DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Subject Name:Protection and Switchgear Subject Code: U20EET822

Prepared By:
Mr.R.Ragupathy, AP/EEE
Verified by: Approved by:

UNIT II – RELAYS
Operating Principles of the Relay - Classification of Relays - Universal relay – Torque equation – R-X diagram.
Electromagnetic Relays – Over current, IDMT, Directional, Distance, Differential, Negative sequence and under
frequency relays, Introduction to static relays, Phase, Amplitude, Comparators – Synthesis of various relays using
Static comparators. Microprocessor relay - Applications

2 Marks
1. What is advantage and disadvantage of static relay?
I.Advantage of static relay
a) Low power consumption
b) Resetting time and overshoot is less
c) No moving contacts
d) No gravity effect on operation of static relays
e) A single relay can perform several functions like over current, under voltage,
This is not possible in electromagnetic relays
f) Static relay is compact
g) Superior operating characteristics and accuracy
h) Static relay is programmable operation
i) Simplified testing and servicing.
j) Online computation and function
k) Repeated operation is possible
l) Free from effect of vibration and shocks
m) Can convert non-electrical quantities to electrical in conjunction with
transducers
II. Disadvantage of static relay

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 a) Auxiliary voltage requirement
b) Semiconductor components are sensitive to Electrostatic discharge(ESD)
c) Static relay is sensitive to voltage transient or spike
d) Temperature dependence
e) High price
2. What is negative phase sequence relay?
Negative phase sequence currents can result from any unbalance condition on the system
including untransposed transmission lines, single phase loads, unbalanced type line faults and
open conductors. The negative relays are also called phase unbalance relays because these relays
provide protection against negative sequence component of unbalanced currents. The unbalanced
currents are dangerous from generators and motors point of view as these currents can cause
overheating. Negative sequence relays are generally used to give protection to generators and
motors against unbalanced currents.

3. What are the different types of distance relay?

 Impedance relay- Z
 Reactance relay-X
 Mho relay (Admittance relay) –Y
- Offset mho relay
4. What is mho relay? (Admittance or angle admittance)
Z
This is a kind of distance relay. It measures a particular component of the impedance
cos(   )
where  is the power factor and  is the design angle to shift mho characteristic on the R-X
diagram. Its characteristic on the R-X diagram is a circle passing through the origin. It is a
directional relay.

5. What is an IDMT characteristic?

A relay which gives an inverse time characteristic at lower values of the operating current and
definite time characteristic at higher values of the operating current.

6. State Merz price principle.

Differential circulating current protection scheme or Merz Price circulating current scheme is a
most popular protection scheme for alternator stator protection. It functions on the concept of
comparing the two currents in and out of stator coil. In normal condition the two current will be

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 same, if fault occurs there will be some difference, and Merz price circulating current scheme
works by detecting this difference or differential current.

7. List the application of differential relay

a) Transformer
b) Alternator
c) Bus bar
d) Transmission line
8. How is directional over current relay suitable for short circuit condition?

 When the power system is not radial (source on one side of the line), an overcurrent relay
may not be able to provide adequate protection. This type of relay operates in on direction
of current flow and blocks in the opposite direction.
 Three conditions must be satisfied for its operation: current magnitude, time delay and
directionality. The directionality of current flow can be identified using voltage as a
reference of direction.
9. What are types of overcurrent relay?

A. Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay

B. Define Time Overcurrent Relay
C. Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay (IDMT Relay)
i. Moderately Inverse
ii. Very Inverse Time
iii. Extremely Inverse
D. Directional overcurrent Relay
10. What are the different types of relay used for protection?
Sl.No Types of faults Operation of relay

1. Phase to Ground fault Earth Fault Relay

(Earth Fault)
2. Phase to Phase fault Related Phase Overcurrent
relays

3. Double phase to Related Phase Overcurrent

Ground fault relays and Earth Fault relays

 Differential protection is used for transformer, alternator, transmission

line

11. What is static relay? What are their essential components?

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 A static relay is the relay which
incorporates solid state
component like transistor,
diodes etc., for the
measurement or comparison of
electrical quantities.
Components used:
a) Semiconductor diode
b) Transistor
c) UJT, Thyristor
d) Logic circuits
e) Filter circuits
f) Multivibrator
g) Time delay circuit
h) Level detectors
i) Analog circuits

12. What is the principle of differential relay?

Differential relay is type of relay which operates when the phasor difference of two or more
similar electrical quantities exceed a predetermined value.
Two fundamental system of differential or balanced protection are
a) Current differential protection
b) Voltage differential protection
13. What is meant by time graded overcurrent protection?
Over current protection in which time discrimination is incorporated. In other words, the time
setting of the relay is so graded that minimum possible part of system is isolated in the event of
fault.
Application of time graded protection is
a) Radial feeder
b) Parallel feeder
c) Ring feeder
14. What is current graded protection?
- It is alternative to time graded protection and is used when the impedance between two
substations is sufficient.
- It is based on the facts that short circuit current along the length of protected length of the
circuit decrease with increase in distance between the supply end and fault point

15. Draw the operating characteristics of an impedance relay on R-X plane.

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16. Draw the R-X diagrams of the distance relays

17. What are disadvantage of impedance relay?

A separate unit is required to make directional relay.
18. What are the merits of mho relay?
The mho or Admittance relay is made inherently directional by adding a voltage winding called
polarizing winding. This relay works on the measurement of admittance Y∠ θ. This relay is also
called angle impedance relay.
19. State advantage of Distance relay
 Gives faster operation
 Simpler to co-ordinate
 Less effect of fault level and fault current magnitudes.
 Permits high line loading
 With the need at re-adjustments, permanent setting can be done.

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 11 MARKS

1. Explain non-directional induction type over current relay

The over current relay operates when the current in the circuits exceeds a certain preset value. The
induction type non directional over current relay has a construction similar to a Watthour meter, with
slight modification.
It consists of two electro magnet .the upper is E shaped while the lower is U shaped. The
aluminum disc is free to rotate between the two magnets. The spindle of the disc carries moving contacts
and when the disc rotates the moving conducts and when the disc rotates the moving contacts come in
contacts which are the terminals of a trip circuit.
The upper magnet has two windings, primary and secondary. The primary connected to the secondary of
C.T. on the line to be protected. This winding is tapped at intervals. The trappings are connected to plug
setting bridge.

Non directional induction over current relay

With the help of this bridge, number of turns of primary winding can be adjusted. Thus the desired
current setting for the relay can be obtained. There are usually seven sections of tapping to have a over
current range from 50%to 200% in steps of 25%. These values are percentages of current rating of the
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relay. Thus a relay current rating may be 10A i.e. it can be connected to C.T. with secondary current
rating of 10A but with 50% setting the relay will start operating at 5A. So adjustment of the current
setting is made by inserting a pin between spring loaded jaw of the bridge socket, at the proper tap value
required. When the pin is withdrawn for the purpose of changing the setting wile relay is in service then
relay automatically adopts a higher current setting thus secondary of C.T. is not open circulated. So relay
remains operative for the fault occurring the process of changing the setting.

The secondary winding on the central limb of upper magnet is connected in series with winding
on the lower magnet. This winding is energized by the induction from primary. By this arrangement of
secondary winding, leakage flux of upper and lower magnets are sufficiently displayed in space and time
to provide a rotational torque on the aluminum disc. The control torque is provided by the spiral spring.

When the current exceeds its preset value, disc rotates and moving contacts on spindle make
connection with trip circuit terminal. Angle through which the disc rotates is between 0˙to 360˙.the travel
of moving contacts can be adjusted by adjusting angle of rotation of disc. This gives the relay any desired
time setting which is indicated by pointer on a time a time scale dial. The dial is calibrated from 0 to 1.
This does not give direct operating time but it gives multiplier which can be used along with the Time-
Plug Setting multiplier curve to obtain actual operating time of the relay.

FAULT CURRENT IN RELAY COIL

P. S. M =
RATED SECONDARY C. T ∗ CURRENT SETTING
Fault current in relay coil=line fault current C.T. ratio.

PSM-Plug setting Multiplier

Time - current characteristics

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 OPERATION
The torque is produced due to induction principle; this torque is opposed by restraining force
produced by spiral springs. Under normal conditions the restraining force is more than driving force
hence disc remains stationary. Under fault conditions when current becomes high, the disc rotates
through the preset angle and makes contact with the fixed contacts of trip circuit. The trip circuit opens
the circuit breaker, isolating the fault part from rest of the healthy system.

2. Explain with help of neat diagram the construction and working of induction type directional
power relay.

The directional relay means the relay operates for the specific direction of the actuating quantity
in the circuit. The directional power relay operates when the power in the circuit floes in the specific
direction. The construction and principle of operation of this relay is similar to the induction type
Watthour meter relay. The difference is that in watthour meter type relay the torque is produced by only
the current derived from secondary of C.T. while in directional power relay the torque is produced due to
interaction of the fluxes produced from both voltage and current in the circuit. The relay has two winding
one act as voltage coil while other as current coil which is energized from C.T. in the line to protected.

The number of trappings are provided to the current coil with which desired current setting can be
achieved. The restraining torque is produced by the spiral spring. The spindle of disc carries the moving
contacts which make contact with tripping circuit terminals when the disc rotates. The voltage coil
provided on the upper magnet produces the flux φ1. This lags the voltage by 90˙.the current I is sensed
by the current coil on lower magnet which produces the flux φ 2.this is in phase with current I. The
current I lags voltage V by an angle φ. the angle between 1and2 is .shown in phasor diagram.

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 DIRECTIONAL POWER RELAY

The interaction of fluxes φ1 and φ2 produces the torque.

𝐓 ∝ 𝛗𝟏 𝛗𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∝

𝛗𝟏 ∝ 𝐕, 𝛗𝟐 ∝ 𝐈

∝= 𝟗𝟎 − 𝛗

𝐓 ∝ 𝐕𝐈 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟗𝟎 − 𝛗)

𝐓 ∝ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛗

Under normal working conditions, the driving torque acts in the same direction as that of
restraining torque. This moves the moving contacts away from the fixed tripping circuit conditions. Thus
relay remains inoperative as power flow is in one particular direction. But when there is a current reversal
and hence the power reversal then the driving torque acts in opposite direction to the restraining torque in
such a manner that the moving contacts close the tripping circuit contacts. This opens the circuit breaker
to isolate the faulty part.
This relay is used for providing reverse power protection to synchronous machines. The relay can
be single phase or three phase.

3. Explain with help of neat diagram the construction and working of directional over current
induction type relay.

The directional power relay is not suitable to use as a protective relay under short circuit
condition. This is because under short circuit condition voltage falls drastically and such a reduced
voltage may not be sufficient to produce the driving torque required for the relay operation. Hence in
practice directional induction type overcurrent relay is used. This relay operates almost independent of
system voltage and power factor.

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 The directional induction type overcurrent relay uses two relay element mounted on a common case.
These element are:
A. Non-Directional element which is non-directional over current relay.
B. Directional element which is directional power relay.
Non-Directional Element:
Current coil of directional element connected in series with the primary of non-directional
elements. The plug setting bridge is provided in this element to adjust current to adjust current setting as
per the requirement. the movement of the non-directional element is controlled by the directional element

Directional Element:
This kind of operation is happened when power in the circuit flows in a particular direction. The
voltage and current coils of this element is energized by system voltage through potential and current
transformers respectively.

Operation:
During normal conditions, power flow in the proper direction and hence directional element of the
relay is in-operation, thus the secondary winding of lower magnet of non-direction element is open and
hence non-directional element is also in-operative.
Under faulty conditions, current flows through current coil of directional element which produces
flux. The current in voltage coil produces another flux. The two fluxes interact to produce the torque due
to which the disc rotates. As disc rotates the trip contact gets closed, the current coil is mainly responsible
for disc rotation.

The design of directional element is so sensitive that it can operate even at 2% of power flow in
reverse direction. From the current coil of directional element, the current flows to primary winding of
upper magnet which is the non-directional element.
The energies to produce the flux. This flux induces the emf in the secondary winding of non-
directional relay. As the contacts are closed(1-1‟),the secondary winding has a closed path. Hence,
Induced e.m.f drives current through it, producing another flux. These two fluxes interact to produce
torque and rotates disc. This makes contacts with trip circuit and it opens C.B to isolate faulty sections.
Directional element should operate first to operate non-directional element.

The following condition must satisfy for relay operations:

1. The direction of current in the circuit must reverse to operate directional element.
2. The current value in the reverse direction must be greater than the current setting.
3. The high value of current must persists for a long period which is greater than time setting of the
relay.

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Torque equations and Pharos diagram:
Let, V=relay voltage through PT
I=Relay coil current through CT
𝜃=angle between V and I
Relay current leads the voltage by angle .Due to this, correct operation or relay at all types of fault is,
∅V =Flux produced by voltage v.
Flux lags voltage v by an angle
∅I =Flux produced by current I.
Flux ∅I is in-phase with the current I, considering V as reference.
Phasor diagram, (directional characteristics)

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 Torque is proportional to fluxes ∅V , ∅I sine of angle between the two fluxes.

𝐓 ∝ ∅𝐕 ∅𝐈 𝐬𝐢𝐧(∅𝐕 ^∅𝐈 )

∝ ∅𝐕 ∅𝐈 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛉 + 𝛗)

∅𝐕 ∝ 𝐕and∅𝐈 ∝ 𝐈

𝐓 = 𝐊𝐕𝐈 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛉 + 𝛗)

Where K= CONSTANT,

Maximum torque occurs whensin(θ + φ)=1, i.e.,θ + φ = 900

T = zero, when sin(θ + φ) = 0 i.e., (θ + φ) = 0 or 180.

Maximum torque angle

The angle by which the current supplied to the relay leads the voltage supplied to the relay so as to obtain
the maximum torque is called maximum torque angle.

It is denoted by τ ,

We can write, ∅ = 900 − τ.

Substituting in the torque equation,

𝐓 = 𝐊𝐕𝐈 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛉 + 𝟗𝟎𝟎 − 𝛕)

𝐓 = 𝐊𝐕𝐈 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛉 − 𝛕)

The typical values of the maximum torque angle are 00, 300, 450.

4. Explain the types of differential relay A.current differential relay, B.biased beam (or) percentage
of differential relay, C.voltage balance differential relay.

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 Differential relay is type of relay which operates when the phasor difference of two or more similar
electrical quantities exceed a predetermined value.

A) Current Differential Relay

Most of the differential relays are of current differential type. Consider an over current relay
connected in the circuit so as to operate as the current differential relay.

Two current transformers are used having same ratio are connected on the either side of the
section to be protected. The secondaries of current transformers are connected in series, so they carry
induced currents in the same direction. Let current I is flowing through the primary of current
transformers towards the external fault. As the current transformers are identical, the secondaries of
current transformers will carry equal currents. Due to the connection of relay, no current will flow
through the operating coil for the relay. Hence relay will remain inoperative. So relay cannot operate
if there is an external fault.

Consider now that an internal fault occurs at point A, as shown in the diagram.

The current flows through the fault from both sides. The two secondary currents through C.T.s are
not equal. The current flowing through the relay coil is now I1+I2. This high current causes the relay to
operate. It should be noted that the fault current need not always flow to the fault from both sides. A flow
on one side only or even some current flowing out of one side while a large current entering the other

13
side can cause differential relay to operate. Thus the amount of current flowing through a relay coil
depends upon the way the fault is being fed.

This relay suffers from the following disadvantages,

1. The current transformers are connected through cables called pilot cables. The impedance of such pilot
cables generally causes a slight difference between the currents at the ends of the section to be protected.
A sensitive relay can operate to a very small difference in the two currents, though there is no fault
existing.
2. The relay is likely to operate inaccurately with heavy through current flows. This is because the
assumed identical current transformers may not have identical secondary currents due to the
constructional errors and pilot cable impedances.
3. Under severe through fault conditions, the current transformers may saturate and cause unequal
secondary currents. The difference between the currents may approach the pick value to cause the
inaccurate operation for the relay.
4. Under heavy current flows, pilot cable capacitances may cause inaccurate operation of the relay.
All these disadvantages are overcome in biased beam relay.

B) Biased Beam Relay or Percentage Differential Relay.

As the name suggests, this relay is designed to operate to the differential current in terms of its
fractional relation with the actual current flowing through the protected circuit. The diagram shows the
arrangement of a biased beam relay.

Simple circuit biased beam relay

The operating coil O of the relay carries a differential current (I 1-I2) while the restraining coil R
𝐼 −𝐼
carries the current proportional to ( 1 2 2 )as the operating coil is connected at the midpoint of the
restraining coil.
This can be explained as,
Let N = Total number of turns of restraining coil.
N N
So current I1 flows through turns of while current I2 flows through ,
2 2

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 I1N I2N 𝐼 −𝐼
Effective ampere turns = + = N( 1 2 2 )
2 2

Thus it can be assumed that the current flows through the entire N turns of the restraining coil.
Under normal and through load conditions, the bias force produced due to the restraining coil is greater
than the operating force produced by the operating coil hence relay is inoperative. When internal fault
occurs, the operating force becomes more than the bias force. Due to this, beam moves and the trip
contacts are closed to open then circuit breaker.
The operating characteristics of this type of relay are shown in the Fig.

It can be seen that except at low currents, the characteristics is a straight line. Thus the ratio of the
differential operating current to the average restraining current is a fixed percentage. Hence the relay
name is percentage differential relay.
The relays with constant slope characteristics are called constant slope percentage differential
relays. In some relays, the slope of the characteristics increases as the short circuit current increases. Such
characteristics are shown in the Figure.

Such relays are called increasing slope percentage differential relays.

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 The important fact about increasing slope type relays is that their cost is more but requires less
accuracy in the performance of their current transformers. Constant slope type relays require good
accuracy in the performance of the current transformers.

C) Voltage Balance Differential Relay

This is also called opposed voltage method. In this type, the over current relay is connected in series with
the secondaries of the current transformers. This is shown in the Fig.

Under normal conditions, the current at the two ends of the section to be protected is same. Hence
there is no voltage drop across the relay to cause the current to flow.
Under fault conditions, the currents in the two secondaries of current transformers are different. This
causes a large voltage drop across the relay. Thus the voltage balance of the circuit gets disturbed. Hence
large current flows through the relay due to which the relay operates to open the circuit breaker.

5. Explain with need diagram High impedance differential protection.

This method of protection based on sensing a voltage drop across high impedance, under fault
conductions. Shown in figure.

The basic principle remains same as differential scheme. Under normal conditions vector sum of
the currents in the lines is zero. Hence Ifcurrent flowing through high impedance ZH is zero. And the
relay is inoperative.

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 During the fault conditions, unbalanced currents exist. Such an out of balance current If flows
through ZH causing a high voltage drop VZ across it. It is given to a transformer. A Measuring Unit Is
connected to secondary of this transformer which measures this drop and trips the relay accordingly.
Main advantage is that as voltage drop is sensed, saturation of core of one of the current transformer has
no effect on the protection scheme.

6. Explain with neat diagram Impedance Relay:

There are two elements in the relay, one produces torque proportional to current and the other
produces torque proportional to voltage.

Torque produced by current element is balanced against torque produced by voltage element. I
element produces operating torque, pickup torque and V element produces restraining torque, reset
torque. Current element is energized by current through CT while Voltage element is energized by PT.
Under normal conditions, the ratio of V and I is denoted as ZL, which is the impedance of the line. The
relay is in-operative under this condition. When the fault occurs at pt. Fin the protected zone the voltage
drops and current increases. Thus the impedance reduces drastically below the predetermined value Z L, it
trips and makes CB open.
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Torque Equations:

The positive torque produced by current element is proportional to I 2 while the negative torque
produced by voltage element is to V2.

Let control spring effect produces a constant torque of −K 3

Hence the torque equation becomes,

𝐓 = 𝐊 𝟏𝐈𝟐 − 𝐊𝟐𝐕𝟐 − 𝐊𝟑
where 𝐊 𝟏 ,𝐊 𝟐 are the constants, while V and I are r.m.s. values.

At the balance point, when the relay is on the verge of operating the net torque is zero hence we
can write,
𝟎 = 𝐊 𝟏𝐈𝟐 − 𝐊𝟐𝐕𝟐 − 𝐊𝟑
𝐊𝟐𝐕𝟐 = 𝐊𝟏𝐈𝟐 − 𝐊𝟑
Dividing both sides by K 2 I 2 ,
𝐕𝟐 𝐊𝟏 𝐊𝟑
𝟐
= −
𝐈 𝐊𝟐 𝐊𝟐𝐈𝟐
𝐊𝟏 𝐊𝟑
𝐙=√ −
𝐊𝟐 𝐊𝟐𝐈𝟐

With negligible spring effects, K3 =0,

𝐊 𝐕
𝐙 = √𝐊𝟏 = 𝐈 = 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
𝟐

Operating Characteristics:
For a particular fault position, V/I is constant, and it changes when fault position changes. If fault
is nearer to relay this ratio will be low and as fault position moves away from the relay the ratio becomes
higher and higher.

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 So it can be installed to operate for the section to be protected and once installed and adjusted for
a particular section, it is in-operative beyond that section

R-X Diagram:
Operating character of impedance relay is easily represented by a diagram called as R-X diagram.
Its X-axis is represented as “R” while y-axis as X-axis as this plane is called R-X plan. The impedance
“Z” can be expressed as,

𝐙 = 𝐑 + 𝐣𝐗

|𝐙| = √𝐑𝟐 + 𝐗 𝟐

𝐙 𝟐 = 𝐑𝟐 + 𝐗 𝟐

Mathematically above equation represents an equation of circle.

From the equation we can write,

𝐗
𝐭𝐚𝐧 ∅ =
𝐑
𝐗
∅ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏
𝐑
The numerical value of V and I determine the length of the radius vector Z while the phase angle
∅ between V and I determines the exact position of the vector Z.

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 If I is in phase with V then the Z vector lies along R-axis. If I lags vector V then X is negative
while if I leads vector V then X is positive.

The operation of the relay is independent of phase angle ∅ and hence the relay operating
characteristic is a circle with radius equal to magnitude of Z which is predetermined set value.

“Z” can be determined by numerical value of V & I,

While “Φ” can be determined by angle between V&I.
Case 1;
If “I” is in phase with “v”, Z-vector lies along R-axis.

Case 2:
If “I” lags vector “V” then “X” is negative.

Case 3:
If “I” leads vector “V” then “X” is positive.
At any point of value of “Z” less than the radius of the circle the relay operates. Hence the entire
position inside the circle is positive torque region.
While the portion exterior to the circle is negative torque region i.e negative torque region.
Where,
Zf=Impedance between relay and fault point
Z=Set value for impedance=Radius of the circle,
Zf<Z, Relay operates.
Zf>Z, Relay is in-operative.

Use of impedance Relay for Transmission line Protection

The directional impedance relay can be obtained by adding a directional element in the basic
impedance relay.

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 The element can sense the direction of power or current flow and relay can operate only if the
direction of power flow is in one particular direction with respect to the point where relay is installed.
The voltage coil of the relay is Fed from P.T while its current coil fed from CT as shown diagram below.

IF= Line current when fault occurs at point X

VF=Supply voltage when fault occurs at point X
iF=current supplied to current coil when fault occurs
VF= Voltage supplied to Voltage coil when fault occurs
V- Normal supply voltage
I=Normal line current
ZL=V/I= impedance of healthy section
ZF=VF/IF=impedance when fault occurs

The relay is connected at point A. the fault occurs at point X. the voltage coil of relay receives
voltage VF and current coil receives current iF, when fault occurs. The setting of the relay is selected such
that it protects the transmission line up to point B. thus for any fault between A-B similar to that shown at
point X, the impedance under fault condition ZFwill be less than the predetermined value of ZL and the
relay will operate.

If the impedance relay used is non-directional, it can protect the line from fault for all fault
position within the section AC too. So nondirectional relay provides protection on the either side of the
point where relay is located. But if the portion of the line AB only is to be protected, then the directional
impedance relay can be used. As directional unit permits tripping only in one direction, the section AB
will be protected but relay will not operate for any fault position between sections AC.
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 Whether the relay is directional or nondirectional, if its setting is such that for impedance less
than ZLdefineupto point B, the relay should operate then for any fault position to the right of point B like
point Y the relay will not operate.

For fault at X. Zf<ZL hence point X is in the operating region and relay will trip. So for any fault
position along line AB, relay will trip as the entire AB is in the protected zone. For fault at Y, it can be
seen that the impedance Zf>ZL hence point lies outside the circle hence in the negative torque hence in
the negative torque region and relay remains inoperative.

7. Explain the construction working principle of reactance relay with need diagram.

In this relay the operating torque is obtained by current while the restraining torque due to a
current-voltage directional relay. The overcurrent element develops the positive torque and directional
unit produces negative torque. The directional element is designed that maximum torque angle is 90.

It has an operating coil, polarizing coil, and a restraining coil. The current I flows from pole 1,
through iron core stacking to lower pole 3. The winding on pole 4 is fed from voltage V. the operating
torque is produced by interaction of fluxes due to the winding carrying current coils ie. Interaction of
fluxes produced by poles 1,2 and 3. While the restraining torque is proportional to the square of the
current I2 while the restraining torque is proportional to the product of V and I. The desired maximum
torque angle is obtained with help of RC circuit shown in above diagram.

Torque Equation:

The driving torque is proportional to the square of the current while the restraining torque is proportional
to the product of V and I.

Hence net torque is, T = K1 I 2 − K 2 V I cos(θ − τ).

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At the balance point net torque is zero,

𝟎 = 𝐊 𝟏 𝐈 𝟐 − 𝐊 𝟐 𝐕 𝐈 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛉 − 𝛕)

𝐊 𝟏 𝐈 𝟐 = 𝐊 𝟐 𝐕 𝐈 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛉 − 𝛕)

𝐕
𝐊𝟏 = 𝐊𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛉 − 𝛕)
𝐈
𝐊 𝟏 = 𝐊 𝟐 𝐙 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛉 − 𝛕)

Adding capacitor, the torque angle is adjusted as 900.

𝐊 𝟏 = 𝐊 𝟐 𝐙 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛉 − 𝟗𝟎𝟎 )

𝐊 𝟏 = 𝐊 𝟐 𝐙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉

𝐊𝟏
𝐙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉 =
𝐊𝟐

Consider impedance triangle,

𝐙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉 = 𝐗 = 𝐑𝐞𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞

𝐙𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 = 𝐑 = 𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞

𝐊𝟏
𝐗= = 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭.
𝐊𝟐

Thus the relay operates only on reactance.

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 Thus the relay operates on the reactance only. The constant X means a straight line parallel to X- axis on
R-X diagram

Disadvantage of reactance relay:

 It is not possible to use directional relay

 In transmission line, this relay will not be able discriminate the fault in the section, where
relay is located or it has taken place in the adjoining section.

8. Explain MHO relay characteristics on the R-X diagram .discuss the range setting of various
distance relay placed on a particular location.

MHO Relay (or) ADMITANCE RELAY:

The reactance relay with directional feature is called a MHO relay. The mho or Admittance relay
is made inherently directional by adding a voltage winding called polarizing winding. It is inherently a
direction relay as it detects the fault only in forward direction. This relay works on the measurement of
admittance Y∠ θ. This relay is also called angle impedance relay.

CONSTRUCTION:
This relay also uses an induction cup type structure. It also has an operating coil,
polarizing coil and restraining coil. In this relay the operating torque is obtained by V and I element
while the restraining torque is obtained by a voltage element. Thus admittance relay is a voltage
restraining directional relay.

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 The operating torque torque is produced by the interaction of the fluxes due to the winding carried
by the poles 1, 2 and 3. While the restraining torque is produced by the interaction of the fluxes due to the
winding carried by the poles 1, 3 and 4.

Thus the restraining torque is proportional to the square (V 2) while the operating torque is
proportional to the product of voltage and current (VI). The torque angle is adjusted using series tuning
circuit.

Torque Equation:

The operating torque is proportional to VI, the restraining torque is proportional to v 2.

Hence net torque is given by,

𝐓 = 𝐊 𝟏 𝐕𝐈 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛉 − 𝛕) − 𝐊 𝟐 𝐕 𝟐 − 𝐊 𝟑

𝐊 𝟑 = 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐥 𝐬𝐩𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐜𝐭

Generally K3 is neglected,
Net torque=0,

𝟎 = 𝐊 𝟏 𝐕 𝐈 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛉 − 𝛕) − 𝐊 𝟐 𝐕 𝟐

𝐊 𝟏 𝐕 𝐈 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛉 − 𝛕) = 𝐊 𝟐 𝐕 𝟐

𝐕
𝐊 𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛉 − 𝛕) = 𝐊 𝟐
𝐈
𝐊𝟏
𝐙= 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛉 − 𝛕)
𝐊𝟐

This is the equation of a circle having diameter K1/K2 passing through origin, and this constant
K1/K2 is the ohmic setting of the relay(ZR).

Operating Characteristics:

The characteristics of a MHO relay when plotted on a R-X diagram is a circle, passing through
the origin.

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 The angle τ can be adjusted to be 450,600,750 and so on. This angle is maximum torque angle. The
setting of 450 is used for high voltage (33KV or 11KV) distribution lines, the setting of 60 0 is used for 66
or 132 KV lines while the setting of 750 is used for 275 and 400 KV lines

Three units of MHO relay are used for the protection of a section of the line.
Unit I high speed unit, protects (80-90) of the line section.
Unit II protects (50%) of adjacent line section
Unit III Back- up protection of adjacent line section.

9. Explain in detail about Negative Sequence Relays

NEGATIVE SEQUENCE RELAYS

The negative relays are also called phase unbalance relays because these relays provide protection
against negative sequence component of unbalanced currents existing due to unbalanced loads or phase-
phase faults. The unbalanced currents are dangerous from generators and motors point of view as these
currents can cause overheating. Negative sequence relays are generally used to give protection to
generators and motors against unbalanced currents.

A negative sequence relay has a filter circuit which is operative only for negative sequence
components. Low order of over current also can cause dangerous situations hence a negative sequence
relay has low current settings. The earth relay provides protection for phase to earth fault but not for

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phase to phase fault. A negative sequence relay provides protection against phase to phase faults which
are responsible to produce negative sequence components.

The Fig. 1 shows the schematic arrangement of negative phase sequence relay.

Basically it consists of a resistance bridge network. The magnitudes of the impedances of all the
branches of the network are equal. The impedances Z1 and Z3are purely resistive while the impedances
Z2 and Z4 are the combinations of resistance and reactance. The currents in the branches Z 2 and Z4 lag by
60o from the currents in the branches Z1 and Z3. The vertical branch B-D consists of inverse time
characteristics relay. The relay has negligible impedance.

The current IR gets divided into two equal parts I1 and

I2. And I2 lags I1 by 60o. The phasor diagram is shown in
the Fig. 2.
Ī1 + Ī2= Īrs
Let I1 = I2 = I
The perpendicular is drawn from point A on the diagonal
meeting it at point B, as shown in the Fig. 2. This bisects
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the diagonal.
... OB = IR /2
Now in triangle OAB,
cos 30 = OB/OA
... √3/2 = (IR/2)/I
... I = IR/√3 = I1 = I2 ............(1)
Now I1 leads IR by 30o while I2 lags IR by 30o.
Similarly the current IB gets divided into two equal parts I3 and I4. The current I3lags I4 by 60o. From
equation (1) we can write,
IB /√3 = I3 = I4 ...............(2)
The current I4 leads by IB while current I3 lags IB by 30o.
The current entering the relay at the junction point B in the Fig. 1 is the vector sum of , and .
Irelay = Ī1 + Ī3 + ĪY
= IY + (IR/√3) (leads IR by 30o) + IB/√3(lags IB by 30o)
The vector sum is shown in the Fig. 3 when the load is balanced and no negative sequence currents exist.

It can be seen from the Fig. 3 that,

Ī1 + Ī3 = -ĪY
... Ī1 + Ī3 + ĪY = 0
Thus the current entering the relay at point B is zero. Similarly the resultant current at junction D is
also zero. Thus the relay is inoperative for a balanced system.
Now consider that there is unbalanced load on generator or motor due to which negative sequence
currents exist. The phase sequence of C.T. secondary currents is as shown in the Fig. 4(a). The vector
diagram of I1, I3 and IY is shown in the Fig. 4(b) under this condition.

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 The component I1 and I3 are equal and opposite to each other at the junction point B. Hence I 1 and
I3 cancel each other. Now the relay coil carries the current I Yand when this current is more than a
predetermined value, the relay trips closing the contacts of trip circuit which opens the circuit breaker.

Zero Sequence Currents : The zero sequence components of secondary currents are shown in the
Fig. 5(a). We know that,

ĪR = Ī1 + Ī2
ĪB = Ī3 + Ī4
These sums are shown in the Fig. 5(b) and (c). It can be seen from the Fig. 5(d) that,
Ī1 + Ī3 = ĪY in phase with IY
The total current through relay is Ī 1 + Ī3 +ĪY. Thus under zero sequence currents the total current of
twice the zero sequence current flows through the relay. Hence the relay operates to open the circuit
breaker.

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 To make the relay sensitive to only negative sequence currents by making it inoperative under the
influence of zero sequence currents is possible by connecting the current transformers in delta as shown
in the Fig. 6. Under delta connection of current transformers, no zero sequence current can flow in the
network.

Induction Type Negative Sequence Relay

Another commonly used negative sequence relay is induction type. Its construction is similar to that of
induction type over current relay. The schematic diagram of this type of relay is shown in the Fig. 7.

The central limb of upper magnet carries the primary which has a centre tap. Due to this, the primary
winding has three terminal 1, 2 and 3. The section 1-2 is energized from the secondary of an auxiliary
transformer to R-phase. The section 2-3 is directly energized from the Y-phase current.
The auxiliary transformer is a special device having an air gap in its magnetic circuit. With the help
of this, the phase angle between its primary and secondary can be easily adjusted. In practice it is
adjusted such that output current lags by 120orather than usual 180ofrom the input.

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So, Ix = Input current of auxiliary transformer
IR1 = Output current of auxiliary transformer
and IR1 lags IR by 120o
Hence the relay primary carries the current which is phase difference of I R1 and IR .
Positive Sequence Current: The C.T. secondary currents are shown in the Fig. 8(a).The Fig. 8(b)
shows the position of vector IR1 lagging IR by120o. The Fig. 8(c) shows the vector sum of I R1 and - IY.
The phase difference of IR1 and IY is the vector sum of IR1 and - IY. It can seen from the Fig. 8(c) that
the resultant is zero. Thus the relay primary current is zero and relay is inoperative for positive sequence
currents.

Negative Sequence Currents: The C.T. secondary currents are shown in the Fig..9(a). The Fig. 9(b)
shows the position of IR1 lagging IR by 120o. The Fig. 9(c) shows the vector difference of I R1 and IY which
is the relay current.
Under negative sequence currents, the vector difference of I R1 and IY results into a current I as shown
in the Fig. 9(c). This current flows through the primary coil of the relay.

Under the influence of current I, the relay operates. The disc rotates to close the trip contacts and
opens the circuit breaker.

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 This relay is inoperative for zero sequence currents. But the relay can be made operative for the
flow of zero sequence currents also by providing an additional winding on the central limb of the upper
magnet of the relay. This winding is connected in the residual circuit of three line C.T. This relay is
called induction type negative and zero sequence relay.

The schematic arrangement of induction type negative and zero sequence relay is shown in the Fig.10.
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10. Explain in detail about frequency relay
The frequency of the induced e.m.f is related to the speed of the synchronous generators by the relation,
Ns P
f 
120
Where f=frequency
Ns= Synchronous speed of generator
P= number of poles
If the load is reduced, the speed of the synchronous generator increases and frequency increases. While if
load increases, the speed decreases and the frequency decreases. Hence frequency relay are required if
frequency changes from its normal value and are used in the generator protection and for load frequency
control.
The frequency relays can be electromagnetic or static relays. These can be under frequency or
over frequency relays.
In construction, it consist of two pair of coils and a cup type rotor as shown in fig. below

It uses a Ferraris measuring system. The frequency relay are connected to the secondary of
voltage transformer. The two pairs of coils are connected in parallel to the supply voltage through the
impedances.

Now impedance is function of frequency. At normal frequency the impedance are tuned balancing
each other. Thus no torque is experienced by the cup type rotor at normal rated frequency.

If frequency increases then there is unbalance in the impedance and torque say clockwise in
nature is exerted on the rotor. This operates the relay if frequency increases beyond the setting. This is
over frequency relay.

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 If frequency decreases then again there is unbalance in the impedance. But now torque exerted on
the rotor is anticlockwise. This operates the relay if frequency decreases beyond the setting. This is under
frequency relay.

By varying the position of sliding resistor the frequency setting can be adjusted. The pick
sensitivity can be controlled by adjusting the restraining spring.

11. Explain with neat diagram of static relay.

A static relay is the relay which incorporates solid state components like transistor, diodesetc.,for
the measurement or comparison of electrical quantities. The static network is so designed that it gives an
output signal in the tripping direction whenever a threshold condition is reached. The Out Put Signal In
Turn Operates a tripping device which may be electromagnetic or electronic.
Static relay are capable of performing the same functions with the use of electronic circuit control
which an electromagnetic relay performs with the use of moving parts or elements.
Essential components of static relay.
The relaying quantity (i.e., the output of a C.T. or P.T. or a transducers) is first rectified and then
compared with the set values.

The output is actuated when the dynamic input (relaying quantity) reaches the threshold value.
This output is amplified and given to the output device which is usually an electromagnetic one to
energies the trip coil (when the relay operates)

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 MERITS:
The static relay has the following merits over electromagnetic relay
1. More accurate and fast in operation.
2. The moving parts and the contacts are largely eliminated. The only moving elements in
static relay are final tripping contact.
3. VA rating of C.Ts.and P.Ts is comparately lower (static relay require a very little VA for
their operation)
4. Low power consumption.
5. Resetting time and overshoots can be reduced.
6. Very compact.
7. Superiorcharacteristic and accuracy.
8. Severalfunctions can be accommodated in a static relay.
9. Simplified testing and servicing is possible

12. Explain in details about static over current relay

a) Static Instantaneous Over-Current Relay

The block diagram of an instantaneous over-current relay is shown in fig 21. The same
construction may be used for under-voltage, over-voltage and earth fault relays too

The secondary of the line CT’s are connected to a summation circuit (not shown in the fig). The
output of this summation CT is fed to an auxiliary CT, whose output is rectified smoothened and supplied
to the measuring unit (level detector). The measuring unit determines whether the quantity has attained
the threshold value (set value) or not. When the input to measuring unit is less than the threshold value,
the output of the level detector is zero.

For an over-current relay

For Iinput<Ithreshold; Ioutput = 0
For Iinput>Ithreshold; Ioutput = Present
In an actual relay I threshold can be adjusted.
After operation of the measuring unit, the amplifier amplifies the output. Amplified output is
given to the output circuit to cause trip/alarm. If time-delay is desired, a timing circuit is introduced
before the level detector. Smoothing circuit and filters are introduced in the output of the bridge rectifier.
Static over-current relay is made in the form of a single unit in which diodes, transistors, resistors,
capacitors etc., are arranged on printed board.
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 b) Static Over-Current Time Relay
The block diagram of static over current time relay is shown in fig

The current from the line CT is reduced to 1/1000th by an auxiliary CT, the auxiliary has taps on
the primary for selecting the desired pick-up and current range and its rectified output is supplied to level
detector I (over-load level detector) and an R-C timing circuit. When the voltage on the timing capacitor
Vc attains the threshold value of the level detector II, tripping occurs. Time delay given by the timing
circuit shown in fig 22 b is given as T c = RC log e E/(E – VT)

Where VT is the threshold value of the level detector II. By varying values of R and C the time can be
varied without difficulties.

13. Draw the block diagram of a static differential relay

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14. Explain the applications of microprocessors in power system protection

15. Describe the realization of a directional over current relay using a microprocessor

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