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 Doing a PhD
in the Social
Sciences
Covering the academic and operational aspects of PhD research degree
programmes, this accessible yet comprehensive book is an essential guide to
navigating through the PhD research journey.
Using a mixture of useful information, practical strategies and valuable
advice, this book helps readers through the process of doing a PhD by
providing essential hints and tips on key aspects such as the following:

 How to start, conduct and manage PhD research

 Working with your supervisor
 Writing your thesis
 Preparing for the viva

Tis is a crucial resource for anyone wanting to know about approaches to

research, substantive theories, data analytical techniques, essential research
tools and a range of other issues that afect the chances of PhD success and
completion. With global case studies and examples, this invaluable guide is a
must-read for anyone undertaking a PhD in the social sciences.

Francis Jegede is Associate Professor in International Relations and Diplomacy

and Chair of College Research Committee at the University of Derby, UK.
 Doing a PhD
in the Social
Sciences
A Student’s Guide to Post-Graduate
Research and Writing

Francis Jegede
First published 2021
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Tird Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2021 Francis Jegede
Te right of Francis Jegede to be identifed as author of this work has been
asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafer invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identifcation and explanation
without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Jegede, Jola, author.
Title: Doing a PhD in the social sciences : a student’s guide to post-graduate
research and writing / Francis Jegede.
Identifers: LCCN 2020056609 (print) | LCCN 2020056610 (ebook) | ISBN
9780367519407 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367519414 (paperback) | ISBN
9781003055761 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Dissertations, Academic—Authorship. | Social sciences—
Research—Methodology.
Classifcation: LCC LB2369 .J44 2021 (print) | LCC LB2369 (ebook) |
DDC 808.02071—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020056609
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020056610
ISBN: 978-0-367-51940-7 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-51941-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-05576-1 (ebk)
Typeset in Minion
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
This book is dedicated to Daisy, our precious little baby who brings
lots of happiness and joy to me and my wife, Sylwia – a wonderful
friend, companion and mother of my Daisy.
Shortly after the contract to write this book was signed, the
world was hit with COVID-19 health emergency. The pandemic
has not only taken many lives and devastated many families and
communities around the world, but it has also caused major
disruptions to our way of life. This book is also dedicated to the
memories of those who lost their lives to COVID-19 pandemic and
to the extraordinary work of health care workers around the world
who are working hard to save people’s lives in a very challenging
and worrying time for everyone.
 Contents

List of fgures and tables ix

Introduction xi
Preface xiv
About the author xvii
Acknowledgements xix
Acronyms xx

1 What is and why do a PhD? 1

2 Te PhD application process 19

3 Working with your supervisor/director of study 42

4 Finding support for your PhD 62

5 Writing your literature review 89

6 Understanding theoretical perspectives and developing

your research methodology 109

7 Understanding ethical issues and laws regarding PhD

research and personal data 122

vii
viii Contents
8 Owning and driving your own PhD research 139

9 Conducting feldwork and collecting your data 153

10 Analysing your research data: quantitative and

qualitative approaches 169

11 Writing up your PhD thesis 201

12 Preparing for and doing your viva voce: oral examination 217

13 Making the most of your PhD degree 230

Appendix 236
References 238
Index 250
 Figures and tables

Figures
1.1 Types of PhDs 5
1.2 PhD study modes: full-time – part-time – distance learning 8
1.3 Key steps in a PhD journey 11
1.4 PhD, knowledge creation and innovation 12
1.5 Essential skills for success in a PhD 16
2.1 Key features of a PhD research proposal 26
2.2 PhD applications review process 32
2.3 Key stages and milestones in a PhD journey 35
2.4 Administrative/academic processes and structures
underpinning PhD research study 39
3.1 Role of PhD supervisors/directors of studies 44
3.2 What supervisors expect from their PhD students 48
3.3 Principles underpinning PhD student–supervisor relationship 53
3.4 Main causes of PhD student–supervisor conficts 57
4.1 General support network for PhD students 63
4.2 Funding your PhD 69
4.3 Types of fnancial/funding support available to PhD students 70
4.4 Living well, keeping healthy and staying connected while
doing a PhD 76
5.1 Diverse range of materials constituting literature 91
5.2 Criteria for selecting literature for review 93

ix
x Figures and tables
5.3 Essential issues in a review and engagement with literature 95
5.4 Approaches to reviewing literature 100
6.1 Social science research goals 111
6.2 Key questions before deciding on your research methodology 111
6.3 Paradigms and research methods 113
6.4 Notion of reality and social research paradigms 114
7.1 Ethical issues relating to PhD research 127
7.2 Legal basis for collecting and processing personal data 130
7.3 GDPR – roles and responsibilities of the data controller and
the data processor 135
8.1 Setting an efective goal for your PhD 140
8.2 Identifying and closing skills gaps through training 144
8.3 PhD progress monitoring 148
9.1 Typical sources of secondary data 159
9.2 Common methods of data collection 161
10.1 Deciding on a qualitative or quantitative analytical approach 173
10.2 Methods of analysing qualitative data 175
10.3 Data distribution – curves and kurtosis 187
10.4 Key steps in statistical tests of hypotheses 189
10.5 Methods of analysing quantitative data 198
11.1 PhD Tesis writing triangle – argument–content–structure 204
12.1 PhD viva voce examinations outcomes 225

Tables
1.1 Top 10 PhDs awarding countries in 2014 13
8.1 UK Russel Group universities 145
 Introduction

Te idea of this book has developed from my experience of supervising and

working with many PhD students over an academic career spanning three
decades. In my role as a teacher, supervisor, researcher, viva voce examiner
and chair of the College Research Committee of the University of Derby, I
have gained considerable experience and insight into the challenges and
issues that PhD students face. Tis experience has inspired me to write a book
that all prospective PhD students could beneft from.
If you are currently doing your master’s programme and thinking of doing
a PhD or you are in a PhD programme already and need some support and
guidance to get you through your PhD journey, if you ever wonder what a
PhD is and where to begin the process of choosing the right institution to do
your research, if you are thinking of how to make a success of your PhD thesis
or Professional Doctorate or worried about how to face your viva voce exami-
nation or if you are a supervisor and have PhD students under your supervi-
sion that may beneft from reading a useful and handy tips to help them with
their research or you are new to supervisory role, then Doing a PhD in the
Social Sciences: A Student’s Guide to Post-Graduate Research and Writing
is the book for you.
Covering the academic and operational aspects of PhD research degree
programmes, this book provides essential guide to help you with your PhD as
you navigate through your PhD research journey. It ofers essential tips and
provides valuable information that could help you and your supervisor or

xi
xii Introduction
director of studies to understand the processes and educational systems that
underpin PhD research in UK universities.
Using this book, you will be able to navigate and ease your way through
the entire journey, starting from when you start thinking or decide whether
to or not to do a PhD, choosing your research topic and the university to study
or conducting your research, writing a proposal, deciding on your research
methodology, carrying out your research, writing up your thesis and doing
your viva voce examination. Te book will serve as a useful companion at
every stage of your PhD from pre-enrolment through to the very fnal stage.
It concludes with a chapter on how to make the most of your PhD.
By using a mixture of useful information, practical strategies and valuable
advice, the book will help you through the process of doing a PhD, giving you
essential hints and tips along the way on how to start, conduct and manage
your PhD research and work with your director of studies or supervisor.
Te book is not intended as, nor does it pretend to be, a research-focused
text for those researching in the feld of doctoral education. Researching
doctoral education is acknowledged as a research feld and enterprise in its
own right, and there is a large and growing level of resources on the feld of
researching doctoral education.
Tis book, however, is about how to undertake doctoral studies in the con-
text of the UK higher education sector. It is a practical handbook packed with
proven advice based on real-life experiences of PhD students and supervisors
in the UK institutions and other parts of the English-speaking world. It cov-
ers the personal, emotional, supervisory, regulatory and institutional environ-
ment that afect PhD students’ research and ofers useful advice and support
towards progression and successful completion of doctoral programme.
It provides a wealth of information on active learning, further readings,
case studies, examples and illustrations that you can use to good efect to
make a success of your PhD project. Te book makes the experience of doing
a PhD less daunting and guides you through the common pitfalls and obsta-
cles that most doctoral students face while doing their PhD research. It is a
real companion and a valuable resource in a journey that can be quite lonely
and frustrating to many who embark on doing a PhD.
Te book will help experienced PhD supervisors and those new to the
role of supervising PhD students to develop practical and efective ways to
support their students through their PhD journey. It highlights the purpose,
functions and role of supervisors and the responsibility of PhD students to
own and drive their own success. Whether you are new to your PhD or you
are at an advanced stage of your study, this book will ofer you essential guide
through the processes you need to go through to complete your PhD. It is an
original book based on the experience of the author and of the PhD students
he has supervised, managed, examined and directed.
 Introduction xiii
PhD students using this book will fnd that each chapter contains useful
information that could form the basis of discussion with their supervisors
and directors of studies. Supervisors and directors of studies will fnd it use-
ful to guide and provide advice and support for their PhD students. Te tips
and guidance provided throughout the book will help make your PhD jour-
ney less exasperating and the tasks less daunting. Te book ofers valuable
information on the support system PhD students could draw on to deal with
challenges relating to personal, emotional and practical issues they may face
in the course of their PhD.
It provides practical advice for doing a PhD and ofers prospective PhD
students and their supervisors a way of understanding the processes involved
and how to deal with any challenges they may face while doing their doctoral
studies.
 Preface

Doing a PhD either through the traditional route of on campus enrolment

or via online distance learning is becoming an important and growing fea-
ture of higher education in many countries. Te rising number of university
graduates in the developed world and the improved access to education in
low-income countries mean more and more people are venturing further into
pursuing advanced post-graduate degrees leading to a PhD awards.
Te rapid expansion and growth of undergraduate degree programme and
access to higher education means that a large number of people who have
completed their undergraduate study now venture further into pursuing a
post-graduate research study.
In 2014, 25,020 PhDs were awarded in the UK across all subjects. Te
top ten countries with PhD awards in 2014 were the US (67,449), Germany
(28,147), the UK (25,020), India (24,300), Japan (16,039), France (13,729),
South Korea (12,931), Spain (10,889), Italy (10,675) and Australia (8,400).
Tese countries also have the highest number of students currently doing
research degree leading to PhD.
Te rapid growth in the number of people enrolled in post-graduate
research in the last decade suggests that possession of a PhD degree is no
longer perceived or considered as the prerogative of those seeking a career in
academia. Most people now seek to do a PhD for a variety of reasons.
However, the PhD completion given fgures earlier hide the fact that a large
number of students who started a PhD never complete their programme.
Globally, about a quarter of students who start a PhD never complete it.

xiv
 Preface xv
Tere are many reasons why PhD students drop out of post-graduate
research study. Tese, amongst others, include factors such as personal issues,
hardness and length of PhD programmes, poor or a lack of supervision/
support, poor research design, a lack of data or poor access to information,
unrealistic expectations, fnancial difculties, loneliness, depression/men-
tal health issues and loss of motivation, among others. To compound these
myriad of inhibiting factors, the general lack of resources and information on
what it means to do a PhD means many students’ dream of obtaining a PhD
were never realised.
While the market is full of textbooks focusing on students doing their
undergraduate studies. Tere are relatively few good textbooks and educa-
tional resources available to support PhD students. Te vast resources availa-
ble online are ofen lacking in structure and require sifing through to obtain
necessary information.
Many students who dropped out of PhD programmes did so because of a
general lack of support and guidance, especially at the initial stage of their
research. Te general focus on undergraduate students means that the need
of PhD students in terms of academic resources in form of essential guides
and textbooks available to support students doing PhD programmes remain
largely unmet. Also, the available textbooks in this area are ofen very limited
in focus and content. In general, they tend to concentrate on academic struc-
ture of PhD programmes rather than encompassing all the personal, emo-
tional, supervisory and institutional environment that afect PhD students’
progression and successful completion.
Tis book seeks to fll the gap by providing an essential textbook that
covers every aspect of PhD journey. It is intended to serve as an invaluable
guide and resource for anyone thinking of, currently undertaking or about
to complete their PhD. It is also a useful resource for PhD supervisors and
examiners.
Te book aims to serve as a useful companion to anyone initiating, con-
ducting and completing a PhD degree in the social science subject area.
Te author seeks to fll a gap in the market by producing a textbook that
has global appeal and ofers support to PhD students at various stages of their
research in the social sciences regardless of their institution of study and
mode of study. Factors underlying the high dropout rates in PhD students
compared to their undergraduate counterparts are addressed, using case
studies and examples drawn from diferent parts of the world.
Te book ofers an important resource for the growing number of PhD
students who want to know about the approaches to research, substantive
theories, data analytical techniques and a range of other issues that afect
their chances of success and completion. Tis book is an essential source of
information for any PhD student aiming to enjoy their research experience
xvi Preface
and achieve their goals. Unlike the existing texts, the book demystifes doing
a PhD by providing an easy and useful step-by-step guide for students who
may fnd doing a PhD a daunting task.
Te book aims to highlight the key stages in a doctoral journey. Starting from
the question of deciding whether to do a PhD or not through to preparing a
research proposal, choosing the right institution, deciding on the mode of study,
conducting the research, writing a thesis and preparing for a viva examination,
the book ofers a comprehensive guide to students. It explores the important
issue of research ethics; the relationship among PhD students, their directors of
studies and supervisors; and the place of academic research in society.
Te book uses examples and case studies to illustrate diferent forms of
PhD research and suggest diferent methodological approaches to conducting
research based on the ontological, epistemological, axiological or rhetorical
focus of the study. It draws on diferent forms analytical techniques com-
monly used in PhD research involving quantitative and qualitative data.
As well as explaining the theoretical/conceptual frameworks on which most
PhDs in the social sciences are based, the book highlights the essential research
tools required for a successful PhD research. Specifc issues facing international
students doing their PhDs away from their home countries are also discussed.
As the title suggests, the book is not just about the processes of undertak-
ing a PhD; it also ofers practical guides on doing a PhD. It identifes common
mistakes that students make and explains ‘what to do’ and ‘what not to do’
when doing a PhD. It ofers both academic and practical guides that most
PhD students will fnd useful in their journey. Te book draws on the author’s
experience as an established academic with considerable experience in super-
vising and examining PhD students.
Given its contents, type of presentation and practical guide, the book is
expected to be one that you may wish to use as a source book to enable you to
respond to some of the frequent questions, concerns and practical issues you
may encounter when doing your PhD and writing your thesis.
Te book recognises that the ‘journey’ through the process of writing a
successful thesis can be completed. So it ofers a dependable resource and
advice to help you start writing your thesis and ofers you guidance along the
way to the completion of your thesis to your viva examination.
It is hoped that this book will ofer you some practical support along your
PhD journey, and I welcome feedback from you on how I might be able to
improve future editions of this book.
 About the author

Dr Francis Jegede is Associate Professor in International Relations and

Diplomacy in the College of Law, Humanities and Social Sciences and the
Chair of College Research Committee at the University of Derby, UK. He
has an extensive experience in supervising and managing doctoral students
across many disciplines in the social sciences. He has nurtured, tutored and
supported many UK and international students through their doctoral jour-
neys. As Chair of the College Research Committee and a researcher, he has
considerable experience in academic and operational matters relating to post-
graduate research, including quality management and enhancement issues,
regulations, student progression, examinations and monitoring. Dr Jegede
has had a long service at the University of Derby as a leading academic. He
has taught and supervised students across many social science disciplines,
including geography, global development studies, political science, interna-
tional relations and diplomacy.
His research interests include international politics, security, terrorism,
diplomacy and international development. He has a well-developed research
and educational links with international institutions such as the United
Nations, European Union and international non-governmental organisa-
tions. He has an extensive experience of working with the Post Graduate
Research Student Ofce, Directors of Studies and Supervisors across several
Schools and Faculties in his university. He takes keen interest in any initi-
atives aimed at enhancing the research experience of all his post-graduate

xvii
xviii About the author
research students and works with PGR Students Wellbeing Department to
support post-graduate research students and creating a stimulating research
environment for PhD students. He has chaired many viva voce examinations
and served as external examiner and consultant in post-graduate research
programme validation for many institutions in the UK and overseas.
 Acknowledgements

Tis book came about as a result of the author’s experience with PhD and
Professional Doctorate students in UK universities and was inspired by the
need to share ideas that could help potential PhD students and those already
doing their PhDs and their supervisors.
I would like to thank all my students from whom, through their experiences;
I have learnt a great deal about their PhD journeys. Te challenges and frus-
trations they faced along the way in their PhD journeys has spurred me and
ofered me insight and practical knowledge that enable me to write this book.
Teir experiences have made it possible to write a book that is relevant, practical
and informative that other students can use to help them in their own journeys.
I would like to thank Sarah Tuckwell at Routledge for her patience and
understanding for submitting manuscript later than scheduled due to the dis-
ruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.
With all usual disclaimers, a special thanks to Dr John Stubbs for reading
through the draf chapters and for ofering some useful comments. Tanks
are also due to him and all the reviewers of the manuscript proposal for their
insights that fed into this book. I also recognise the editorial team at Routledge:
Sarah Tuckwell and her colleagues who are always a pleasure to work with.
My biggest thanks goes to all the post-graduate research students whom I
have had the privilege of supervising, nurturing and supporting along their
PhD journeys. Teir experiences have provided the incentive and motivation
to write this book.

xix
 Acronyms

3MT – 3-Minute Tesis

AGO – Alternative Guide Online
ANOVA – Analysis of Variance
APA – American Psychological Association
BAMEs – Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic groups
CAE – Cambridge Advanced Certifcate
COVID-19 – Coronavirus disease 2019
CCPE – Cambridge Certifcate of Profciency in English
DArch – Doctor of Architecture
DBA – Doctor of Business Administration
UK-DPA – UK Data Protection Act
DPA – Doctor of Public Administration
DProf – Doctor of Professional Studies
Dr – Doctor
DSA – Disabled Student’s Allowance
DSc – Doctor of Science
EdD/D.Ed – Doctor of Education
EnD – Doctor of Engineering
ESRC – Economic and Social Research Council
GDPR – General Data Protection Regulations
HE – Higher Education

xx
 Acronyms xxi
HEFCE – Higher Education Funding Council for England
HESA – Higher Education Statistics Agency
HMPPS – Her Majesty’s Prison and Probation Service
IELTS – International English Language Testing System
ICO – Information Commissioners Ofce
IPA – Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis
IPR – Intellectual Property Rights
MA – Master of Arts
MBA – Master of Business Administration
MD – Doctor of Medicine
MPhil – Master of Philosophy
MPhil – Master of Philosophy with transfer opportunity to Doctor of
Philosophy
MRes/ResM – Master’s Research or Research Master’s
MSc – Master of Science
NGO – Non-Governmental Organisation
NPS – National Probation Service
NRC – National Research Committee
OECD – Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OfS – Te Ofce for Students
OSCOLA – Oxford Standard for the Citation of Legal Authorities
PGR – Post-Graduate Research
PhD – Doctor of Philosophy
PRES – Postgraduate Research Experience Survey
PTE:A – Pearson Test of English (Academic)
QAA – Quality Assurance Agency
REF – Research Excellence Framework
SD – Standard Deviation
TEF – Teaching Excellence Framework
TD – Doctor of Teology
UKRI – UK Research & Innovation
UKVI – UK Visas and Immigration
 CHAPTER
1
What is and why do a PhD?

Introduction
A growing number of people around the world are studying for or aiming to
undertake Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) – the highest academic degree awarded
in academia. In Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) countries, 1.1% of adults within the age range of 25 to 64 years held a
doctorate degree in 2018 (Education at a Glance, OECD, 2019). Between 2013
and 2017, there was an 8% growth across OECD countries in the number of
people with doctorate degrees. In countries such as Mexico, Spain and the US,
there has been a signifcant rise in doctorate holders. According to the OECD
report, if the current rates of growth continue, 2.3% of young adults living in
OECD countries will undertake doctoral study in their lifetime (OECD, 2019).
Te growing number of people aspiring to gain advanced qualifcation at
doctorate level refects the perceived benefts of doctoral studies. People with
masters and doctorate degrees generally have the best employment prospects.
In all OECD countries, except Greece, the Slovak Republic and the Russian
Federation, at least 90% of doctorate holders are in employment (OECD, 2020).
Tis chapter explores the nature and purpose of PhD research degrees.
Diferences and similarities between traditional PhDs and Professional or
Practice-Based Doctorates (DProf) are explained using examples from dif-
ferent institutions in the UK and overseas. Key issues prospective candidates
need to know about and consider before deciding on doing a PhD are dis-
cussed. Te chapter also explains why about a quarter of people who start a
PhD globally never complete their research study. Te challenges and oppor-
tunities of doing a PhD are examined with reference to personal professional
development and career advancement.
By the end of the chapter, you will have a better understanding of

• the nature and purpose of PhD research degrees;

• what makes a PhD research degree diferent from all other degrees or
research programmes;

1
2 What is and why do a PhD?
• the importance of a PhD degree for your personal, professional and career
development;
• reasons why about a quarter of students who started a PhD never complete it;
• factors to consider before you decide on doing a PhD; and
• how to prepare for your PhD journey.

What is a PhD?
A PhD is an advanced post-graduate study leading to the award of a doctorate
degree of philosophy in a named subject or discipline or profession. A PhD
is the highest degree a university or an academic awarding institution could
confer on anyone afer successfully completing a course of study, usually in
the form of independent research. Generally, a PhD is a research-based course
or programme that expands existing knowledge leading to the production of
an original research report commonly known as a thesis.
A post-graduate research (PGR) degree is awarded afer fulflling a set of
requirements set out by the awarding university or institution. While the
nature and requirements for a PhD may vary considerably across diferent
subjects/disciplines and universities/institutions around the world, it is none-
theless possible to identify key features and characteristics of a PhD.

Te history and evolution of PhDs

As an important element of the academic tradition, the PhD has developed
and evolved over a long time. Opinions difer amongst academic historians as
to the origin of PhD awards. While some scholars suggest that the PhD has
its origins in the 9th-century schools of Muslim study, the PhD tradition was
only formally adopted by European universities in the 19th century (Hall,
2019). Others, however, contend that the exact time the frst PhD degree was
awarded is unknown (Bogle, 2017).
Early medieval educational institutions were based on apprenticeships. Te
title of ‘Master’ was conferred on individuals who passed their apprenticeship
training, and that qualifed them to teach others. Te notion of a university as
a teaching institution came about when the ‘Masters’ joined together to form
a legal corporation that was recognised by the pope or emperor (Bogle, 2017).
According to the historical account of the PhD in Europe, the frst PhD
degree was awarded in Paris in 1150 (Noble, 1994). Te University of Paris
was later followed in Germany by the Universities of Munich in 1474, Leiden
in 1580 and Utrecht in 1644 (Bogle, 2017). However, the German universities
were said to have had a variety of diferent features and patterns (Clark, 2006).
From these medieval northern European universities, the tradition of a PhD
degree spread to other parts of Europe, the US, Canada and across the world.
 What is and why do a PhD? 3
Since then, the PhD has evolved and developed into a prestigious and most
desirable academic honour with diferent universities, countries and regions
of the world adapting their PhDs to suit their needs. While the PhD was origi-
nally awarded in professions and disciplines relating to law, medicine and
theology, the award of the PhD later spread to other subjects and has now
become the highest academic award across all disciplines and professions.
Originally, the award of a PhD was based on the concept of disputation – a
formal and insightful means of argument framed within theological assump-
tions. It then progressed from just an oral exercise to being a published work,
and this led to the creation of modern theses or dissertations as being essential
products of doctoral students’ research (Clark, 2006). As academic research-
based exercises, research doctorates began in the 1700s and became popular
in Germany. Te German state considered universities to be a national status
symbol and a show of power resulting in the growth of PhD-awarding institu-
tions there between the 16th and 18th centuries. In contrast, only two ancient
universities – Oxford and Cambridge – were established in England, with
Scotland having four. An overview of the UK institutions and the opportuni-
ties they provide for PGR and PhD are discussed in Chapter 2.

Key features of a PhD

While PhDs may vary greatly in scope, nature and requirements of diferent
institutions in diferent parts of the world and across disciplines, it is possible to
identify a number of key characteristics. A PhD usually requires the following:

1 A prolonged engagement with the chosen research topic lasting typically

for about 3 years for full-time students and longer for part-time students
2 Te researcher to determine the focus and direction of their own work
through a written research proposal
3 Work to be conducted independently and on an individual basis –
although usually with some support, direction or guidance from a super-
visor, a mentor or a director of study
4 Extensive and substantial research into a specifc issue or issues or prob-
lems clearly set out in a proposal
5 Te research aim(s) and objectives to be made clear and usually stated
as research questions that may involve testing the validity of hypotheses
6 An extensive review of literature and collection of primary data or use of
existing/secondary data
7 Te production of an original research report commonly known as a
‘thesis’ or ‘dissertation’
8 A fnal oral examination commonly known as ‘viva voce’ in which a PhD
candidate defends their work before a panel of experts
4 What is and why do a PhD?
Types of PhD awards
Tere are diferent types of PhD degrees, and knowing about the basic features
of each of these could help you in your decision as to which PhD is right for
you, if any. Generally, a PhD can be divided into four main categories:

Academic PhDs – Tese are PhDs awarded purely on academic grounds

following completion of original research and scholarship in traditional
academic subjects such as politics, geography, sociology, criminology
and others. As standard academic awards, academic doctorates focus
mainly on a theoretical understanding of the subject of the PhD and
not on the professional practice of the award holder (Find A PhD 2020).
Professional PhDs – Unlike the standard academic PhDs, professional
doctorates focus mainly on specifc professions or vocations, such as
engineering, law, medicine and architecture, among others. Tese
awards tend to refect specifc contribution the award holder has made
directly to knowledge and practice in the profession. While professional
PhDs still require evidence of research and analytical rigours expected
in any standard academic PhDs, a greater premium is placed on the
holder’s practical training and experience in the feld or profession
(Find A PhD 2020).
Honorary PhDs – Tese are doctorates awarded to individuals in recogni-
tion of their achievements in a profession, vocation, business or any area
of social, economic and political endeavour. Unlike both academic and
professional doctorates, the award holders of honorary PhDs do not need
to undertake any academic study or research as those awards are given
purely at the discretion of the awarding institution (Find A PhD 2020).
Higher PhDs – Higher doctorates are usually awarded to distinguished
individuals or highly esteemed researchers or practitioners. Tese are
similar to honorary doctorates but are awarded at a much higher level of
experience and career progression of the award holder. Like the honor-
ary PhDs, award holders are not required to enrol in a university or an
awarding institution for these doctorates (Find A PhD 2020).

Within these four broad types of PhDs, there are many diferent variants of
PhDs in terms of titles of awards. Tese are summarised in Figure 1.1.
While PhD/DPhil are common doctorate titles awarded in most subjects,
Doctor of Business Administration (DBA), Doctor of Public Administration
(DPA), Doctor of Engineering (EnD), Doctor of Education (EdD/D.
Ed), Doctor of Clinical Psychology (DClinPsy) Doctor of Social Sciences
(DSocSci), Doctor of Professional Studies (DProf), Doctor of Architecture
(DArch), Doctor of Medicine (MD) and others are professional doctorates
 What is and why do a PhD? 5

Figure 1.1 Types of PhDs

with letters prefxing or sufxing letter D (i.e. BA, En, ED, SocSci, prof, Arch,
etc.), refecting the specifc profession or vocation relating to the award.

Diferent routes to a PhD

Depending on the university and region of the world where you are doing or
thinking of doing your study, there are diferent routes to obtaining a PhD.

Te traditional PhD
Tis route usually allows students who have already completed their master’s
degree or MPhil to launch straight into a PhD research programme. In most
universities, students may be required to register frst for MPhil and then go
through a process of confrmation or transfer of registration, approval of PhD
research proposal and ethical approval and the like before the student is able
to commence their PhD research.

Integrated PhD
Some universities ofer integrated PhD where students are enrolled in a
master’s degree programme such as an MRes which, if successfully com-
pleted, allows them to progress onto a PhD. Te master’s degree involves a
6 What is and why do a PhD?
taught element which lasts for about 12 months. Tis adds an extra year to
the usual 3 to 4 years required for full-time study under the traditional PhD.
Doing an integrated PhD has the beneft of giving you the necessary skills
in research through the taught element from which you can develop essen-
tial research skills and experience to use in your advanced PhD research
work.

Professional doctorate
As the title implies, professional doctorates are PhD programmes designed
for professionals seeking to get PhDs that focus on their specifc occupa-
tion or practice such as teaching, education, pharmacy, engineering, health
care and social care, business and so on. In order to develop the profes-
sional, as well as the academic, aspects of the programme, professional
doctorates usually have taught modules that students need to enrol in for
about 2 years before transitioning to the full PhD research phase. Unlike
in the traditional PhD, the main emphasis in a DProf is the focus on the
development of professional or practice-based training alongside research
skills. Hence, these types of PhDs tend to involve a signifcant taught ele-
ment compared to the research-focused projects in a traditional PhD. It
is conventional, but not always the case, for DProfs to be done on a part-
time basis and are ofen subject to accreditation by a professional body
(Higginbotham, 2018a).

PhD through published work

Some universities allow a PhD through a non-traditional route such as getting
a PhD through published work. Tis involves submission and assessment of
already-published research-informed work or other creative work by the can-
didate. Tese could be journal articles, books or chapters in books, amongst
others, that show and demonstrate a signifcant contribution to the knowl-
edge in a particular area or feld of study (Higginbotham, 2018a). While this
option is opened to everyone in some universities, others reserve this route for
their alumni and existing academic staf. Tis is by no means an easy route to
doing a PhD as publication can be quite tasking as evidence of extensive and
sustained publications are ofen required together with a written statement
that provides context and critical appraisal for the published work.

PhD and other post-graduate degrees – a clarifcation

It is necessary to make a distinction between a PhD and other post-graduate
studies or degrees. While a PhD is a PGR study leading to the award of a
 What is and why do a PhD? 7
doctorate, not all post-graduate studies lead to a PhD or a doctorate award.
Tere are post-graduate taught modules with exit awards at a master’s level,
such as MA, MBA, MSc, MPhil and so on. Other post-graduate-taught pro-
grammes ofer the opportunity for students to continue to do a dissertation or
thesis stage or confrmation or transfer of registration leading to a PhD. Tis
transition usually occurs afer a student has completed the required credits or
grades to qualify for a full PhD study.
It is equally important to note that while this book has been written with
UK universities mostly in mind, there are a number of doctorates with difer-
ent titles in diferent countries of the world that are equivalent or similar to
the traditional PhD research degrees in the UK (Find A PhD 2020). Examples
of these are the following:

• Doctor of Science (DSc) – commonly awarded in countries such as Japan,

the US, Egypt and South Korea
• Doctor of Teology (TD) – doctorates based on theology that are awarded
in countries such as the US, Romania, Italy, Ireland, and Czech Republic
• Doctor of Juridical Science – doctorates based on the science of law and
legal practice commonly available in countries such as the US, Canada and
Australia
• Doctor of the Science of Law – doctorates based on the science of law
and legal practice commonly available in countries such as the US, UK,
Australia, Singapore and Canada
• Dr. rer. nat. or Doctor rerum naturalium (‘Doctor of the things of nature’) –
doctorates based on the science of nature, available in Germany
• Doktor Nauk (Doctor of Science) – doctorates based on science and sci-
entifc investigations awarded in many countries including Russia and
Poland, among others

Modes of study for a PhD

PhD study can be done through two main modes of study – full-time or part-
time. Depending on your personal circumstances, there are advantages and dis-
advantages in doing a PhD through each of these modes (Figure 1.2). Changes
in personal circumstances ofen require some full-time students to change their
study mode to part-time, especially toward the latter part of their study.
PhD by distance learning is a relatively less common mode of study. Tis
mode of study is based essentially on independent research with very limited
face-to-face interactions with supervisors and the university staf. Regular
contacts are, however, maintained with the university through communica-
tion media to access essential resources and training (Higginbotham, 2018b).
PhD through distance learning is the norm in the Open University which
has considerable history and experience in remote teaching and learning.
8 What is and why do a PhD?

Figure 1.2 PhD study modes: full-time – part-time – distance learning

Purpose of a PhD and why do a PhD?

A pertinent question for any aspiring candidate is, Why do a PhD? While
doing a PhD may be a matter of personal choice or preference for some peo-
ple, obtaining a PhD degree is essential for those seeking employment in
academia.
In many countries, the completion of a PhD is a key requirement for a
university position such as a lecturer or researcher. Tose who teach at uni-
versities or work in academic, educational or research institutions are usually
expected to have a PhD degree as a basic requirement. Terefore, complet-
ing a post-graduate course leading up to a PhD may ofer you a great deal of
opportunities for professional career advancement in academia.
Besides this, doing a PhD through research is considered to be a privilege,
and it comes with a sense of joy and feelings of exploration, excitement, chal-
lenge, involvement and passion (Phillips and Pugh, 2015).
Given that there are many types of PhDs, a key decision you need to make
is, What type of PhD is appropriate for my needs? While a traditional PhD may
be desirable as they are relatively well known, a professional or practice-based
doctorate may well be what you need depending on your career ambition.

What does it mean to do a PhD?

Doing a PhD means diferent things to diferent people. Generally, doing a
PhD ofers an opportunity to make a signifcant contribution to the advance-
ment of knowledge in a specifc area in a chosen feld of study. As a matter
 What is and why do a PhD? 9
of necessity, a PhD should be an original piece of work. Your contribution
to knowledge needs to be original, innovative and demonstrable as to how
your work advances research or understanding of the issue you are investi-
gating. Te value of the contribution that your research makes to knowledge
is judged through peer review in a viva voce examination. By the end of your
PhD, not only are you going to be an expert in your feld of investigation, but
other experts in the area of your study will also be able to assess and certify
that your contribution is signifcant enough to be awarded a doctorate degree.
Doing a PhD can be a terrifying experience that requires a great deal of
courage and perseverance. Te journey through a PhD is ofen exhausting
and draining not only in terms of resources but also emotionally. It is a piece
of work through which you may need to confront or face a personal feeling
or sense of insecurity, self-doubt and intellectual inadequacies. Overcoming
these, and many other obstacles and setbacks that you may face along the way,
could be exceedingly rewarding. Hence, a great deal of bravery and self-belief
is required to get you through your PhD journey.
Doing a PhD involves working independently. As an independent researcher,
doing a PhD can be very lonely. Tis sense of loneliness could be exacerbated if
you don’t have support networks around you. If you are undertaking your PhD
away from your home country or your usual place of residence, it is also pos-
sible to feel alone and homesick. While studying in diferent social, cultural and
political settings does have its advantages, it may also pose some challenges to
some international students and other PhD students studying away from home.
PhD is a massive project that needs to be undertaken with a great sense of
understanding as to what will be required. As complex and daunting as the
task of doing a PhD may seem, it is necessary to take each step at a time and
work systematically through diferent stages in order to get to the end point.
Terefore, there is a need to plan and to be strategic in your approach to doing
a PhD. A systematic approach is more likely to get you to the destination,
rather than a haphazard and unstructured approach. Procrastination is said
to be the ‘thief of time’. Timely action is required if you are to succeed in your
PhD ambition. You need to know about the key milestones you need to achieve
and how to get through them. (See Figure 1.3 for key stages in a PhD journey).
Doing a PhD involves a great deal of personal investment. Even with the
network of support around you in form of your director of study, supervi-
sors, academic mentor and other institutional support structures such as the
library, PGR ofce and the like, success in a PhD depends largely on your
personal investment into your study. Doing a PhD requires that you challenge
yourself to a level that will enable you to grow intellectually and emotionally
to succeed in your research.
To succeed in a PhD, it is ofen necessary to be able to network and be
part of a research community locally within your institution and nationally
10 What is and why do a PhD?
or globally within the feld of your enquiry. You need to be able to work with
peers in your feld in a collaborative way to beneft you and your study. Your
PhD research ofers you the opportunity to contribute to academic discus-
sions organised through, conferences, seminars, workshops and so on that
relate to your study.
Before commencing your PhD research, it is now a general requirement
in many institutions to seek ethical approval for your study. Tis is to ensure
that your PhD follows ethical standards and you comply with various regula-
tions relating to conducting research. Ethical issues and laws regarding PhD
research and personal data are discussed in Chapter 7.
Despite the challenges involved in doing a PhD, it can be one of the most
rewarding pieces of academic work you will ever have to do in your career
or lifetime. When successfully completed, a PhD stands as a symbol of per-
sonal success. It ofers you an opportunity to produce something special and
worthwhile and that means something to you and to the academic commu-
nity working in your area of study.

Key stages in a PhD journey

Doing a PhD involves a series of actions and processes that need to be under-
taken. Te degree of success in completing the tasks involved at each stage of
a PhD goes a long in shaping the outcome of your study. Tere are 15 key steps
in a PhD journey (Figure 1.3). Tese are the following:

• Deciding on doing or not doing a PhD

• Reviewing existing literature to identify knowledge gaps
• Setting your own research questions and main focus of investigation
• Deciding which university or research institution best suits your PhD research
• Preparing your research proposal and application
• Going through enrolment and settling in your university/research institution
• Refning and focusing your PhD research questions
• Completing your MPhil or transferring onto full PhD
• Conducting your research/experiments and collecting your data
• Synthesising and analysing your data
• Drafing your PhD thesis
• Submitting an original PhD thesis or dissertation
• Getting ready for your viva voce examination
• Defending your thesis in a viva voce examination
• Post-viva clean-up and fnal submission

Tese key stages or phases in doing a PhD are discussed in greater details
throughout this book. Each institution may set specifc guidelines and
 What is and why do a PhD? 11

Figure 1.3 Key steps in a PhD journey

timelines as you move through each of these phases or stages. It is crucial that
you are familiar with the requirements of your institution for each of these
phases.
It is important to stress that having decided to do a PhD, it is essential to
establish the gap in the knowledge that you want to fll with your research.
Tis will involve setting out your own research goals or questions and iden-
tifying the main focus of your investigation. Essential issues that you need
to consider in choosing the university or institution to undertake your
research are discussed in Chapter 2 together with guides on how to write an
efective PhD proposal. Supervisory support that you may expect to receive
from your chosen institution of study is explored in Chapter 3. Ethical con-
siderations in PGR are discussed in Chapter 7 while Chapter 8 covers essen-
tial tools and training you need to get through the key milestones in your
study.
To do a PhD you need to be prepared to go through a dynamic process of
searching, learning, growing and changing and searching again not only in
relation to yourself but also with regards to your PhD research and/or profes-
sional development. Doing a PhD is an enterprise in knowledge creation and
exchange that comes through personal and professional development and
training. In this enterprise, you learn about, search for or change and grow
12 What is and why do a PhD?

Figure 1.4 PhD, knowledge creation and innovation

ideas through a continuous circle of knowledge creation and innovation in

your specifc area of study (Figure 1.4).
PhD is a project that will test your sense of self-belief and endurance. It will
challenge your intellectual ability and your organisational skills to the limit. It
will change you and your understanding and perception of learning through
which you will grow as a person and as a researcher. In the course of your PhD,
you will understand what is current knowledge, idea and theories in your area
of research or profession. You will be able to identify knowledge gaps through
an extensive search for literature. You will learn about how to articulate the
specifc contribution that you are making to existing knowledge, thereby grow-
ing the knowledge exchange base relating to your topic. Also, your PhD will
ofer the opportunity for you to explain the signifcance of your research and
how that will change or is likely to change current thinking or understanding
of the issue you are researching into. Te overall beneft of your research to the
research community and your profession will become apparent.

Preparing for your own PhD journey

It is worth stating that you need to be clear from the onset and at the early
planning stages of your PhD journey what exactly you want to get out of
your PhD. Once you decide you are doing a PhD, start preparing for it now.
Amongst the questions that you should be asking yourself at the early stage
are the following:
 What is and why do a PhD? 13
• Do I need or want to do a PhD?
• Have I understood what it takes to do a PhD?
• Have I sought and obtained advice from someone who has done a PhD or
has experience as to what is involved?
• Can I make the personal, fnancial and emotional commitments to under-
take this ‘big project’ over the required period?
• Have I got a contingency plan in place in case things don’t go according to
plan doing a PhD?

Te degree to which you prepare for your PhD will dictate your success in
wading through the various stages of your PhD journey. Good planning and
preparation in the early stages are critical for success in doing a PhD.

Why many who started never complete a PhD

In 2014, 25,020 PhDs were awarded in the UK across all subjects. Te top ten
countries with PhD awards in 2014 were the US, Germany, the UK, India,
Japan, France, South Korea, Spain, Italy and Australia (Table 1.1). Tese
countries also have the highest number of students currently doing research
degrees leading to PhDs.
Te rapid growth in the number of people enrolled in PGR in the last dec-
ade suggests that possession of a PhD degree is no longer perceived or con-
sidered as the prerogatives of those seeking a career in academia. Most people
now seek to do a PhD for a variety of reasons.
However, the PhD completion fgures in Table 1.1 hide the fact that a large
number of students who start a PhD never complete their programme. Non-
completion rates vary hugely across disciplines and countries around the
world. Globally, about a quarter of students who start a PhD never complete it.

Table 1.1 Top 10 PhDs awarding countries in 2014

Country PhDs Awarded

US 67,449
Germany 28,147
UK 25,020
India 24,300
Japan 16,039
France 13,729
South Korea 12.931
Spain 10,889
Italy 10,675
Australia 8,400

Source: World Economic Forum 2021 - https://www.weforum.

org/agenda/2017/02/countries-with-most-doctoral-graduates/
14 What is and why do a PhD?
In the UK, there has been a steady rise in the number of PhD completions
over the last decade. However, about a ffh of students who started a PhD
in some universities in England may still never complete it or get a degree
(Jump, 2020). Te attrition fgures include non-completion by students who
voluntarily withdraw themselves for reasons such as health, fnancial dif-
culty and changes in personal circumstances, among others; those who had
their registration terminated by their universities due to a lack of engagement
and poor standard of work; and students exceeding maximum registration
without reaching the required milestones, among other reasons.
Tere are complex factors responsible for the attrition rates amongst PhD
students globally. Some of these factors have been explored by academic
scholars (see Spronken-Smith et al., 2018; Cuthbert and Molla, 2015; Golde,
2005; Humphrey et al. 2012; Kyvik and Olsen, 2014; Seagram et al., 1998).
Generally, PhD students drop out of PGR study without a degree for the fol-
lowing reasons:

• Poor or a general lack of preparation

• Unrealistic expectations as to what it takes and costs to do a PhD
• Poor choice of PhD research topic or project leading to a dead-end
• Inappropriate research design and weak methodology
• Poor judgement in choosing institution/supervisor for PhD research study
• Personal issues relating to health, loneliness, depression/mental health
• Loss of motivation and the like
• Financial hardship and a lack of sufcient means to support and sustain
the PhD study
• Poor or a lack of supervisory or mentoring support

To compound these myriads of inhibiting factors, the general lack of essen-

tial texts providing easy-to-follow advice and information for students
before they start their course means many post-graduate students’ dream
of obtaining a PhD were never realised. While the market is full of text-
books focusing on students doing their undergraduate studies. Tere are
relatively few textbooks and educational resources available to support PhD
students. Tis book seeks to fll that gap, providing essential guides to any-
one thinking of, starting or is in the process of doing a PhD. Ways to miti-
gate against some of the inhibiting factors to success in a PhD are discussed
throughout the following chapters. Where necessary, references are made
to PhDs awarded by non-UK universities/institutions in other parts of the
world; however, it is important to note that the main focus of this book is
UK-based PhDs. Nevertheless, readers may still fnd the information in this
book relevant regardless of which PhD model they are operating under in
any part of the world.
 What is and why do a PhD? 15
Keys to a successful PhD
Te key to success in a PhD depends upon a number of complex and inter-
vening factors that could be personal, institutional, locational/environmental
and fnancial, amongst others. Essential skills you need to develop along the
way to help your success are summarised in (Figure 1.5). Tese skills are also
discussed in various sections in the subsequent chapters to provide you with
the grounding and the knowledge you need to succeed in your PhD journey.
Generally, to succeed in your PhD, it is essential that you do the following:

• Maintain a healthy and good work–life balance to sustain your well-being

throughout your PhD journey (see Chapter 8).
• Have a good relationship with your director of studies or supervisors and
make the most of their supervisory support (see Chapter 3).
• You have a good grasp of what your PhD research is about and what you
want to achieve in terms of goals and how to get there (see Chapter 2).
• Pay attention to details (see Chapter 8).
• Understand all the milestones required along the way on your PhD jour-
ney and set yourself specifc, measurable and attainable goals or targets to
achieve those targets in a timely fashion (see Chapter 8).
• Develop your organisational skills to save yourself time by getting the right
things done at the right time (see Chapter 8).
• Read! Read!! Read!! and Write! Write!! Write!!! Read everything relating to
your PhD topic and write things down as you go along – this will help towards
your literature review and drafing your thesis (see Chapter 5, 6 and 11).
• Learn to present your research ideas in academic group meetings such as
conferences, seminars, workshops and the like as that may help you in your
viva and in publishing your research at a later stage, if you so wish (see
Chapter 12 and 13).
• Network with others and make good use of other support you may get for
your PhD (see Chapter 4).
• Have resilience. Don’t give up when things go wrong. Keep going and keep
driving your research forward in spite of any odds or obstacles that you
may face (see Chapter 8).
• Comply with ethics and regulations regarding your PhD research and the
way you collect, store and manage personal data (see Chapter 7 and 9).

Key messages
• A PhD can be done in a wide range of disciplines and professions through
a variety of routes and mode of study – part- or full-time.
• Doing a PhD is not necessarily for everyone. If you must or want to do one,
then do it well by understanding what it entails and what it means for you.
 16 What is and why do a PhD?
Figure 1.5 Essential skills for success in a PhD
 What is and why do a PhD? 17
• To do a PhD, you need to prepare yourself and plan efectively for the jour-
ney before you start.
• In the course of your PhD journey, you will learn, grow and change as a
person and intellectually and experientially.
• Although there might be some element of good luck involved to succeed
in a PhD, a great deal will depend on your own actions – your hard work,
dedication, perseverance and strategic approach.
• As an independent researcher, you are responsible for your own work.
However, networking and developing collaborative links with other
researchers in your feld will help your success.
• While doing a PhD could be very daunting, challenging, frustrating and
sometimes lonely, you can still enjoy the overall experience and take pride
in the fact that every milestone completed is a step towards your goal.

Further reading
Bogle, D. (2017). 100 Years of the PhD in the UK [Online]. Available at: www.vitae.
ac.uk/news/vitae-blog/100-years-of he-phd-by-prof-david-bogle
Churchill, H., and Sanders, T. (2007). Getting Your PhD: A Practical Insider’s
Guide. London: SAGE.
Clark, W. (2006). Academic Charisma and the Origins of the Research University.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Cuthbert, D., and Molla, T. (2015). PhD crisis discourse: A critical approach to
the framing of the problem and some Australian ‘solutions’. Higher Education,
69(1), pp. 33–53.
Dunleavy, P. (2003). Authoring a PhD: How to Plan, Draf, Write, and Finish a
Doctoral Tesis or Dissertation. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
FindAPhD. (2020). Types of PhD [Online]. Available at: www.fndaphd.com/
advice/phd-types/
Finn, J. A. (2005). Getting a PhD: An Action Plan to Help Manage Your Research,
Your Supervisor and Your Project. London: Routledge.
Golde, C. M. (2005). Te role of the department and discipline in doctoral student
attrition: Lessons from four departments. Te Journal of Higher Education,
76(6), pp. 669–700.
Hall, S. (2019). Te History of the Doctoral Degree [Online]. Available at: https://
www.theclassroom.com/history-phd-degree-5257288.html.
Higginbotham, D. (2018). 4 routes to getting doctorate. Prospects [Online].
Available at: www.prospects.ac.uk. Accessed on 18th June 2020.
History of the Doctoral Degree [Online]. Available at: www.theclassroom.com/
history-phd-degree-5257288.html
Humphrey, R., Marshall, N., and Leonardo, L. (2012). Te impact of research
training and research codes of practice on submission of doctoral degrees: An
exploratory cohort study. Higher Education Quarterly, 66(1), pp. 47–64.
18 What is and why do a PhD?
Hutcheson, P. A. (2007, Winter). Academic charisma and the origins of the research
university (review). Te Review of Higher Education, 30(2), pp. 206–207.
Jump, P. (2020). PhD completion rates, 2013. Times Higher Education. World
University Ranking [Online]. Available at: www.timeshighereducation.com/
news/phd-completion-rates-2013/2006040.article. Accessed on 20th June 2020.
Kyvik, S., and Olsen, T. B. (2014). Increasing completion rates in Norwegian
doctoral training: Multiple causes for efciency improvements. Studies in
Higher Education, 39(9), pp. 1668–1682.
Lee, N. (2009). Achieving Your Professional Doctorate. Maidenhead, UK: Open
University Press.
Noble, K. A. (1994). Changing Doctoral Degrees: An International Perspective.
SRHE and Open University Press Imprint, Society for Research into Higher
Education Series, the University of Michigan, USA.
OECD (2019). Education at a Glance 2019. Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development [Online]. Available at: https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/
education-at-a-glance-2019_f8d7880d-en. Accessed on 27th February 2021.
OECD (2020). Education at a Glance 2020. Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development [Online]. Available at: https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/
education-at-a-glance-2020_69096873-en Accessed on 27th February 2021.
Peabody, R. (2014). Te Unruly PhD: Doubts, Detours, Departures, and Other
Success Stories, 1st ed. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Phillips, E. M., and Pugh, D. S. (2015). EBOOK: How to Get a PhD: A Handbook
for Students and Teir Supervisors, 6th ed. McGraw-Hill, UK: Maidenhead
Berkshire. Available at: VitalSource Bookshelf.
Potter, S. (2006). Doing Postgraduate Research, 2nd ed. London: Te Open
University in association with SAGE Publications.
Rugg, G., and Petre, M. (2020). Te Unwritten Rules of PhD Research, 3rd
ed. McGraw-Hill, UK and London: Open University Press. Available at:
VitalSource Bookshelf.
Seagram, B. C., Gould, J., and Pyke, S. W. (1998). An investigation of gender and
other variables on time to completion of doctoral degrees. Research in Higher
Education, 39(3), pp. 319–335.
Spronken-Smith, R., Cameron, C., and Quigg, R. (2018). Factors contributing to
high PhD completion rates: A case study in a research-intensive university
in New Zealand. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 43(1), pp.
94–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2017.1298717
Taylor, L. (2018). Twenty Tings I Wish I’d Known when I Started My PhD [Online].
Available at: www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-07332-x. Accessed on 11th
April 2020.
Times Higher Education. (2020). PhD completion rates, 2013. Te Times Higher
Education. World University Ranking [Online]. Available at: www.timeshigher
education.com/news/phd-completion-rates-2013/2006040.article. Accessed on
20th June 2020.
World Economic Forum. (2019). Which countries have the most doctoral
graduates? Education at a Glance. World Economic Forum. Available at: www.
weforum.org. Accessed on 20th June 2020.
 CHAPTER
2
Te PhD application process

Introduction
Tis chapter discusses the essential steps involved in making a PhD applica-
tion. It highlights key features of PhD research programmes in UK universi-
ties and the key issues to consider in choosing a university for your doctoral
study. Te chapter also provides essential guidelines on how to write your
PhD proposal and how to apply for PhD studentships. A general process of
admissions and criteria for selecting applicants for admission into doctoral
studies is discussed together with what to expect during your enrolment and
induction, key stages and milestones in a PhD journey are discussed with
reference to academic and administrative processes and procedures involved
in a PhD.
By the end of the chapter, you will have a better understanding of

• overview of doctoral research studies in UK universities,

• general admissions requirements for PhD research study in UK universities,
• key issues to consider in choosing a university for your doctoral study,
• how to write an efective PhD proposal and apply for admissions and
studentships,
• what to expect during your enrolment and induction onto your doctoral
programme and
• key stages or milestones in a PhD journey from start to fnish.

UK universities and doctoral studies – an overview

In the 2018–19 academic year in the UK, there were 130 higher education
(HE) institutions, including public and private universities, with a license to
run and award PhD degrees. In the same year, there were 2.38 million stu-
dents studying in UK HE institutions, and about a quarter of this (0.59 mil-
lion) were post-graduate students (HESA, 2020). In addition to the growing
number of home students, UK higher institutions attract a large number of

19
20 Te PhD application process
students from the EU and non-EU countries. Tere were 1.9 million students
from the EU and 0.34 million non-EU students in UK institutions in the
2018–19 academic year (HESA, 2020).
Te Research Excellence Framework (REF) of 2014 rated 76% of the
research conducted and submitted in the UK as ‘world leading’ or interna-
tionally excellent, and UK academic research productivity was judged to be
3.6 times higher than the world average (REF, 2014). Most of the research
was linked to the work of doctoral students and their supervisors. Set up
by the Department for Education, the Ofce for Students (OfS) acts as the
ofcial government regulator and competition authority for the HE sector
in England. With some variations, most UK universities require that you
have at least a frst- or upper-second-class honours degree before you can
be enrolled in an MPhil/PhD programme. Others will not accept anything
less than a master’s degree before you start a doctoral programme. Although
degrees from a UK university are preferred for admissions to a PhD pro-
gramme, equivalent qualifcations from non-UK institutions are also usually
accepted.

Enquiring about PhD opportunities and

choosing where to do your PhD
Once you have made the decision to do a PhD, it is worth making an initial
enquiry about PhD opportunities in your area of interest from two or three
universities and then decide which one is best for you. For each potential uni-
versity, you may wish to consider their research environment, supervisory
capacity and other resources available to support PhD students. Te research
environment relates to the structures, strategies and general infrastructures
available to support research such as training facilities, research equipment
and facilities, laboratories, study space, opportunity for teaching experience
and so on. Opportunities for studentships may also be a factor to consider
in your choice of university and how the university fares in the league tables
such as the Postgraduate Research Experience Survey (PRES).
Universities in the UK vary widely in terms of their PhD programmes,
research environment, criteria for admissions, documents required for sub-
mission when applying for admission and the duration and procedures for
processing PhD applications. Tere is no one-size-fts-all advice that can be
given here other than to say that you may want to fnd out a bit more about the
specifc requirements of the university you are planning to apply to. Given the
diversity of factors you need to consider in choosing the right university for
you, it is essential to look at a range of information sources and then choose
wisely on the basis of what is most important to you.
 Te PhD application process 21
Main sources of information for UK universities

(a) International recruitment agents and representatives

Some UK universities have recruitment agents and representatives in dif-
ferent parts of the world who coordinate admissions onto their PGR pro-
grammes. If you are an international applicant, you may well want to contact
the university representatives in your country. In some cases, this could be
the only option you have to process your PhD admissions to a UK univer-
sity. Tese agents ofen serve as the bridge between applicants from specifc
countries and the UK universities they represent. Tese agents can support
you with the necessary information about the university and what it is like
to study in the UK. Tey may also ofer support regarding your application
process and student visa application. While many agents may ofer support
free of charge, others may charge a fee for their services. It is, therefore,
important you check their fees before you use any third-party agents for your
application.

(b) Published PGR prospectus and university websites

Universities in the UK have information available online on their websites.
Te information details their admissions requirements, fees, enrolment
procedures, induction and other essential information for prospective PhD
students. Published websites may also ofer specifc information on research
areas the university is seeking applications for PhD admissions and the poten-
tial or named supervisors who are able to take on new students.

(c) Government institutions’ and independent organisations’ reports

Tere are a number of governmental and non-governmental organisations
(NGOs) and institutions that provide valuable information on UK universi-
ties and the services they provide to students and their stakeholders. Some
of these organisations or institutions perform statutory regulatory functions,
while others provide public information on universities and the HE sector in
the UK.
Examples are the Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) and the Universities UK.
Te QAA is an independent organisation set up to safeguard standards
and improve the quality of UK HE wherever it is delivered around the world
(Quality Assurance Agency, 2020). Te agency is responsible for ensuring
that students working towards a UK qualifcation get the HE they are enti-
tled to expect and that the standards are as high as they should be. Amongst
other things, the QAA provides guidelines on issues relating to standards and
22 Te PhD application process
quality in all universities and colleges in the UK. Information on the function
and role of QAA in the UK HE sector is available at www.qaa.ac.uk.
Universities UK is the representative organisation for all UK universities.
It was founded in 1918 as an umbrella organisation for UK universities. Te
organisation serves as the representative and voice of all 137 universities and
colleges of HE in the four nations of the UK: England, Scotland, Wales and
Northern Ireland. Information on the function and role of Universities UK is
available at www.universitiesuk.ac.uk/.

(d) UK Universities league tables – PRES

Every year UK universities are independently assessed in terms of the qual-
ity of services they provide with regard to key factors such as entry stand-
ards, student satisfaction, research quality, graduate prospects and degree
completion, amongst others. Tis results in the publication of a highly
completive annual league table with listings of university rankings. While
a university ranking in the league table may not always provide the most
appropriate refection on the suitability of the university for you, it can ofer
a general insight into what to expect if you decide to choose the university
for your PhD.
Factors to consider when choosing where to go for your PhD study may
also include, amongst others, the university ranking in relation to your spe-
cifc subject, the general cost of living at the university town, the university’s
overall PGR ranking, the proportion of university’s students who are classed
as international students, the rate of post-graduate degree completion and the
like.
Te UK University league table varies, depending on the indicators used
and the priority of the publishers. Te most popular league tables are published
by Te Guardian, Te Times and Te Complete University Guide. Te Times
and Sunday Times Good University Guide is generally regarded as good and
trusted quality indicator of UK universities. Te web link to the 2020 complete
guide to the UK University league table is www.thecompleteuniversityguide.
co.uk/league-tables/rankings?tabletype=full-table.

(e) PRES
Apart from the league table, post-graduate students of UK universities are
surveyed annually to collect information on the experiences of their post-
graduate studies. Run by the Higher Education Academy, the PRES is con-
ducted at all publicly funded universities across the country. Te survey
provides insight into and valuable information on students’ perceptions of
their post-graduate studies across the UK universities and HE sector.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
whether he has ever seen the dog, and, if so, he will probably know
who the owner is. And all this information comes at a glance!
The children love basking in the sand; and spend hours playing
with the glistening white and red drifts so plentiful in central and
northern Australia. Little mounds are built, upon which they sit to
defy the others to topple them; and oblong holes are scratched, into
which some of the younger are laid and almost completely covered
with sand. When the buried ones presently throw the sand from their
bodies, the rest of the players scamper off with a hullabaloo and tell
their elders the Kurdaitcha (devil-devil) is coming.
Along the north coast of Australia, the mud-banks of the tidal rivers
are a great source of amusement. When the water recedes during
the heat of day, the young folk make for the blue mud-banks to
indulge in sport and play. Mud-sliding is usually the first item of the
programme. Taking a long run over the firmer ground, the performers
reach the mud-bank with considerable velocity, and in consequence
of this, they slide over the slimy surface in much the same style as
our children in the Old Country do over the ice. They maintain their
balance with their arms. The sliding is effected either singly or in long
chains they form by joining hands. They endeavour to make their
slide reach the water, which, if they are successful, they enter with
no end of splashing and shrieking “Ai! Ai! Ai!”
Another method often tried is to run and then take the “slide” lying
upon chest and belly. As one is sliding this way, he turns his body
round its long axis and eventually disappears into the water. To the
observer a child sliding in this way looks deceptively like a stranded
dugong or other big fish endeavouring to make back to water.
Occasionally one of the sporters breaks the monotony of the game
by negotiating the “slide” with his stern. Or he may bring along a
small oblong sheet of bark, upon which he sits or kneels and propels
himself along with his foot. In modern language this toy might be
called a “mud-scooter.”
On Cambridge Gulf the girls have evolved yet another variety of
this sport. One lies flat on the mud, face downward, whilst another
stands behind her. The one lying now places her arms forwards and
holds the palms of her hands together; at the same time she bends
her legs to a rectangle in the knees, and keeping them together she
holds them rigid in that position. Now the girl standing behind seizes
the legs of the one on the mud at about the ankles and pushes the
human sleigh along the “slide.” As a special favour a piccaninny
might be allowed to take a seat upon the sliding girl’s back.
In the same district the boys delight in carrying each other pick-a-
back to the brink of the softest mud, to precipitate the rider
backwards into the slush or into the water.
To break the monotony, the children place themselves in a row,
each with a number of flattish pebbles previously collected on the dry
land, and take it turn about to pelt the surface of the water at a very
sharp angle in order to make the stone ricochet as many times as
possible.
A new game is begun by the girls stamping the water with their
feet, as at a corroboree; the boys are preparing for a sham-fight.
They cover the whole of their body, including the hair, with thick mud,
which they maintain is the same as the ochre the warriors apply to
their bodies when on the war-path. They pick sides and stand face to
face on a bank, about half a chain apart. Upon a given signal they
commence bombarding each other with mud-balls! One is reminded
of the snowballing feats of European school children. The lads
endeavour to dodge the mud-balls thrown by their adversaries with
as little movement as possible, by just contorting the figure or lifting a
limb to allow a missile to fly harmlessly by. Much gesticulation takes
place during the friendly combat, and often does one hear an excited
“Ai! Ai!” announcing the fact that a player has effected a narrow
escape. The climax, however, is not reached until a hit is recorded,
and a ball, too carefully aimed, spatters the body of a neglectful
opponent. When the game is over, all participants rest for a while
upon the surface of the muddy bank, then dive into the water and
wash the slush from their heated bodies.
At Kurrekapinnya Soakage in the Ayers Ranges the bare, inclined
surface of a granitic outcrop is utilized by the children for
tobogganing. The same track has been in use for so long that the
“slide” has become remarkably smooth from the constant wear. The
tobogganer gathers a bundle of rushes at the soakage and makes
for the top of the outcrop. There he places the bundle upon the
polished “slide,” sits upon it, and starts himself moving down the
slope. Considerable speed is attained by the time he reaches the
bottom of the rock, whence he shoots into the sand adjacent to it.
The performance is repeated over and over again.
The Victoria River tribes arrange competitions among the boys in
tree-climbing, the lads being required to clamber up a number of
selected trees, and down again, in the quickest time possible.
On Bathurst Island a favourite amusement of the younger folk on a
breezy day is to collect the light globular seed-heads of the “spring
rolling grass” (Spinifex hirsutis), that grow on every sandhill near the
coast, and take them to the beach to release them on the hardened
sand. Driven along by the wind, these seeds travel over the surface
at no mean pace. Allowing them to gain a fair start, the children bolt
after them, endeavouring to overtake them and pick them up from
the ground while dashing past at full speed in “cow-boy” fashion.
In the same locality the children assemble on the beach and
compete in running and long jumping.
The Arunndta and Dieri children collect the dry tussocks of the
“roly poly” (Salsola kali) upon a windy day and take them to a big
clay pan. There they liberate them, and, as the wind whips them over
the level ground, the youthful gang makes after them with toy spear
or boomerang, each endeavouring to either stake a tussock with the
first-named weapon or shatter it with the latter.
In the Fowler’s Bay district the tussock is replaced by an artificial
target, such as a ball of fur-string, which is rolled over the surface by
an elder.
The Arunndta boys on the Finke River cut discs out of the bark of
eucalyptus trees, which they roll over the hard ground and chase
with toy spears. In the same district I have seen the bark disc
replaced by an iron ring the boys had been given by a teamster; this
was carefully kept in one of the huts and only produced when the
lads were at liberty and felt inclined “to tilt at the ring.”

PLATE X

1. A juvenile “blonde,” Aluridja tribe.

2. Ponga-Ponga gin carrying pet opossum on her head while on the march.

A modification of the game was observed in the Humbert River

district, Northern Territory. Two parties, of about half-a-dozen each in
number, take up positions opposite each other and about a chain or
chain and a half apart. A circular piece of thick green bark is thrown
overarm by a member of one party swiftly towards the other, so that
it strikes the ground a little distance in front of the latter and rolls
along the ground past them. The waiting party stand in a row, with
their spears poised, and each in succession rushes forward to pierce
the rolling disc by hurling his missile at it. If one is successful the fact
is immediately announced by loud cheering. Then one of the party,
who have thrown, returns the disc in a similar way to the opposite
side whilst several of his fellows collect the spears for the next turn.
Thus the players are alternately “active” and “passive.” Special short
wooden spears are used, about five feet long, pointed at one end.
The disc is shaped out of an irregular piece of bark by biting off the
angular points until a more or less circular piece is obtained. Men
and youths play for hours at a time at this game, which they call
“gorri”; and even children are tolerated by them, although the last-
named are often growled at and told to keep out of the way (Plate
XIII, 1).
A kind of hand-ball is practised on Bathurst Island. The seeds of
the Zamia (Cycas media) take the place of a small ball. Two lads
stand facing each other and hit the seed to and fro with the palms of
their hands, after the style of a modern game of tennis. On the
Victoria River, the children made similar use of the green seed
capsules of the cotton-tree.
In the Meda district of north-western Australia, players at the same
game employed flat pieces of wood resembling cricket bats, the balls
being fashioned out of the woody fruits of the Pandanus.
Catch-ball is played by the children of all Australian tribes. The
“balls” might consist of anything; the Arunndta of the Finke River
country use the seeds of the Macrozamia Macdonnelli, the natives of
Melville and Bathurst Island Zamia and Pandanus seeds, the
Larrekiya of Port Darwin small bags stuffed with fur, the scrotum of a
kangaroo being often used for the purpose. It is surprising, however,
that despite the quickness of their eyes and the keenness of their
sight, the natives, as a rule, are very backward at catching with their
hands any object which is thrown at them.
The boys of the Arunndta and Aluridja tribes construct a small
cylindrical stick sharpened at both ends, which they lay on the
ground; then, with a longer stick held in the right hand, they strike
one end of it, to make it bounce into the air, and, as it rises, hit it with
considerable force. Competitions are held to see who can, by this
method, drive the small object farthest. The game is much the same
as our familiar “tip-cat.”
 From Sunday Island I have already recorded a peculiar type of
throwing contest, which the girls were indulging in at the time of our
visit. Two rows of seven or eight each were standing a couple of
chains apart, and, whilst facing one another, were bombarding their
opponents with consolidated cakes of cow-dung. The missiles were
thrown with considerable skill, even by the smallest girls, due
allowance being made for the curvature in flight. It was part of the
game to dodge the flying bodies, and, whenever a hit was recorded,
a triumphant cheer would ring from the opposite side. In rushing
wildly about the space, the light calico skirts of the playing damsels
would fly high in the air, exposing their slender limbs beneath. In
their eagerness to hit, and avoid being hit, they repeatedly
exclaimed: “Arre minya, arre minya.” Some of the more experienced
throwers showed their proficiency by using flat slabs of stone in lieu
of the cakes of dung.
The games we generally refer to as “hide-and-seek” are known to
the tribes of Australia. In one game a number of persons hide behind
bushes and boulders and are sought by one or more children; in
another an article is hidden by one and looked for by the rest of the
party. The players endeavour to mislead the “seeker” by obliterating
their tracks and substituting them by all sorts of “back-to-front,”
“devil-devil,” and other deceptive tracks. When a “find” is made there
is a loud, jubilant cry; and the “hider,” unless he can escape in time,
is pommelled by the “seeker”; the players do not, however, run back
to a crease or “home,” as we do in the European game.
Once one considers toys supplied by adults for the special benefit
of children, the question resolves itself into an analysis of endless
possibilities of creation achieved by the happy combination of
inventive mimicry and lucid interpretation. It would be as futile to
attempt an exhaustive discussion upon so big a subject as it would
be to even try to describe all the artificial objects one classes as
toys, however crude they might appear, which are manufactured for
the purpose of entertaining and instructing the child. And, indeed, the
young folks themselves are neither idle nor behindhand in
augmenting the collection of playthings supplied by others.
 Most of these articles are, however, made on the spur of an
impulse and serve their purpose just for the time being.
One of the favourite occupations of the children of all Australian
tribes is to build small brushwood shelters and wurlies for
themselves to sit and talk in like grown-ups. Occasionally they
occupy these miniature domiciles as “father and mother,” but more
often as “father” or “mother,” with a number of “children” to “look
after.”
When the “children” are not available as living playmates,
inanimate objects, such as stone, bits of wood, leaves and flowers,
are selected to take the “children’s” place. These receive names and
are placed in a row before the “foster parent,” who talks to them and
frequently changes them about. But the best part of the game is
when one of the “children” is supposed to misbehave itself, and in
consequence must receive a good flogging with a stick, kept handy
for that purpose. At other times one of the objects is taken up,
nursed, and spoken to most affectionately.
Here then we have the idea of the doll, simple though it be. But
after all, simplicity in method, so far as the training of children is
concerned, is perhaps the readiest means of stimulating the
imitative, and with it the creative, force which Nature has endowed
them with.
The doll is usually just a plain stick or stone, with perhaps some
distinguishing feature upon it, like a knob at one end which
represents the head. Occasionally it is painted with red ochre. Dr. W.
E. Roth found that on the Tully River in Queensland a forked stick is
chosen so as to permit the child fixing it on its neck like a mother
carrying her baby, with its lower limbs dangling over the shoulders.
Imaginary fireless cooking is also a pastime the little girls never
tire of. A shallow hole is scooped, into which a few handfuls of cold
ashes are thrown; this represents the fireplace. Upon the ashes is
laid a pebble, a leaf, or any other article which they make up their
minds to “cook.” Having covered it with sand in the orthodox way, the
girls sit and talk, whilst they make themselves believe the dish is in
course of preparation. They invite each other to the prospective
feast, each explaining what she is cooking; one might have a
wallaby, another a lizard, and still another a yam.
Quite apart from accompanying their mothers on the regular
hunting expeditions, the little boys often go out alone. They carry toy
weapons, with which they say they are going to slay a kangaroo or
anything else happening to come their way. In the Fitzroy River
district the young hunters collect, or cut out of a gum-tree butt,
several pieces of bark, dry or fresh, and shy these into the crown of
a boabab (Brachychiton Gregorii), hoping to fell a nut or two. If they
are successful, they proudly return to camp with their spoil and
obtain permission to roast it at the fireside. The small bark missiles
are looked upon by the boys as quite equivalent to the “kaili”
(boomerangs) of their fathers; and there is no doubt they can throw
them with greater skill. I have seen the little fellows stalk a flock of
foraging cockatoo and, when within range, fling several of the toy
weapons into the birds as they are rising; invariably one or two birds
are brought to fall.
 PLATE XI

Rocking a child to sleep.

“On Sunday Island the bark food-carrier, there known as “oladda,” is used as a
cradle; one might often see a busy mother, attending to duties which occupy her
hands, putting her child to sleep by simultaneously rocking the receptacle
containing it with her foot.”

The trimmed stalks of bullrushes and reeds make excellent toy

spears, which are thrown with the heavier end pointing forwards and
the thinner end poised against the index finger of the right hand.
With these “weapons” the lads have both mock fights and mock
hunts. In the latter case, one or two of their number act the part of
either a hopping kangaroo or a strutting emu and, by clever
movements of the body, endeavour to evade the weapons of the
hunting gang.
One of the favourite pastimes of young and old among the Kukata
is to play at “emu.” The players take a stick, about three feet long,
and tie a bundle of grass, brushwood, or feathers to one end of it, to
represent the neck and the head. The performer clasps this stick
with both hands and holds it erect in front of him; then he bends his
body forwards from the hips, whilst other persons cover him with
skins, and tie a tussock of grass over his stern to indicate the tail.
The actor next begins to walk around, as truly as possible imitating
the actions of the bird he is representing. As he walks, he nods his
“head,” while some of the children scamper round him in great
excitement, others flee from him shrieking with terror. After a while
he stops short, turns his head and shakes his body, finally running
away in a zig-zag course. As he runs, he frequently imitates the
peculiar deep note of the old emu and occasionally the shrill
whistling cry of the young. A most amusing little incident, which I saw
in connection with this game, happened near Mount Eba. A man,
fully rigged as an emu, was entertaining the camp with some very
clever, bird-like antics, when suddenly a vicious mongrel darted at
the performer from a wurlie he was passing. The “emu,” without any
deliberation at all, dropped its head, scampered across the ground,
hotly pursued by the dog, and, in its terror, climbed the nearest tree.
The King Sound men construct miniature “kaili,” barely an inch in
length, and practically straight, which they project, before the
admiring eyes of their juvenile audience, by using their fingers only.
The little toy is held between the second and third phalanges of the
left index finger, so that a good half of its length projects above the
hand. The inner tip of the right index finger is pressed strongly
against the outer surface of the left thumb and suddenly allowed to
slip over the top edge and strike the projecting part of the toy. The
little slab of wood is jerked into the air, whirls through space in a
parabolic curve, and, when well managed, returns to the hand of the
projector. The children often try this feat, but, with the exception of a
rare fluke, never succeed; in fact, it is not every adult man who can
do it.
 On Sunday Island, small models of the raft (“kaloa”), locally used,
are made for the children to play with. These toys are exact replicas
of the craft described in a subsequent chapter and are neatly
constructed in every detail.
A kind of dart is made by the children in the Northern Kimberleys
of Western Australia out of the root ends of grass seed-stalks, six to
eight inches long. These are held, one at a time, between the palms
of the hands parallel to, and between, the middle fingers, beyond
which they project but a fraction of an inch. In this position the hands
are turned so that the fingers point towards the body. Then taking
careful aim at an object, the child throws its hands vigorously
forwards, at the same instant opening them and shooting the dart in
the desired direction.
Among the Dieri, Yantowannta, and Ngameni, principally, and to a
less extent among the Arunndta, Aluridja, and Kukata, a playing stick
is found which is commonly known by the name of “kukerra.”
Although a toy, the men only were observed to use it, not only to
amuse the children, but for the benefit of the whole camp. The
kukerra is a slender, club-shaped stick made out of the Mulga. Its
length is about three feet six inches, of which the thickened end
occupies something like nine inches; the head, i.e. the swollen
portion, is up to an inch or slightly more in diameter, whilst the “stick”
is not thicker than an ordinary lead pencil; each end terminates in a
blunt point. The Dieri kukerras are lighter and more slender than the
Arunndta or Aluridja. The playing stick is seized at its thin end and,
swinging it with a straight arm, it is made to strike a bush or tussock
in front of the thrower; whence it bounds through the air in an
inclined position, and, after striking the ground, glides along the
surface in a snake-like manner.
Natives are fond of spinning any suitable objects which fall into
their hands; small pebbles, gall-nuts, and the larger varieties of
conical and bell-shaped eucalyptus fruits are all made to spin upon a
level surface just to amuse the children. The Yantowannta,
Wongkanguru, and other tribes of the Cooper Creek region are very
clever at moulding tops out of clay, with real pegs, upon which the
toys revolve. These tops are undoubtedly an indigenous invention.
The spinning is usually accomplished by rubbing the toy between the
palms of both hands.
Skipping is indulged in by little boys and girls alike. A long vine is
used by the Wogaits on the Daly River, which is swung to and fro like
a pendulum by two of the players, whilst others jump over the line as
it passes beneath them. The “rope” is not swung overhead.
At Engoordina, Arunndta children and women were noticed to
entertain the tribe by artful tricks with an endless piece of string. By
an intricate method of inter-looping and threading, a long cord, tied
together at its ends, so as to form a complete ring, is transformed
into different patterns of squares, triangles, and circles, the
composite groups of which are intended to represent different natural
objects. The string is held at different points, according to the
complexity of the design, by the fingers, toes, and mouth of the
performer; occasionally, indeed, the services of an assistant are
required to support the pattern whilst it is being constructed. The
more elaborate articles when completed resemble a loosely netted
or knitted fabric, the plainer are more after the style of a few loops or
meshes lightly held together. Some of the designs bear a
recognizable resemblance to the objects they are intended to
represent (e.g. birds, animals, men, etc.), others appear to be (to the
European at any rate) rather far-fetched. Very often a complicated-
looking design can be instantly reduced to the original piece of string
by simply pulling one of its component loops or ends.
Dr. W. E. Roth has very ably described a series of such figures,
made with one or two endless strings, which he found to be
commonly constructed throughout north Queensland, where the
tribes play a game resembling the European “cratch-cradle.”
Children are not allowed to attend many tribal ceremonies;
consequently one does not often see them with their bodies
decorated or ornamented. There are occasions, however, when their
presence is tolerated, such as, for instance, at receptions to relatives
who are returning from a fight or long hunting expedition. White earth
or kaolin is invariably used for beautifying the appearance, it being
maintained that it is unwise to apply much red, the token of blood, to
the body of one who has not sacrificed some of his blood during the
course of such ceremonies as will elevate him to the status of the
tribe’s manhood. The kaolin is applied in the form of a thick paste in
a series of thin lines. On Sunday Island these lines pass from the
centre of the shoulder, on either side, diagonally to and along the
breast-bone; and horizontally across the thighs and forearms. The
face has a smear of white straight down the nose, and two semi-
circular lines, which enclose the mouth and converge to a point
opposite the ear on either side. The child in addition wears a belt of
twisted human hair-string, from which pends a pearl shell ornament;
it might also carry a plume of white cockatoo feathers in its hair.
There are slight variations in the patterns and designs chosen for
child-decoration both in the same tribal group and among different
tribes, but no matter what part of Australia is considered, the effect
completed is decidedly less elaborate than the complex and ornate
colour schemes seen in the ceremonial displays of performing men.
The children take no active part in such proceedings, but usually
walk or stand about at points where they do not interfere with the
proceedings in general. There is no objection to the child carrying
one of the boomerangs of its father, but under no conditions is it
permitted to handle a spear-thrower.
Children are early accustomed to discipline and obedience. They
are not required to obey any but their individual fathers, tribal fathers,
and tribal uncles. They need not pay heed to the orders of their
contemporaries, but only to the word of such as they consider “grew
them,” that is, men of a previous generation to themselves. Women
need not be obeyed by law, but, with the knowledge and sanction of
a father, a mother can chastise and punish a child as much as she
pleases. The father reserves the right to interfere at any moment.
The little girls accompany their mothers whenever collecting
rambles are undertaken. They receive instructions in the methods of
locating and gathering grubs, lizards, seeds, and roots; and during
this time they are required to daily handle the yam-stick in the correct
manner as shown them by their seniors. Subsequently they are
taught how to clean, cook, and prepare the meals to be placed
before the men.
 The boys are early in life schooled in the practices of carpentry, so
far as they are applied to the making and shaping of domestic
utensils and weapons with the few crude implements at their
disposal.
Further, they are instructed in the knacks and arts of handling and
throwing weapons of chase, attack, and defence. The lads take to
this instruction enthusiastically. For instance, whilst being taught the
art of boomerang-throwing, one might daily see a youngster, even in
the absence of his master, posing in the attitude demonstrated to
him, without actually letting the piece of wood, which answers the
purpose of a weapon, go out of his hand (Plate XIV, 1).
Boys are not allowed to handle real boomerangs, spears, or
shields before they have undergone the first initiation ceremony. If
they did so, the offence would be looked upon as an insult to the
dignity of the men who have qualified and are thus entitled to the
privilege of carrying such weapons on parade. The offence is in fact,
on a point of decorum, similar to the case of a fellow in the “rank and
file” wearing the sword or insignia of his superior officer.
When, at a later stage, the elder boys of the Northern Kimberleys
of Western Australia become well-skilled in throwing, sham-fights are
arranged. Pieces of bark are broken from the mangroves, out of
which the combatants make missiles resembling straight
boomerangs. Sides are picked under the supervision of the men and
the signal given to start. In a moment the air becomes alive with the
whirr and buzz of the flying pieces of wood, which the youths throw
straight at one another. Often severe gashes and wounds are
inflicted upon the bodies of the “fighters,” but such are taken in good
faith and looked upon as being part of the game.
As a means of self-defence and protection against such throwing-
sticks and the small toy-spears previously mentioned, the Arunndta
construct for their boys light bark shields. A piece of green bark is cut
out of the butt of a eucalyptus, oblong-oval in shape and about two
feet long and six inches wide. Two holes are cut in the central line of
this piece, about six inches from either end, and through them two or
three fairly stout, green twigs are stuck, from the under, concave
surface, to form a handle. The points of these twigs stick out from
the top surface, some two inches, but they are left to prevent the
ends of the handle from slipping out. The bark is then bent in the
required shield-shape and dried over a slow fire or in hot ashes
(Plate XIV, 1).
The girls, too, are encouraged to indulge in stick-practice to
prepare them for the “kutturu” duels they will have to take part in, in
later years. The principal mark is the foot, which each alternately
tries to strike, while the other is “on guard” with her stick. At other
times they stand face to face, with the palms of their hands pressed
tightly together. Presently one voluntarily bows her head, when the
other immediately gives her a severe crack over the scalp with the
small finger side of her hands. Then the other has a turn; and the
process may be repeated. The object of this strange procedure is to
“harden” the head in anticipation of the real blows it will receive in
time to come. To make the performance appear genuine, the girl,
whose turn it is to strike, may be heard to feign a curse: “Atutnia,
arrelinjerrai!”
The child’s mind is early imbued with the importance of hardening
the body and nerve against pain, and thereby making the system
less susceptible to the hardships of life, which they know to be
inevitable.
The system of personal mutilation, described in a subsequent
chapter, has to a certain extent been evolved for a similar reason.
Camp life brings many little accidents with it, but the Spartan
principles which are cultivated lead to an almost complete ignorance
of the existence of pain as might be brought about by small cuts or
burns. Just for the sake of competitive amusement, the boys of the
Kukata tribe take a live coal from the fire and lay it upon the naked
skin of their forearm. A red-hot coal, about the size of a pea, is
usually selected for the purpose and momentarily “cooled” or
“blackened” by covering it with a handful of sand. The black coal is
then placed upon the forearm at any suitable spot and touched with
the red-hot point of a firestick. The coal on the arm immediately turns
red again and in that condition is allowed to remain there until it falls
to white ash. The first effect is naturally to raise a blister, but this is
soon burnt through and the raw skin is exposed, upon which the coal
gently fizzles. Whilst this is going on, the boy is seen to bite his lips
together and to clinch the fist of the suffering arm, as if to suppress
the pain. The lesion will, of course, leave a permanent scar. Some of
the lads have many of such marks upon both arms, and they seem
quite proud of them.
In the camps of any of the tribal groups throughout Australia, who
are still enjoying an uncontaminated life, one might see captive birds
and animals temporarily tethered or kept for the amusement of
children. Such are usually brought home by the men returning from
their hunting expeditions. A young wallaby, for instance, is let go on
an open flat and all the children set after it. They are not allowed to
hurl stones or sticks after the fleeing game, but must retake it alive
by the use of their hands only. Although it is against the rules to
harm a captured animal, it is a curious circumstance that a native,
even if grown up, invariably forgets to feed it, although entertaining
the idea of keeping it alive. Occasionally, however, it happens that a
creature survives and looks after its own needs; in this case the
animal or bird becomes a real pet and is not made the object of
children’s coursing matches any more.
The King Sound natives catch the small ring-tailed opossums,
which live in the mangroves, and hand them to their children. The
Ponga-Ponga gins become very attached to these marsupial pets,
which they carry about with them on their days’ outings planted in
the locks of their hair. The opossums seem quite contented to abide
there whilst their mistresses are on the march and hang on by
means of their claws and tail (Plate X, 2). Occasionally one might
even see an affectionate gin suckling her pet at her breast.
On Sunday Island several cockatoos were kept by a fishing party
in their camp not far from shore. The birds had their flight feathers
pulled and were allowed to roam about the country in search of food.
The cockatoos seemed to regard the huts as their home, to which
they invariably returned; they had, moreover, picked up many
phrases of the aboriginal tongue.
 Although the native animals and birds of Australia have always
been, and still are, the daily object of aboriginal chase, it is a
remarkable fact that great friendships are made between the hunter
and his would-be prey when the latter is in captivity. Indeed, the
instinctive fear of an animal or bird is ever so much greater when a
white man approaches than when a native does. I have seen cases
where semi-wild cockatoos, magpies, and other birds have allowed
themselves to be handled by natives without much concern, but the
moment a European attempted to do likewise, the bird would
become unmanageable, terrified, and vicious. Partly domesticated
birds seem to have a predilection for perching themselves upon the
legs of their native masters when the latter are sitting or lying on the
ground. Talking of instinct reminds me of the occasions I took
aborigines to the Zoological Gardens to see the favourite attraction,
viz. the “monkey-wurlie.” Whilst European visitors were coming and
going, the apes would appear unconcerned, phlegmatic, and blasé;
but the moment the dark-skinned people arrived, the animals would
instantly become electrified and bounce towards the iron bars, which
they seized and shook frantically. The natives, on the other hand,
would evince no fear, but endeavoured to edge as close as possible
to the monkeys, although they had never seen one before. The
monkeys, in appreciation of the coloured visitors’ benignity, would
grin, wink their eyes, and make guttural noises.
At the time of my visit to the Forrest River Mission Station, a
tethered monkey was kept on the premises. The natives regarded it
as a real “little man,” and many of them, especially the children, were
on excellent terms with it, but this could not be said of some of the
old men. The monkey and the children were inseparable, and usually
at play; but occasionally disputes arose which always ended in an
open tussle, during which hands, teeth, and finger-nails were used.
Although young humanity did not always fare best, the monkey
would never take a mean advantage nor resort to extreme tactics.
When it found itself victorious, it would jump triumphantly on to its
perch and cry “Arre Arre.”
 CHAPTER XII
THE DAY’S MARCH

Orders of the day—Selection of camp site—Feminine water carriers—Great

variety of bark vessels—Skin water-bag—Bailers and drinking cups—Natural
water supplies—Water-bearing trees—Modes of drinking.

“When another sun will come, and when he is still a piccaninny,

Punya umberri (everybody) will walk to the big stone (hill), lying in
the gum-trees, where Kuddoguddogu (a landmark) holds up the
clouds of the Pindanol’s country. Narrawiddi and Wetninnya will carry
my angamma (bark-wrap with small personal belongings), and all
other women will take many naramarragam (bark food-carriers) and
fill them with yams on the way. Plenty water sits upon the ground.
The men will run the kangaroo’s track with me.”
Upon an order like this from one of the old men, the following
day’s itinerary is cast. Brief though it seems, it is sufficient because,
although the chances of the coming expedition might widely
separate the members of the group, they keep in constant touch with
each other by signs and signals best known to themselves.
The site for a camping ground is thus always selected by one of
the old men in authority. Preference is given, other things being
equal, to a spot near to a natural water supply. There are, of course,
numerous occasions when there is no water available. When, for
instance, the natives are hunting in the sandhills during a good
season, they either carry water with them for miles, or rely on the
succulent parakylia and other water-holding plants.
It falls to the lot of the women to carry water upon such occasions.
The fluid is contained in bark carriers of different designs, which they
either skilfully balance upon their heads or carry under their arms.
The water is kept from splashing over the sides, in the first place by
the naturally graceful gait of the women; but, at the same time, an
intentional addition of twigs and branchlets further checks any undue
movement of the fluid which might be produced in the vessel during
the march.
The Dieri, Yantowannta, Ngameni, Arunndta, Aluridja,
Wongapitcha, and other central Australian tribes use shield or
trough-shaped carriers cut out of the bark of the eucalyptus, shaped
and hardened over the fire. The shield type is flat, with more or less
open ends; the trough type has higher sides and ends, and is
therefore more capacious. There is, however, no hard and fast
division between the two. The surfaces of these are either smooth or
longitudinally grooved with a stone scraper. The largest were
observed on Cooper’s Creek, measuring three feet in length, one
foot in width, and five inches in depth, while those of the Arunndta
and Aluridja are not quite so long and wide, but they may be deeper.
The utensils go by different names, according to tribe and locality;
three of the most commonly heard are “mika,” “pitchi,” and
“cooleman.” In addition to taking the place of water-holders, they are
also used as food-carriers.
North of the MacDonnell Ranges, similar articles are cut out of
solid wood, usually the Northern Territory Beantree (Erythrina
vespertilio).
The Warramunga and Kaitish (or Kaitidji) tribes in addition make
large canoe-shaped carriers out of similar material. Two varieties are
met with. The first is more or less flat-bottomed with steeply inclined
sides coming to a sharp edge at each end; the second is uniformly
curved, shield-like, with all its sides standing at about the same level
at the open end. The former is grooved longitudinally on the outside
surface only, the inside being left in the rough; the latter is finely
grooved on the inner, as well as the outer surfaces. Both types are
generally painted over with red ochre. It is a decidedly laborious job
to remove the wood, which originally fills the inside of this carrier, a
fact which will be realized when one considers that it has all to be
done by burning with live coals, and gouging and scraping with stone
implements.
 The Sunday Islanders take a rectangular sheet of bark of the
woolly-butt eucalyptus, fold both ends for a distance of three or four
inches, into pleats (like a concertina), and stitch them together with
split cane. The utensil is used throughout the north-west coast as far
as Cambridge Gulf.
On Bathurst and Melville Islands similar structures are made out of
the bark of the paper-bark tree (Melaleuca). An oblong piece is bent
upon itself lengthwise, both its ends folded, as in the previous case,
and kept together by binding with cane or by spiking with short
wooden pegs.
The same pattern, slightly modified here and there, is found along
the shores and islands of the Gulf of Carpentaria and the Cape York
Peninsula. We might say, therefore, that it occurs throughout the
entire length of the north coast of Australia.
Another type, perhaps more food than water-carrier, is common on
Melville and Bathurst Islands; it is made of a single piece of the
“stringy-bark” eucalypt. An oblong sheet, say a good yard long and
nearly half as wide, is freshly cut and folded transversely at its
centre. The edges of both sides are pared down, laid flat, one over
the other, and sewn or laced together with plain or “run-on” stitches.
A row of slanting and overlapping stitches is often inserted along the
open edge a short distance down; and occasionally part of the same
edge may be cross-hemstitched and plastered with beeswax; the
object of these stitches is to prevent the bark tearing along the fibres.
The mouth of the carrier is nearly circular, or at any rate oval.
Ordinarily the bark is left in its raw condition, but upon special
occasions elaborate designs, consisting of circles, and other figures,
with cross-hatched line-patterns, are drawn on the outer surfaces in
red, yellow, white, and black.
An article is in use locally among the Worora at Port George IV,
which perhaps interests us most on account of its similarity to the
orthodox water-carrier employed by ourselves, viz. the bucket. What
makes the fact more interesting still is that this unique type of water-
vessel is found in a locality, than which even at the present time
none other is further remote from civilization. The bark-bucket of the