: the latter group (Cyclorhagae) only retract
the first segment with the proboscis; they crawl among algae, and mostly
have paired pigmented eye-spots, each with a lens, imbedded in the brain.—
M. H., Jan. 1901.]
ARCHIANNELIDA, POLYCHAETA, AND MYZOSTOMARIA
BY
W. BLAXLAND BENHAM, D.Sc. (Lond.), Hon. M.A. (Oxon.)
CHAPTER IX
THE CHAETOPODOUS WORMS—THE ARCHIANNELIDA—ANATOMY OF NEREIS, AS

TYPICAL OF THE POLYCHAETA
Those animals which possess lateral bundles of bristles (technically termed

"chaetae") for use in locomotion constitute the group of "Bristle-worms," or
Chaetopoda. The body of these animals is made up of a preoral lobe or
prostomium, and a number of more or less distinct segments following one
another in a line, and repeating one another in their internal and external structure.
The Chaetopoda embrace the following smaller groups or Orders:—I.
Archiannelida, II. Polychaeta, III. Myzostomaria, IV. Oligochaeta. The
Archiannelida, although without the characteristic chaetae, are yet anatomically so
similar to the true Chaetopoda that they must be included in the group, just as
certain fishes are classed as "Vertebrata," although they do not possess
vertebrae. The old term Annelida is sometimes used to include the above-
mentioned groups, together with the Gephyrea[292] and the Hirudinea or leeches.
Order I. Archiannelida.
The Archiannelida are very simple worms, but simplicity may be, and very
frequently is, the result of degeneration; and it is not always possible to determine
whether a simple animal is primitively, i.e. ancestrally simple, or whether it is
secondarily simplified. Hence the term Haplodrili has been employed by Professor
Lankester as the name of the group; a term which does not prejudge the question
as to whether or not the worms are "primitive." It is quite possible, and even
probable, that Dinophilus is ancestrally simple; whilst many features in Polygordius
appear to be the result of simplification. For this reason it would be well to
separate Dinophilus from the other two genera, on account of its much less
elaborate and more generalised structure,—so generalised, in fact, that the worm
is by some authorities placed amongst the Planarians; for the present, however,
the group Archiannelida may be regarded as containing three genera: Dinophilus,
Protodrilus, and Polygordius.[293]
Fig. 121.—Dinophilus taeniatus. (From Harmer.) The left figure represents the dorsal
surface of a young individual, × 76; the mouth and alimentary tract are seen by
transparency: p, prostomium, with two bands of cilia and a pair of eyes; a,
anus; t, tail; 1 to 5, the segments with ciliated bands. The right figure shows the
anatomy of the male, × 38: b, rectum; c, body-cavity; d, vas deferens; m,
muscular organ (pharynx); n', the first nephridium; oe, entrance to oesophagus;
p, penis; st, intestine (stomach); s.x, seminal vesicle (5th nephridium).
Dinophilus is represented on our coasts by at least two species: D. gigas

Weldon[294] and D. taeniatus Harmer.[295] The latter is about one-twelfth of an
inch in length, bright orange in colour, and more or less abundant, at springtime, in
the rock pools around Plymouth, where it may be found amongst green algae, or
on the mud at the bottom of the pools.
The animal consists of a broad prostomium, with a pair of eyes; and of a body,
distinctly constricted in immature specimens into five or six segments, followed by
a short conical tail. There are neither chaetae nor tentacles; locomotion is chiefly
effected by means of the bands of cilia which encircle the body in a regular
fashion, two bands round the head, and two round each segment in D. taeniatus;
in some species there is only a single band on each segment. The whole of the
ventral surface is covered with cilia, by the aid of which the animal probably
"creeps" along the weeds.
The alimentary canal is straight, and divisible into the regions shown in Fig. 121; a
muscular protrusible organ, which is a ventral outgrowth of the foregut, is
employed as a "sucker." The coelom is more or less obliterated (or ill developed).
The excretory system in the genus is varied: in some species, as in D. gigas, it is
stated to be constructed on the Planarian plan; in others, as in D. taeniatus, the
organs are definite nephridia. Of these tubes there are five pairs, the last pair in
the male serving as a seminal vesicle. Each nephridium is a ciliated tube, the
internal end of which lies in the body-cavity and appears to be blocked by a
ciliated tongue-shaped appendage. The first pair corresponds to the "larval
nephridia" of Trochosphere larvae.
The nervous system, which is in contact with the epidermis, consists of a brain in
the prostomium, and, on each side of the body, a ventral cord with five ganglia,
connected by transverse commissures in as many segments.
The sexes are separate, and are usually similar; the male of D. gyrociliatus is,
however, much smaller than the female. The generative organs occupy the greater
part of the body-cavity; in the male the testes communicate, by means of the pair
of seminal vesicles, with a median eversible apparatus. In the female the paired
ovaries communicate with a median sac which serves as a spermatheca.
The development is simple:[296] the worm itself is more like a larval Polychaete
than a full-grown worm. Dinophilus is an extremely interesting form, and it has
been suggested that, while still possessing certain Planarian characteristics, it
may be looked upon as closely resembling the ancestor from which the
Chaetopoda have arisen.
Protodrilus and Polygordius are distinctly Annelidan in character. Protodrilus[297] is

found in the mud of the "Pantano," an inlet of the sea near Messina; whilst of
Polygordius[298] one species at least occurs on our shores, and several others in
the Mediterranean and elsewhere. The worms are cylindrical, with many
segments, but these segments are only indistinctly marked externally—by girdles
of cilia in Protodrilus, or by faint grooves in Polygordius; but there are none of the
characteristic Chaetopod bristles or chaetae. The small prostomium which
overhangs the mouth is provided with a pair of ciliated pits, and carries a pair of
tentacles, serving as sensory organs, which, in Protodrilus, are also respiratory.
The anus is surrounded by glandular papillae in Polygordius, by means of which
the animal can fix itself; these are represented in Protodrilus by a couple of
processes.
The nervous system lies entirely in the epidermis. The body-cavity is regularly
segmented by transverse septa passing from the body-wall to the intestinal wall.
The foregut presents a slight eversible portion in Polygordius, whilst in Protodrilus
it has a peculiar U-shaped muscular diverticulum on its ventral surface,
corresponding with the similar apparatus in Dinophilus; it is capable of eversion,
and aids the worm in burrowing, as well as in seizing and swallowing the mud. The
vascular system is represented by a dorsal and a ventral vessel, neither of which,
however, is contractile. In Protodrilus the dorsal vessel divides into two branches
in the first segment, each of which passes to the tip of the tentacle, and returning,
joins its fellow to form the ventral vessel. In some species of Polygordius there is a
pair of vessels connecting the dorsal and ventral vessels in every segment, but no
vessel to the tentacle. The blood is colourless in some species of Polygordius, but
may be yellow (P. neapolitanus), red (P. lacteus), or green (P. erythrophthalmus).
Paired nephridia, with distinct funnels, occur regularly throughout the body.
The sexes are separate in Polygordius, whilst Protodrilus is hermaphrodite,

bearing ova in the first seven segments and testes in the remaining segments.
The genital cells are produced from the body-wall in every segment; their mode of
discharge is unknown in the male Polygordius, though probably the nephridia
convey the spermatozoa to the exterior; but in the female the body-wall ruptures to
allow the ova to escape, and then the animal dies. The development of
Polygordius has been made the subject of very careful study; the larva has long
been known, and is a typical "trochosphere" of rather a depressed form. This
"trochosphere" larva is of considerable importance, as it makes its appearance in
sundry groups of animals in some form or another. Here, in Polygordius, it has the
appearance of a couple of wide but low cones united together by their bases,
which form the equator of the larva. This equator carries a double girdle of cilia,
dividing the animal into a preoral and postoral region; for the mouth is placed on
one side of the animal between the two girdles, while the anus lies at the apex of
the postoral cone, and is surrounded by another girdle of cilia. The alimentary
canal is divisible into three regions; it is separated from the body-wall by an
extensive space, which contains cells destined to give rise to muscles and
nephridia. A nervous system (apical plate) is present at the apex of the preoral
cone. This little larva swims freely on the surface of the sea, moving, balancing,
and feeding by means of the girdle of cilia. It soon increases in length by the active
growth of the apex of the postoral cone, which becomes cylindrical and then
segmented externally and internally. The greater part of the original larva remains
of the same shape as before, and forms the head (prostomium and peristomium):
small tentacles grow out of the preoral lobe, and after a gradual reduction in the
relative size of the "head" by the growth of the segmented "body," the animal
becomes worm-like and develops into a Polygordius.[299]
Order II. Polychaeta.
Anatomy of Nereis.—In order to obtain a general idea of a Polychaete worm, it is

well to study a concrete example, and for this purpose the common Nereis serves
excellently. Several species (see p. 315) occur more or less commonly on our
coasts, and the general remarks will apply to one as well as to another.
Nereis pelagica Linnaeus reaches a length of 5 to 6 inches, and is about ¼ inch

across. It is convex above, nearly flat below. Its colour is brown or bronze. The
worm, which is to be found in shallow water, is made up of a considerable number
of rings or segments, constituting the "trunk" or "body," terminated at each end by
modified segments known as "head" and "tail" (Fig. 122). The segments
composing the trunk are all alike, except for small proportional differences, and it
will be convenient to describe a "typical segment" before referring to the head or
tail.
A typical body segment carries on each side a muscular lobed outgrowth,

bearing bundles of bristles or "chaetae," and filamentous sensory organs known
as "cirri." To this lateral locomotor organ Huxley gave the name "parapodium" (Fig.
124). Each parapodium or foot consists of a basal portion, supporting a dorsal and
a ventral process, the "notopodium" (ntp) and "neuropodium" (nrp) respectively,
each of which is bilobed. The lobes are very vascular and glandular, and probably
serve as respiratory organs or "gills."
Fig. 122.—Nereis pelagica L., natural size. (From Ehlers.)
Fig. 123.—Chaetae of Nereis; enlarged. A, from neuropodium; B, from notopodium

of N. diversicolor; C, swimming chaeta of Heteronereid stage of N. dumerilii.
The chaetae, or bristles, of each bundle project from the mouth of a great sac, the
lips of which are particularly prominent in Nereis. Each chaeta arises from a single
cell situated at the bottom of the sac. The chaetae of Nereis, as of many other
Polychaetes, are of a kind usually termed compound or "jointed," each being
composed of a long stalk and a small "appendix" articulated in a cup at its
extremity (Fig. 123). The shape of the cup varies; it is in some cases of equal
height all round, or it is higher on one side than on the other. Further, the appendix
may be short and curved, or more elongate and spear-like; it is generally notched
or finely toothed on one side.
Fig. 124.—Nereis. Somewhat diagrammatic transverse section through the body. On

the left the chief constituents of the vascular system are represented; on the
right side the chaetae and their muscles, as well as the distribution of the
lateral nerve, etc., are shown. ac, aciculum; bv, network of blood-vessels; ch,
chaetae (only a few are shown) in two bundles; ch.l, lips of the chaetigerous
sac; cil.org, dorsal ciliated organ; cir, circular muscular coat; coe, coelom; d.cir,
dorsal cirrus; d.long, dorsal bundle of longitudinal muscles; d.ve, dorsal blood
trunk; ep, epidermis; INT, intestine; int.cap, blood capillaries in its wall; m.ch,
muscles which move the chaetae; N.c, ventral nerve cord; ner, lateral sensory
nerve, dividing into a ventral branch entering the ventral cirrus, and a dorsal
branch (n.cir) for the dorsal cirrus; neph, nephridium, seen through the oblique
muscle through which its funnel passes; nrp, neuropodium; nrp.lig, neuropodial
lobe or ligule; ntp, notopodium; ntp.lig, notopodial ligule; obl, oblique transverse
muscle (muscle of the parapodium); pv, peripheral blood-vessel; v.cir, ventral
cirrus; v.long, ventral bundle of longitudinal muscles; v.ve, ventral blood trunk.
In addition to these projecting locomotor chaetae, there is embedded in each of

the two chaetigerous lobes a much stouter and dark-coloured, needle-shaped
bristle known as an "aciculum," whose point only just projects beyond the surface.
This aciculum extends into the interior of the body much farther than do the
locomotor chaetae, and it is to it that the muscles serving to move the whole
bundle of chaetae are attached. The acicula thus serve as an internal skeleton to
the parapodium. The shape of the parapodium, the relative lengths of cirri and
lobes, the shape and arrangement of the chaetae, are all employed as specific
characters.
The head consists of a preoral portion above the mouth, the "prostomium," and a
postoral region surrounding the mouth, the "peristomium" (Fig. 125). The
prostomium varies in shape in different species of Nereis; but it always carries on
its dorsal surface two pairs of eyes. From its narrower anterior end there arises a
pair of short, somewhat conical, sensory processes known as the "prostomial
tentacles." A second pair of processes springs from the under surface, and rather
to the side of the prostomium; these are known as the "palps," and in Nereis are
much more conspicuous than the tentacles; each is composed of two parts, a
large basal piece and a smaller terminal joint, capable of being withdrawn into the
former. The palps are highly muscular, and though they are sensory organs, act
also as great lateral lips.
Fig. 125.—Nereis diversicolor Müll. × 4. Head, with buccal region everted. A, Dorsal
view; B, ventral view. a, Prostomium; B, everted buccal region; c, c',
peristomial cirri, 1, 2, 3, 4; d, denticles or paragnaths; e, eyes; E, lower lip; P,
palp in A, entrance to pharynx in B; J, jaw; T, tentacle; I, peristomium; II, foot of
apparent second segment.
The peristomium is in many species of Nereis (as in N. pelagica) considerably

larger than the trunk segments; it carries at its anterior edge four filiform cirri on
each side, which are directed forwards and used as feelers. They are arranged in
couples; a more anterior couple of dorsal and ventral cirri, and a more posterior
couple of dorsal and ventral cirri.
The Tail.—As the most anterior segment is perforated by the mouth, and is
modified as described above, so the last or anal segment, which carries the anus,
differs from the rest. It is more or less elongated, cylindrical, and without parapodia
or chaetae. It retains, however, its pair of ventral cirri, which are very long.
Internal Anatomy.—In correspondence with the external metamerism there is an

internal repetition of parts. For, except in the anterior segments, where the
powerful protrusible pharynx is situated, the body-cavity or "coelom" is divided into
a series of chambers, by means of muscular septa inserted, on the one hand, into
the body-wall at the level of the grooves between the external segments, and, on
the other, into the wall of the alimentary canal. Each of these coelomic chambers
contains a pair of nephridia, a portion of the intestine, of the vascular system, and
of the nervous system, as will be seen in Fig. 124.
The epidermis, which forms the outer part of the body-wall, consists of a single
layer of cells, covered externally by a thin, tough cuticle. The latter is usually
stated to consist of the chemical substance known as chitin, but since the cuticle
differs from true chitin by dissolving in caustic potash after a time, Eisig[300] has
suggested that its substance is merely a stage in the formation of chitin. The
epidermis contains gland-cells, which are especially abundant on the lobes of the
parapodia. Below the epidermis lies the circular coat of muscles by whose
contraction the worm diminishes its diameter: it is interrupted on each side at the
junction of the parapodium with the body. Deeper still lie the longitudinal muscles,
which form four great bundles, two dorsal, separated by the insertion of a small
mesentery and dorsal blood-vessel, and two ventral bundles separated in the
middle line by the nerve-cords. These longitudinal muscles, by their contraction,
bend the worm from side to side, and are continuous from segment to segment. A
very characteristic muscle, present in all the Polychaeta, is an obliquely transverse
sheet of fibres passing from the body-wall at the side of the nerve-cord to the
parapodium, where it spreads out and serves to move the parapodium (Fig. 124).
All these muscles consist of smooth fibres, as in the earthworm.
The alimentary canal may be divided into the following four regions:—(1) buccal
or eversible region, (2) pharynx, carrying the great jaws, (3) oesophagus, (4)
intestine.
The first two regions constitute an "introvert" (Lankester[301]). When fully everted
the whole of the buccal region is turned inside out, and the terminal aperture leads
directly into the pharynx, which is not everted but merely protruded. Throughout
the following chapters the word "buccal" region is used for that part—if any—which
is thus everted (Figs. 125, 126).
Both the buccal and pharyngeal regions are wrapped round by several coats of
muscle, to form apparently a single muscular organ (Fig. 127, sh), which occupies
about eight segments in a condition of complete introversion. The septa are
absent from the anterior part of the body.
Fig. 126.—Diagrams to illustrate the action of the Chaetopodan "introvert." (From

Lang.) A shows the apparatus at rest; the mouth leads into the buccal cavity
(B), with paragnaths in its wall; P, the pharynx, with jaws at its anterior end; c,
brain; p, protractor muscles; r, retractors. B, the pharynx has been brought
forward or protruded by the eversion, or turning inside out, of the buccal region,
so that the jaws (j) now lie some way in front of the head, which is represented
by the brain.
The buccal region is lined with chitin, which is specially thickened at certain
definite spots, forming small "denticles" or "paragnaths" (Fig. 125), which have a
different arrangement in the various species.
The cavity of the pharynx is narrow and the walls thick and muscular; each side
wall carries a large, dark, chitinous "jaw" (Fig. 127, J), which is hollow at the base,
into which the muscles serving to move it are inserted, whilst the apex is solid,
curved, and more or less notched. These two great jaws are used not only for
tearing prey, but for seizing it; for when the pharynx is entirely protruded the two
jaws are wide apart, and when retraction takes place they come together and
grasp the prey.
Eversion of the apparatus is partly effected by protractor muscles (Fig. 126, A, p)

and partly by the pressure of the coelomic fluid, compressed by the muscles of the
body-wall; the eversion is stopped at a certain stage by a sheet of muscular tissue
or "diaphragm" (Fig. 127, diaph) inserted round the buccal region and attached to
the body-wall in the second segment. The introversion is effected partly by the
contraction of this diaphragm and partly by the action of powerful retractor
muscles (Fig. 126, r) inserted into the hinder end of the pharynx and passing to
the body-wall (these are removed in Fig. 127). The movement of the jaws
themselves and of the wall of the apparatus is due to other muscles.
The oesophagus is quite short; into it opens a pair of sacculated diverticula or

glands. Then follows the intestine, which extends through the rest of the body as a
thin-walled tube, slightly dilated at the insertion of the septa.
Fig. 127.—Nereis, laid open by removal of the dorsal body-wall. br, Cerebral
ganglion, from which three pairs of nerves are represented as arising; a pair to
the tentacles, a pair to the palps, and a pair (con) passing one on each side of
the buccal region, to join the ventral nerve-cord; mo, mouth, exposed by
removal of the dorsal wall of the buccal region (Buc); pgn, the paragnaths in its
wall; Ph, pharynx; J, the large "jaws" embedded in its wall; J.mus, the muscles
which work the jaws; sh, the muscular sheath; diaph, the "diaphragm"; oes,
oesophagus; gl, its glands; st, stomach; int, intestine; Sept, septum; d.v, dorsal
blood trunk; p.v, perivisceral branches, one pair in each segment; P, palp; t,
tentacle; per, peristomium; per.ci, two of the four peristomial cirri; ppIII, the first
parapodium which belongs to the third true, but second apparent, segment;
cir.m, circular muscular coat; lg.m, longitudinal muscular coat of the body-wall.
The vascular system consists of a contractile dorsal vessel and of a non-

contractile ventral vessel extending along the whole length of the body, from each
of which paired and segmentally-arranged vessels pass to the intestinal wall and
to the body-wall, and here form extensive capillary networks (Fig. 124, p. 247).
This type of vascular system is pretty generally adhered to throughout the Order,
but in the Terebelliformia, Scoleciformia, and Cryptocephala the dorsal vessel and
capillary plexus on the intestine are replaced by a continuous blood sinus, situated
in the substance of the gut-wall. This "perienteric sinus" has the same relation to
the segmental vessels as the dorsal vessel has in the Nereidiformia, and from it a
tubular dorsal vessel arises anteriorly. In Arenicola the sinus is preceded in the
young stage by a network the branches of which gradually enlarge, meet, and fuse
to form the sinus.[302] Whether it is in all cases secondary is a moot point.
This system of vessels in the majority of Chaetopoda contains a respiratory fluid

coloured red[303] by haemoglobin in solution; in it float a very few small oval
nucleated non-amoeboid corpuscles. But the place of this red pigment is taken by
a green one, named "chlorocruorin," in the Chlorhaemidae and many
Sabelliformia;[304] whilst in Magelona[305] the blood is tinted madder-pink by a
number of globules of "haemerythrin." The blood (or "haemal fluid") is driven
forwards in the dorsal vessel, and passes backwards in the ventral vessel.
Respiration in Nereis is carried on by the whole surface of the body, but naturally
with greater activity in the surface of the parapodia, the lobes of which, with their
extensive vascular plexus, may be termed "gills"; but it must be borne in mind that
these organs have other functions as well.
The coelomic fluid, which fills the general body-cavity, is colourless, and contains
amoeboid corpuscles or "leucocytes." It corresponds to the lymph of Vertebrates,
being nutritive in function, in that it conveys absorbed material from the wall of the
intestine to the organs of the body, and at the same time removes any waste
substances from these organs; these waste substances contain nitrogen, and are
ultimately removed by the nephridia. In Ophelia many of the corpuscles contain a
curious dumb-bell-shaped rod of chitin, and it has been shown[306] that this
substance is a highly complex form of excretory material,—more complex than
guanin, for instance, which exists in the corpuscles of the Capitelliformia.
In Glyceridae, Capitelliformia, and Polycirrus haematodes (a Terebellid), the

vascular system is absent, and the coelomic corpuscles become coloured by
haemoglobin, and in order that the coelomic fluid may be distributed to the organs
of the body, the peritoneum is ciliated along certain definite tracts. The fluid in
these "anangian" worms thus combines originally separate functions, and behaves
like the "blood" of Vertebrates.
The excretory system is represented by a pair of nephridia in each segment, with

the exception of a few anteriorly and a few posteriorly. The nephridium of Nereis
differs from that of most other Polychaetes hitherto examined carefully, and rather
resembles that of the Oligochaetous Enchytraeids. It consists of a compact gland-
like organ, containing a much coiled tube, ciliated for the greater part of its length,
but deprived of cilia in its last coils; this latter part—or duct—leaves the "gland"
and pierces the body-wall, opening to the exterior at the base of the parapodium.
The ciliated canal passes forwards into the next segment, where it opens by a
funnel into the coelom. The lip of the funnel is extremely curious, for the cells
constituting it are drawn out into very long, delicate processes covered with cilia.
[307]
Fig. 128.—Nephridium of Nereis. (From Goodrich.) f, Funnel; n, neck, which passes

through a septum; t, coiled tubule; c, connective tissue; d, duct.
In most Polychaetes the nephridium is a wide, sac-like tube as in Arenicola[308]

(Fig. 129). Its walls are covered by a dense network of blood-vessels, and it not
only acts as an excretory organ, but also as a genital duct (see p. 273).
Excretion, in the strict sense of the word, is carried out by the cells forming the
wall of the tube; they remove waste materials from the blood distributed over the
surface of the organ. But, in addition, there is a removal from the coelom, by
means of the funnel, of any dead or dying coelomic corpuscles which in their turn
have eaten up or otherwise destroyed foreign bodies (such as Bacteria, etc.) that
may have entered the animal.
In Nereis there is in each segment, in addition to the pair of nephridia, a pair of

"dorsal ciliated organs" (Goodrich) (cil.org in Fig. 124). Each appears as a wide-
mouthed funnel, greatly folded, and without any permanent outlet. But it is
possible that these organs function as genital ducts, and that the external aperture
will make its appearance temporarily at the period of maturity. This "dorsal ciliated
organ" has not been met with in allied genera—such as Eunice, Nephthys,
Polynoë, Glycera—where the nephridium is a wide tube, and serves as a genital
duct.
Fig. 129.—Nephridium of Arenicola. (From Benham.) × 4. d, Dorsal lip of funnel; v,

ventral lip of funnel; b, blood-vessel (all the black lines are blood-vessels); m,
dilated bladder; x, part cut away from body-wall where the nephridium is
passing to the exterior.
The nervous system, as in all Chaetopods, consists of a dorsal cerebral ganglion

or "brain" (Fig. 127, br), connected by circum-buccal commissures with the
anterior end of a ventral chain of ganglia. The brain occupies the prostomium,[309]
and from it nerves pass away to the prostomial tentacles and palps. The circum-
buccal commissures spring from the outer corner of the brain, and from each
arises a nerve to the first pair of peristomial cirri. The first ventral ganglion lies in
the third segment, and represents at least two ganglion-pairs fused together, for
from it arise (1) a pair of nerves to the second pair of peristomial cirri and (2) a pair
to the first parapodium. In the remainder of the body there is a ganglion in each
segment, whence nerves pass outwards to the parapodium and muscles of the
segment (Fig. 124).
In Nereis the apparently single ganglion in each segment really consists of two
halves, and the apparently single cord which traverses the whole length of the
body consists of two closely apposed cords. In some worms, such as Serpulidae,
the two cords are more or less widely separated, and the two ganglia of each
segment are thus distinct, and connected by a transverse commissure. In Nereis,
as well as in many other Polychaeta, the nerve-cords lie within the body-wall, but
in other cases they lie in the epidermis, as they do in Archiannelida.
The visceral nervous system, supplying the muscles of the pharynx, is frequently
highly developed. In Nereis it arises on each side by two roots, one from the brain,
the second from the circum-buccal commissure.
Fig. 130.—Eye of Nereis. (After Andrews.) × 150. A, Section through the entire eye;
c, cuticle; e, epidermis; l, lens; h, rods; r, retina; n, optic nerve: B, isolated
retinal element; c, cell; p, pigment; h, rod: f, nerve-fibre.
The organs of sense in Nereis are eyes, tentacles, palps, and cirri. The four
eyes, which rest upon the brain, have the structure represented in Fig. 130. The
retina consists of a single layer of cells containing pigment; each cell is drawn out
peripherally into a nerve-fibre, whilst centrally it forms a cuticular product—the
"rod" (h). The edges of the retina are continuous with the surrounding epidermis,
and the cup thus formed remains widely opened to the cuticle in a few
Polychaetes, e.g. Autolytus, and in the young of Nereis, but more usually it has the
relations represented in the figure. The lens is produced by the retinal cells
(according to Andrews[310]), and is in some cases (Eunice, Amphinome)
continuous with the cuticle. It appears to be composed in other cases
(Lepidonotus) of continuations of the retinal rods. The structure of the other sense
organs indicates their adaptation to a tactile function; in each case a nerve
traverses the axis of the organ, and the nerve-fibrils terminate in sensory cells.
Very probably the palps have a certain power of testing the food—a combination
of the senses of taste and smell.
The Generative System.—In all the Polychaeta, with very few exceptions, the
sexes are separate; and the reproductive cells—ova and spermatozoa—are
produced at certain seasons of the year by the rapid proliferation and modification
of coelomic epithelial cells surrounding the blood-vessels in the parapodium and
its immediate neighbourhood. The sexual cells remain in the coelom till they are
ripe.
The egg-cells become filled with yolk globules; a vitelline membrane is present,
and an outer coat of albuminous material. It is doubtful by what means these
sexual cells are discharged in Nereis. There is some evidence that the "dorsal
ciliated organ" may act as a genital duct. In some other worms the nephridia serve
this purpose, whilst in others a rupture of the body-wall allows the products to
escape into the sea. According to Wistinghausen,[311] at the time of discharge the
females of Nereis dumerilii become surrounded by a kind of gelatinous tube
formed from a secretion of the parapodial glands, and into this tube the ova are
discharged, and arranged in a single layer round its wall.
The common species Nereis diversicolor is viviparous. In a large number of
species of Nereis the sexually-mature individuals undergo very marked changes in
various parts of their body, so that they differ very greatly from the immature
individuals.
These changes resulting in the "heteronereid" condition will be dealt with at some
length in Chap. X. p. 276. The larvae of Polychaetes and other facts connected
with reproduction are described in the same chapter.
CHAPTER X
CLASSIFICATION OF THE POLYCHAETA—SHAPE—HEAD—PARAPODIA—CHAETAE—GILLS

—INTERNAL ORGANS—JAWS—SENSE ORGANS—REPRODUCTION—LARVAL FORMS—
BUDDING—FISSION—BRANCHING—REGENERATION.
The Polychaeta are marine worms whose bodies are usually elongated and
cylindrical; they either lead a free life, swimming in the open sea, or crawling along
the bottom; or they pass their life in burrows or definite tubes of various kinds.
Each segment is normally provided on each side with a single or a couple of

bundles of chaetae, by means of which locomotion is effected. These, in the free-
living forms, are carried at the ends of lateral muscular outgrowths of the body,
known as "parapodia," which are practically limbs.
The "head" of the worm generally carries eyes, and frequently more or less
elongated tactile organs, the "tentacles" dorsally and "palps" ventrally. The foregut
is frequently provided with a masticating apparatus in its anterior region, which is
capable of protrusion; but this apparatus is absent in many burrowing and
tubicolous forms. The sexes are separate, so that there is no such complicated
system of generative organs as occurs in the Oligochaeta. The nephridia usually
act as genital ducts. In the majority of cases the egg develops into a larva, the
"Trochosphere," which leads a free life and undergoes a greater or less
metamorphosis into the adult condition.
The classification of Polychaeta adopted in this work is as follows:[312]—
Branch A. Phanerocephala.
Sub-Order 1. Nereidiformia [= Errantia, auctt. + Ariciidae].

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Electric Vehicle Components and Charging Technologies: Design, Modeling, Simulation and Control (Transportation) Professor Sanjeev Singh

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Electric Vehicle Components and

Charging Technologies: Design,

Process Control: Modeling, Design, and Simulation 2nd

Power Electronics Step-by-Step: Design, Modeling,

Power Electronics Step-by-Step: Design, Modeling,

Practical Control of Electric Machines Model Based

Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History Workbook 2C - Depth

Wireless Power Transfer for E-Mobility: Fundamentals

Electric Vehicle Engineering 1st Edition Enge

Battery Technologies Materials and Components Jianmin

The Institution of Engineering and Technology

The Institution of Engineering and Technology

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

ISBN 978-1-83953-671-7 (hardback)

Typeset in India by MPS Limited

About the editors xiii

1 Electric vehicles and its components 1

2 Electric vehicle fundamentals 9

2.3 Economic and environmental impact of conventional vehicle

3 Electric energy sources and storage device 31

4 Power electronic essentials in electric vehicle 73

5 Design, modeling, simulation, and control of electric vehicle 83

6 Design, modelling, simulation and control of electric machines and

6.3.3 IPM machine performance from FE analysis 112

7 Battery management system for electric vehicle 147

7.5 BMS functionalities 159

8 Fault–tolerant operation of electric vehicles 183

9 Design, simulation, and control of battery charger for

9.6.4 Regenerative braking mode 212

10 Power quality control of battery charging system 229

11 Wireless power transfer for electric vehicle 269

11.1.2 Potential gain with wireless charging 270

12 Grid integration of electric vehicles 297

13 Regulations and standards of electric vehicles 333

13.5 Safety standards for charging infrastructure 337

Sanjeev Singh is a professor in the Electrical Engineering Department at Maulana

Sanjay Gairola is a professor in the Electrical Engineering Department at Govind

Sanjeet Dwivedi is a senior technology leader at green hydrogen based Danish

Components and Charging Technologies” will become an essential reference in the

Sanjeev Singh, Bhopal India

Pollution from vehicles Accidents on roads Traffic congestion and

Figure 1.1 Problems with vehicles

1.2 History of EVs

1.3 Conventional vehicles and hybrid EVs

1.4 EV and major components

Figure 1.2 Layout of an EV

1.4.1 Drive motor

1.4.3 Battery charging circuit

1.4.4 Power electronic converters

1.4.7 Energy management system

1.4.8 Regenerative braking system

1.5 Economics and impact of EVs

1.6 Important aspects of EV technologies

The important aspects of EV technologies that must be discussed are as follows.

1.6.1 Motor drive technology

1.6.2 Energy source technology

1.6.3 Battery charging technology

1.6.4 Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology