Clinical Chemistry: Chapter 1
Chemicals in this group may be pure enough for use in
UNIT OF MEASURE:
1. What are the two components of a meaningful
quantitative laboratory results.
-The number related to the actual test value.
-A label identifying units.
2. It defines the physical quantity or dimension, such as
mass, length, time, or volume.
-Unit
3. This system was devised to provide the global scientific
community with a uniform method of describing
physical quantities.
-Systeme International d’Unites (SI)
4. It is preferred in scientific literature and clinical
laboratories and is the only system employed in many
countries.
-System International d’Unites (SI)
5. It is based on the metric system.
-SI unit/system
6. How many are the basic units in the SI units and
enumerate each.
-7.
1. Length (m)
2. Mass (kg)
3. Time (s)
4. Electric current (A)
5. Thermodynamic temperature (K)
6. Amount of substance (mol)
7. Luminous intensity (cd)
7. A mathematical function describing one of the basic
units.
-Derived units
8. In clinical laboratory the term ____ is used for mass
rather than kilogram
-gram
REAGENTS
1. Enumerate the varying grades of purity of Analytic
chemicals.
-1. Reagent grade or Analytic reagent (AR)
2. Ultrapure, chemically pure (CP)
3. United States Pharmacopeia (USP)
4. National Formulary (NF)
5. Technical or commercial grade
2. Chemicals with _____ are suitable for use in most
analytic laboratory procedures.
-AR
3. They stablished specifications for AR grade chemicals,
and chemical manufacturers must either meet or
exceed these requirements.
-American Chemical Society (ACS)
4. These chemicals have additional purification steps for
use in specific procedures such as chromatography,
immunoassay, molecular diagnostics, standardization,
or other techniques that require extremely pure
chemicals.
-Ultrapure chemicals
5. Are used to manufacture drugs, the limitations
established for this group of chemicals are based only
on the criterion of not being injurious to individuals.
-USP and NF grade chemicals
6.
most chemical procedures, but the purity standards
they meet are not based on the needs of the laboratory
and may or may not meet all assay requirements.
-USP and NF grade chemicals
7. Reagents designations of ___ or ______ indicates that
the impurity limitations are not uniform.
-CP or ultrapure grade
8. These types of chemicals are used primarily in
manufacturing and should never be used in the clinical
laboratory.
-Commercial grade reagents
9. Laws related to the _______ require manufacturer to
indicate any physical or biological health hazards and
precautions needed for the safe use, storage, and
disposal of any chemical.
-OSHA
REFERENCE MATERIALS
1. Biological by-products found in biological fluids.
-1. Serum
2. Plasma
3. Urine
2. Is a highly purified chemical that can be measured
directly to have an exact known concentration and
purity.
-Primary standard
3. The National Institute of Standards and Technology has
certified ______ that are used in place of ACS primary
standard materials.
-standard reference materials (SRMs)
4. It can be used in place of an ACS primary standard in
clinical word and is often used to verify _______ or
accuracy/bias assessments.
-Calibration
5. Standard reference materials (SRM) are used for
______ studies to determine the relationship between
the standard’s concentration and the instrument result.
-Linearity
6. It is required when a new test or new test methodology
is introduced.
-Linearity studies
7. Is a process that pairs an analytical signal with a
concentration value of an analyte.
-Calibration of an instrument
WATER SPECIFICATIONS
1. It is the most frequently used reagents in the
laboratory.
-water
2. Is unsuitable for laboratory applications.
-Tap water
3. It is the water that has been substantially purified that
is used in most procedures, including reagent and
control preparation.
-Reagent-grade water
4. Enumerate the various water purification methods.
-1. Distillation, ion exchange, reverse osmosis,
ultrafiltration, ultraviolet light, sterilization, and ozone
treatment.
5. Enumerate the categories reagent-grade water is
classified.
-Clinical laboratory reagent water (CLSI).
 special reagent water (SRW). 5. Is the most commonly used percent solution in the
instrument feed water. clinical laboratory and is defined as the number of
water supplied by method manufacturer. grams of solute in 100 mL of solution.
autoclave and wash water. -weigh per volume
commercially bottled purified water. 6. Is expressed as the number of moles per 1 L of solution.
6. Requires laboratories to define the specific type of -Molarity
water required for each of its testing procedures and 7. Represents the amount of solute per 1 kg of solvent.
requires water quality testing at least annually. -Molality
-College of American Pathologist 8. The least likely of the four concentration expressions to
7. Has been purified to remove almost all organic be encountered in clinical laboratories but is often used
materials, using a technique of distillation where water in chemical titrations and chemical reagent
is boiled and vaporized. classification.
-Distilled water -Normality
8. Are excellent in removing particulate matter, 9. The number of gram equivalent weights per 1 L of
microorganisms, and any pyrogens or endotoxins. solution
-Ultrafiltration and nanofiltration -Normality
9. Has some or all ions removed, although organic 10. Equal to gmw of a substance divided by its valence.
materials may still be present, so it is neither pure nor -Equivalent weight
sterile. 11. The number of units that can combine with or replace
-Deionized water 1 mole of hydrogen ions for acids and hydroxyl ions for
10. It is a process that used pressure to force water based and the number of electrons exchanged in
through a semipermeable membrane, producing a oxidation-reduction reactions.
filtered product, it can also be used for pretreatment of -Valence
water, but it does not remove dissolved gas. 12. When no more solvent can be dissolved in the solution.
-Reverse osmosis -Saturated
11. Can remove particulate matter from municipal water
supplies before any additional treatments. 13. Enumerate the extent of saturation.
-Filtration  Dilute
 Concentrated
SOLUTION PROPERTIES  Saturated
1. A substance that is dissolved in a liquid is called.  Supersaturated
-Solute 14. Is one in which there is relatively little solute or one
2. A biological solute is called as an that has a lower solute concentration per volume of
-Analyte solvent than the original.
3. The liquid in which the solute is dissolved is. -Dilute solution
-Solvent
4. Together the solute and solvent represent a. 15. Has a large quantity of solution in solution.
-Solution -Concentrated solution
5. What are the basic properties that can describe a
chemical or biological solution. 16. A solution in which there is an excess of undissolved
 Concentration solute particles.
 Saturation -Saturated solution
 Colligative properties
 Redox potential 17. Has an even greater concentration of undissolved
 Conductivity solute particles than a saturated solution of the same
 Density substance. And is thermodynamically unstable.
 pH -Supersaturated solution
 ionic strength
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
CONCENTRATION 1. Properties related to the number of solute particles per
1. It is commonly expressed as percent solution, molarity, solvent molecule, not on the type of particles present.
molality, or normality. -Colligative properties.
-Concentration 2. Enumerate the four properties that are demonstrated
2. The amount of solute per 100 total units of solutions. by the behavior if particles or solute in solution. Or give
-Percent solution the colligative properties.
3. Refers to the number of grams of solute per 100 g of -Osmotic pressure, vapor pressure, freezing point, and
solution. boiling point.
-weight per weight 3. Is the pressure that opposes osmosis when a solvent
4. Is used for liquid solutes and give the milliliters of flows through a semipermeable membrane to establish
solute in 100 mL of solution. equilibrium between compartments of differing
-Volume per volume concentration.
-Osmotic pressure
 2. These type or classes of glassware are much preffered
4. Is the pressure exerted by the vapor when the liquid in laboratory applications.
solvent is in equilibrium with the vapor. -Class A
-Vapor pressure 3. Generally have twice the tolerance limits of Class A,
5. Is the temperature at which the first crystal of solvent event of they appear identical, and are often found in
forms in equilibrium with the solution. student laboratories where durability is needed.
-Freezing point -Class B
6. Is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the 4. Do not deliver the volume measured when the liquid is
solvent reaches atmospheric pressure (usually 1 transferred into the container
atmosphere) -To contain (TC) devices
-Boiling point 5. Means that the labware will deliver the amount
measured
REDOX POTENTIAL -To deliver (TD)
1. Is a measure of the ability of a solution to accept or 6. What are the categories of glassware used in the
donate electrons. laboratory?
-Redox potential (oxidation-reduction potential) -Kimax/Pyrex, Corex, High silica, vycor, low actinic,
2. Substance that donate electrons are called flint
-Reduction agent 7. Glassware routinely used in clinical chemistry should
3. Those that accept electrons are considered consist of
-Oxidizing agents -High thermal borosilicate or aluminosilicate glass

CONDUCTIVITY LABORATORY GLASSWARE

1. A measure of how well electricity passes through a 1. Are used to hold solutions.
solution. -Flask, beakers, and graduated cylinders
-Conductivity 2. Is calibrate to hold on exact volume of liquid. And are
2. The reciprocal of conductivity used to bring a given reagent to its final volume with
-Resistivity the recommended diluent.
3. Is measure of a substance’s resistance to the passage of -Volumetric flask
electrical current. 3. What is used when bringing the bottom of the
-Resistivity meniscus to the calibration mark in adding the final
4. What the primary application of resistivity in clinical drops of diluent to ensure maximum control is
laboratory. maintained and the calibration line is not missed.
-assessing the purity of water -Pipette
4. Are designed to hold different volumes rather than one
pH and BUFFERS exact amount. And is often used in reagent
1. Are weak acids or bases and their related salts that preparation.
minimize changes in the hydrogen ion concentration. -Erlenmeyer flask and Griffin beakers
-Buffers 5. What are to be considered in reagent preparation.
2. Hydrogen ion concentration are often expressed as. -Flask size, chemical inertness, and thermal stability
-pH 6. Has a wide bottom that gradually evolves into a smaller,
3. This term represents the negative or inverse log of the short neck.
hydrogen ion concentration. -Erlenmeyer flask
-pH 7. Has a flat bottom, straight sides, and an opening as
4. Mathematically describes the dissociation wide as the flat base, with a small spout in the tip.
characteristics of weak acids and bases and the effect -Griffin beaker
on pH. 8. Are long cylindrical tubes usually held upright by an
-Henderson-Hasselbalch equation octagonal or circular base.
5. Is the concentration or activity of ions in a solution or -graduated cylinder
buffer. 9. What class is needed in all laboratory glassware used
-Ionic strength for critical measurements whenever possible to
maximize accuracy and precision and thus decrease
LABORATORY EQUIPMENT calibration time.
1. The common heating units within the laboratory. -Class A
-Heat blocks and water baths
2. What is the SI designation for temperature it the PIPETTES
-Kelvin scale 1. Are a type of laboratory equipment used to transfer
liquids’ they may be reusable or disposable.
GLASSWARE AND PLASTICWARE -Pipettes
1. Are laboratory supplies/equipment that are made up of 2. Has a continuous etched ring or two small, close,
glass. continuous rings located near the top of the pipette
-glassware -Blowout pipette
3. The user allows the contents of the pipette to drain by
gravity.
 -Self-draining 4. Materials that are very hygroscopic can remove
moisture from the air as well as from other materials.
4. Are used to transfer reagents or make dilutions and can These materials make excellent drying substances and
be used to repeatedly transfer a particular solution. are sometimes used as.
-Measuring pipettes -Desiccants (drying agents)
5. Does not have graduations to the tip. It is a self-
draining pipette. 5. What is the term for closed and sealed containers that
-Mohr pipette include desiccant materials
6. Has graduation marks to the tip and is generally a -Desiccators
blowout pipette.
-Serologic pipette BALANCES
7. A pipette with a total holding volume of less than 1 mL; 1. Are required for the preparation of any primary
it may be designed as either a Mohr or a serologic standard.
pipette. -Analytic balances
-micropipette
8. Are designed to dispense one volume without further 2. Are single-pan balances that use an electromagnetic
subdivisions. force to counterbalance the weighed sample’s mass.
-Transfer pipettes -Electronic balances
9. Are used with biologic fluids having a viscosity greater
than that of water. CENTRIFUGE
-Ostwald-Folin pipettes 1. Is a process in which centrifugal force is used to
10. Is designed to dispense or transfer aqueous solutions separate serum or plasma from the blood cell as the
and is always self-draining. blood samples are being process; to separate a
-Volumetric pipette supernatant from a precipitate during an analytic
11. This type of pipette has the greatest degree of accuracy reaction’ to separate two immiscible liquids, such as a
and precision and should be used when diluting lipid-laden sample; or to expel air.
standards, calibrators, or quality control materials. -Centrifugation
-Volumetric pipette 2. What are the three variable that centrifugal force
12. May or may not have calibration marks and are used to depends on.
transfer solutions or biologic fluids without -mass, speed, and radius
consideration of a specific volume.
-Disposable transfer pipette
13. Is the most routinely used pipette in today’s clinical LABORATORY MATHEMATICS AND CALCULATIONS
chemistry laboratory.
-Automatic pipette SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
14. Relies on a piston for creating a suction to draw the 1. These are the minimum number of digits needed to
sample in to a disposable tip that must be changed express a particular value in scientific notation without
after each use. loss of accuracy.
-Air-displacement pipette -Significant figures
15. Operates by moving the piston in the pipette tip or
barrel LOGARITHMS
-Positive-displacement pipette 2. Are the inverse of exponential functions
16. Are automatic pipettes that obtain the liquid from a -Logarithms
common reservoir and dispense it repeatedly. 3. The inverse of logarithm and is used to determine the
-Dispensers and dilutor/dispensers original number from a log value.
-antilog/antilogarithm
SYRINGES pH (negative logarithms)
1. Are sometimes used for transfer of small volume in 1. It is defined as the negative of the hydrogen ion
blood gas analysis or in separation techniques such as concentration.
chromatography or electrophoresis. -pH of solution/pH
-syringes
CONCENTRATION
DESICCATORS AND DESICCANTS 1. It is determined in the same manner regardless of
1. Many compounds combine with water molecule to whether weight/weigh, volume/volume, or
form loose chemical crystals. The compound and the weight/volume.
associated water is called. -Percent solution
-Hydrate 2. It implies “parts per 100”, which is represented as
2. When the water of crystallization is removed from the percent (%) and is independent of the molecular
compound, it is said to be. weight of a substance.
-anhydrous -Percent
3. Substances that take up water on exposure to 3. It is expressed in units of mole/Liter or sometimes
atmospheric conditions. millimole/milliliter.
-Hygroscopic -Molarity
4. Is expressed as the number of equivalent weights per -Internation unit
liter (Eq/L) or milliequivalents per milliliter (mmol/mL)
-Normality 8. Expressed as moles per liter per second.
5. It is equal to gmw divided by the valence. -Katal
-equivalent weight
6. Is expressed as mass per unit volume of a substance. SPECIMEN COLLECTION AND HANDLING
-Density (g/mL) 1. Specifies that procedures for specimen submission and
7. The ratio of the density of a material when compared proper handling be documented, including the
with the density of pure water at a given temperature disposition of any specimen that does not meet the
and allows the laboratorian a means of expressing laboratories criteria of acceptability.
density in terms of volume. -CLIA 88
-Specific gravity
TYPES OF SAMPLES
DILUTIONS 1. Is the act of obtaining a blood sample from a vein using
1. Represents the parts of concentrated material to the a needle attached to a collection device or stoppered
total final volume of a solution. And is an expression of evacuated tube.
concentration. -Phlebotomy or venipuncture
-Dilution 2. The most frequent site for venipuncture.
2. Refers to part substances to part substance. -Medial antecubital vein
-Ratio 3. Is wrapped around the arm, causing cessation of blood
3. When is dilutions required? flow and dilation of the veins, making for easier
-when the result is above the linearity of the assay detection.
-Tourniquet
Note: 4. Is often used when whenever the veins are fragile,
 As the dilution factor increases, the concentration small, or difficult to detect.
decreases. -Winged infusion set
 Dilution can be expressed as fraction or ratio. 5. Contains liquid portion of the blood, called plasma, and
its cellular components.
4. one in which a unit volume of a liquid material of -Whole blood
interest is combined with. an appropriate volume of a 6. The collection of whole blood requires the vacuum
solvent liquid to achieve the desired concentration. tube to contain an.
-Simple dilution -Anticoagulant
5. Multiple, progressive dilutions that dilutes highly 7. The clear yellow supernatant on top of the tube
concentrated solutions to produce solutions with lower -Plasma
concentration. 8. If a tube does not contain an anticoagulant, the blood
-Serial dilution forms a fibrin clot incorporation the cells; this clot
consumes fibrinogen. The remaining liquid is called.
GRAPHING AND BEER’S LAW -Serum
1. Mathematically establishes the relationship between 9. Most testing in the clinical chemistry laboratory is
analyte concentration and absorbance of light in many performed on either.
photometric determinations. -Plasma or serum
-Beer-Lambert law (Beer’s Law) 10. It helps accelerate the process of separating the liquid
2. The concentration of a substance is directly portion and cellular portion.
proportional to the amount of light absorbed or -Centrifugation
inversely proportional to the logarithm of the light 11. The mechanical destruction of red blood cells that
transmitted. result in hemoglobin release.
-Beer’s law -Hemolysis
3. Often represent the reportable range of an assay. 12. Measure blood gases and pH.
-Limits of linearity -Arterial blood samples
4. Name of the graph of Beer’s law. And is made by 13. Aside from blood what is the next most common fluid
plotting absorbance versus the concentration of known for determination.
standards. -Urine
-Standard graph 14. Is an ultrafiltrate of the plasma and is approximately
5. Refers to the calculation of the comparison of the two-thirds of the plasma glucose value.
known standard or calibrator concentration and its -Cerebrospinal fluid
corresponding absorbance of an unknown value
according to the following ratio. SAMPLE PROCESSING
-One-point calibration 1. Increased bilirubin pigment
6. Difference of absorbance -Icterus
-delta absorbance 2. Increased lipids. Presence of turbidity
7. For reporting enzyme activity, and is defined as the -Lipemia
amount of enzyme that will catalyze 1 mol of
substrate per minute per liter.