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Elements of Heat and Mass Transfer
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NEW AGE
ENGINEERING
ELEMENTS OF
HEAT AND MASS
TRANSFER
SECOND EDITION
VIJAY GUPTA
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Contents
Preface to the Second Edition vii
1. TRANSFER PROCESSES 1–23

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2. CONDUCTION: HEAT TRANSFER IN STATIONARY MEDIUM 24–53

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4. TRANSIENT CONDUCTION 114–152
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5. NUMERICAL METHODS FOR CONDUCTION PROBLEMS 153–206

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11. HEAT AND MASS EXCHANGERS 499–534

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Index
CHAPTER
1
Transfer Processes
1.1 INTRODUCTION
7he profession of engineering is concerned largely with fashioning our material world through
physical, chemical and biological changes. 0ost of these changes reTuire or result in transfer of
energy, momentum or chemical species from one substance, phase or location to another. 7he
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a thermal power plant we must design boilers and condensers that can achieve the desired rates
of heat transfer. A %essemer converter for making steel from pig iron must be designed so that
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the blood at the reTuired rate. 6imilarly, a knowledge of transfer processes is reTuired in the
design of smoke-stacks (to keep the concentration of pollutants at ground level within acceptable
limits), electronic components (to guard against their overheating), heat-shields of re-entrant
space vehicles (to protect them from the intense heat generated when the vehicle enters the
atmosphere at high speed), shapes of cast-iron components (to provide for uniform cooling),
fabrication processes of semi-conductors, etc.
:hile thermodynamics (which is concerned only with the eTuilibrium states) enables us
to predict the quantityRIZRUNDQGKHDWH[FKDQJHVLWGRHVQRWFRQFHUQLWVHOIZLWKWKHrates at
which these can be transferred. A study of transfer processes is an engineering science which
deals mainly with the rates of transfer of such Tuantities. )or this reason, the transfer processes
are also called rate processes. &hemical kinetics which studies the rates of change of chemical
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5ate processes is an ideal subject for integrated study, since there is an underlying similarity
in the concepts used in the diverse transfer processes. :e will in this book be concerned
primarily with the rates of transfer of heat and with the rates of transfer of chemical species in
QRQUHDFWLQJPL[WXUHV i.e., with mass transfer).
2 ELEMENTS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
1.2 NATURE OF TRANSFER PROCESSES

A body of matter is said to be in equilibrium if it does not have any internal gradients of the
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drop of saline into the pure water around it. Also, a gas from a higher-pressure region moves
towards a region of lower pressure.
,QDOOWKHDERYHFDVHVZKHQHYHUHTXLOLEULXPGRHVQRWSUHYDLOWKHUHLVDSK\VLFDOTXDQWLW\
which moves from the region of higher intensity (of that Tuantity) to the region of lower
intensity. 7he amount of this Tuantity, thus, decreases in the former and increases in the latter.
7he physical Tuantities whose transfer we are usually interested in are mass, momentum and
energy. Physical laws which govern the overall conservation of these Tuantities are available for
WKHVHWKUHHSURFHVVHV)RUH[DPSOHWKHWRWDOPDVVLVFRQVHUYHGLQDSK\VLFDOV\VWHPWKDWLVWKH
PDVVJDLQHGE\RQHSDUWRIDV\VWHPLVH[DFWO\HTXDOWRWKHPDVVORVWE\WKHUHVWRIWKHV\VWHP
7his is known as the law of conservation of mass. :e have similar laws for momentum and
HQHUJ\DVZHOO:HWUHDWWKHVHODZVDVD[LRPVDQGEXLOGRXUVFLHQFHVRYHUWKHVH
7he conservation laws postulate only the overall balance. 7hey do not indicate the direction
of transfer of mass, momentum or energy. Nor do they give any information about the rates at
which such transfers take place. 7he second law of thermodynamics, in one of its numerous
HTXLYDOHQWIRUPVGH¿QHVWKHdirection of transfer. :e may state the second law as follows
All systems tend to move towards equilibrium. 7his implies that left to itself, the transfer of a
physical Tuantity occurs so as to achieve the eTuilibrium state, a state where the intensity of that
Tuantity is uniform throughout. 7hus, if a body is not in thermal eTuilibrium (i.e., some regions
of it are hotter than others), the relevant physical Tuantity whose transfer establishes eTuilibrium
is heat, and the corresponding intensity measure is the temperature. +eat will tend to move
from a region of higher temperature to that of a lower temperature. 7he second law forbids the
movement from lower to higher temperature on its own. 7his rules out the design of ships which
H[WUDFWHQHUJ\IURPVHDZDWHUIRUSURSXOVLRQ VXFKGHYLFHVDUHNQRZQLQWKHUPRG\QDPLFVDVWKH
perpetual-motion machines of the second kind ,WVKRXOGEHXQGHUVWRRGWKRXJKWKDWLWLVSRVVLEOH
WRWUDQVIHUKHDWIURPDORZHUWHPSHUDWXUHWRDKLJKHUWHPSHUDWXUHEXWRQO\DWWKHH[SHQVHRI
H[WHUQDOSRZHUDVKDSSHQVLQDUHIULJHUDWRURUDQDLUFRQGLWLRQHU6LPLODUO\VDOWGLVVROYHVLQZDWHU
on its own, but a salt solution cannot separate itself into pure salt and pure water spontaneously.
2[\JHQDQGQLWURJHQPL[WRJHWKHUZKHQEURXJKWLQWRFRQWDFWEXWFDQQRWVHSDUDWHby themselves
LIWKH\VWDUWIURPDPL[HGVWDWH2QHKDVWRH[SHQGHQHUJ\WRVHSDUDWHWKHP
-ust as temperature is the intensity measure for transfer of heat, the appropriate intensity
PHDVXUHIRUWKHGL൵XVLRQRIRQHFKHPLFDOVSHFLHVLQWRDQRWKHULVWKHFRQFHQWUDWLRQRIWKHVSHFLHV
7KLV LV DSSDUHQW IURP WKH IDFW WKDW DQ HTXLOLEULXP VWDWH LV FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\ WKH XQLIRUPLW\ RI
FRPSRVLWLRQRIWKHPL[WXUH,WPD\EHSRLQWHGRXWKHUHWKDWDPL[WXUHRIVSHFLHVPD\PRYHDVD
whole with no relative motion of the constituents, and conseTuently, no change in the composition.
TRANSFER PROCESSES 3
7KLVPRWLRQLVUHIHUUHGWRDVWKHEXONPRWLRQDQGLVVWXGLHGXQGHUVROLGRUÀXLGPHFKDQLFVDQG
VKRXOGQRWEHFRQIXVHGZLWKPDVVWUDQVIHU,QPDVVWUDQVIHUZHDUHFRQFHUQHGRQO\ZLWKPDVV
motions that result in changes in the composition (as measured by the relative concentrations of
GL൵HUHQWFRQVWLWXHQWVDWYDULRXVORFDWLRQV DQGDUHFDXVHGE\WKHYDULDWLRQVLQFRQFHQWUDWLRQVRI
the various constituent species. 7his transfer is also known in literature as GLৼXVLRQ.
1.3 CONCEPT OF DRIVING POTENTIAL

7KH FXUUHQW WKDW ÀRZV WKURXJK D ZLUH LQ an electric circuit is dependent upon the electrical
SRWHQWLDOGL൵HUHQFHDFURVVWKHWZRHQGVRIWKHZLUH7KHSURSRUWLRQDOLW\IDFWRULVWHUPHGDVWKH
conductance, the reciprocal of which is the electrical resistance1RFXUUHQWÀRZVWKURXJKWKH
ZLUHZKHQWKHSRWHQWLDOGL൵HUHQFHDFURVVLWLV]HURDQGWKHV\VWHPLVDWHTXLOLEULXP
6imilarly, in heat and mass transfer processes the factors which are in balance at
HTXLOLEULXPSURGXFHWKHÀRZRIHQHUJ\RUPDVVZKHQWKDWEDODQFHLVGLVWXUEHG,WLVUHDVRQDEOH
to assume that the greater the imbalance the higher would be the rate of transfer. :e term the
corresponding intensity measures as the potentials7KXVWHPSHUDWXUHGL൵HUHQFHLVWKHGULYLQJ
SRWHQWLDOIRUKHDWWUDQVIHUDQGFRQFHQWUDWLRQGL൵HUHQFHLVWKHGULYLQJSRWHQWLDOIRUPDVVWUDQVIHU
7KHUDWHVRIÀRZRIKHDWRUPDVVPD\EHWHUPHGDVWKHUHVSHFWLYHcurrents:H¿QGWKDWLQD
wide variety of transfer processes the relevant current varies almost linearly with the potential
GL൵HUHQFHDVLWGRHVLQHOHFWULFDOFLUFXLWV:HFDQWKHUHIRUHLQWURGXFHLQKHDWRUPDVVWUDQVIHU
DTXDQWLW\DQDORJRXVWRWKHUHVLVWDQFHLQHOHFWULFDOFLUFXLWV:HGH¿QHWKHWKHUPDODQGPDVV
WUDQVIHUUHVLVWDQFHVE\WKHIROORZLQJH[SUHVVLRns
Temperature difference
Qth ...(1.1)
Rth
Concentration difference
and Qm ...(1.2)
Rtm
where Q is the current1 (i.e., the rate of transfer), subscript th refers to the thermal transfer and m
WRWKHPDVVWUDQVIHU7KHVHGH¿QLWLRQVDUHLQOLQHZLWKWKHUHVLVWDQFHGH¿QLWLRQLQWKHHOHFWULFDO
circuit theory. 7he values of Rth and Rm depend on the material properties and the geometry of
the bodies involved.
7he resistances Rth and Rm QHHG QRW EH FRQVWDQW ,Q IDFW LQ PRVW FDVHV WKH WKHUPDO
resistances change somewhat with temperature. %ut for many engineering calculations it may
be adeTuate to consider it as independent of temperature (within suitable limits). 2ne of the
earliest Tuantitative rules in heat transfer, known as the Newton law of cooling, states that the
KHDWFXUUHQWDWDVROLGVXUIDFHLPPHUVHGLQDEDWKLVSURSRUWLRQDOWRWKHGLৼHUHQFHEHWZHHQWKH
temperatures Tw of the surface (referred to as the wall) and Tf of the bath.
Qth v (Tw ± Tf ) ...(1.3)
7KHPRUHWKHWHPSHUDWXUHGL൵HUHQFHWKHPRUHLVWKHUDWHDWZKLFKKHDWLVWUDQVIHUUHGD
FRPPRQHQRXJKH[SHULHQFH7KHFRQVWDQWRISURSRUWLRQDOLW\LVWKHUHFLSURFDORIWKHUHVLVWDQFH
Rth introduced above.
1 7he unit of heat current Qth is -/s, or :att (:), and of mass current Qm is kg/s.
1.4 PHYSICAL MECHANISMS

7o gain an insight into the physical mechanisms connected with the heat transfer processes,
consider two parallel plates ()ig. 1.1), one at temperature T1 and the other at a lower temperature
(KI'PGTI[GZEJCPIGD[HTGGOQNGEWNCTƀQY
T2. Let the space between the two be ¿OOHG ZLWK D JDV DW D YHU\ ORZ SUHVVXUH 8QGHU VXFK
circumstances the number density of molecules is very low, and conseTuently, the number of
intermolecular collisions is very small and the mean free-path O Tuite large. Let us assume that
O !! d, the spacing between the plates, so that the molecules travel from one plate to the other
with little chance of collision with another molecule in between. :e know from the kinetic
theory of gases that the average kinetic energy of molecules is related to the temperature of
a gas. 7he molecules leaving the hotter surface with energies characteristic of that surface travel
directly to the other surface, imparting their energy to it. 7he transfer of energy in the other direction
LVDWDORZHUOHYHOFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\WKHWHPSHUDWXUHT2. 7hus, there is a net transfer of energy from
plate A to B at a rate determined by (a) the number density of the molecules, and (b) the temperatures
T1 and T2. 7his mechanism of energy transfer is referred to as free-molecular transfer.
7his mechanism can also result in transfer of a chemical species from one surface to
another. &onsider plate A to be coated with aluminium. &onsiderations of thermodynamic
HTXLOLEULXP ZRXOG UHTXLUH D VSHFL¿F FRQFHQWUDWLRQ RI DOXPLQLXP PROHFXOHV QHDU WKLV SODWH
depending on the temperature of the plate. As the space between the two plates is evacuated, the
mean free-path increases and the aluminium molecules in the gas phase travel directly to plate
BDQGJHWGHSRVLWHGWKHUHRQ,IT2 T1, the eTuilibrium concentration of aluminium molecules
near plate B is smaller, and therefore, the rate of transfer in the reverse direction is that much
lower, resulting in a net transfer2 of aluminium to plate B from plate A.
2 7KLV LV WKH WHFKQLTXH XVHG LQ DOXPLQL]LQJ ODUJH PLUURUV 7XQJVWHQ FRLOV DUH FRDWHG ZLWK DOXPLQLXP DQG
heated in vacuum. 7he aluminium evaporates and gets deposited on the mirror surface. 7he low volatility of
tungsten makes it a good choice for the purpose. 6ee 6trong, -., 7he evaporation process and its application
to aluminizing large telescope mirrors, Astrophysical -., v3, pp 01-23, 13.
As the density of the gas between the two plates increases, the mechanism of energy transfer
EHFRPHVDOLWWOHPRUHFRPSOH[1RZWKHPROHFXOHVOHDYLQJDVXUIDFHFDQQRWWUDYHOIDUEHIRUH
they undergo a collision with another molecule, and the mean free-paths at normal pressures
DUH YHU\ VPDOO LQGHHG 7KHUH LV DQ H[FKDQJH RI HQHUJ\ EHWZHHQ WKH FROOLGLQJ PROHFXOHV DW
each collision. 7hus, the energy travels in such a model not directly from one plate to another,
but through a lot of interactions with the medium in between. 7his transfer mechanism with
a multitude of molecular interactions may be seen as a GLৼXVLRQ process with energy being
handed over, so to say, by one molecule to the neighbouring one down the path. 7his is termed
as conduction,WLVFOHDUWKDWLQWKLVFDVHLWLVQRWMXVWWKHGL൵HUHQFHLQWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKHSODWHV
but also the temperatures in between, and the distance between the plates that regulate the rate
RIHQHUJ\WUDQVIHU7KHPHFKDQLVPLVPXFKWKHVDPHLQOLTXLGVH[FHSWWKDWWKHLQWHUDFWLRQVDUH
IDUPRUHIUHTXHQW7KHVDPHKDSSHQVLQVROLGVH[FHSWWKDWWKHHQHUJ\WKHUHLQLVFDUULHGQRWLQ
translational motion of molecules, but in vibration of molecules within the lattice3 of the solid.
$VZLOOEHVHHQLQWKHQH[WFKDSWHUWKHUDWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHULQFRQGXFWLRQLVJLYHQE\)RXULHU
law which can be stated (in one of its simpler forms) as
dT
Qth − ...(1.)
dx
ZKHUHWKHQHJDWLYHVLJQLQGLFDWHVWKDWWKHÀRZRIKHDWHQHUJ\LVLQWKHGLUHFWLRQRSSRVHGWRWKH
temperature gradient, that is, from a higher temperature to a lower temperature.
7KHSKHQRPHQRQRIPDVVWUDQVIHUE\GL൵XVLRQLVHDV\WRVHHZLWKQDNHGH\H:KHQDVPDOO
crystal of potassium permanganate (.0n2) is dropped into a beaker, it begins to dissolve
immediately and a dark purple patch is seen very near the crystal. :ith time, this purple
SDWFKLVREVHUYHGWRGL൵XVHRXWZDUGVDQGDFOHDUJUDGDWLRQRIFRORXULVVHHQIURPGDUNSXUSOH
near the crystal to lighter purple as the distance from the crystal increases. 7his GLৼXVLRQ of
.0n2RXWZDUGVIURPWKHFU\VWDOUHVXOWVIURPPROHFXODUPRWLRQVZLWKLQZDWHU,IZHFRQVLGHU
a spherical surface very close to and enclosing the crystal, the number of .0n2 molecules
crossing the surface from the inside to the outside is larger than that from the outside to the
inside. 7his is because the number density inside is higher and the random motion of the
molecules results in a net transfer of .0n2 outwards. 7he same mechanism operates when a
SX൵RISHUIXPHLVUHOHDVHGLQVWLOODLU
1.5 HEAT TRANSFER IN FLUIDS–CONVECTION

,WLVFOHDUIURPWKHGLVFXVVLRQRIFRQGXFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUWKDWLWLVDGL൵XVLRQSURFHVVLQZKLFK
energy passes from a molecule to the adjacent molecule, the rate determined by the temperature
gradient. 7his is true only in the absence of any local bulk motion of the medium. %y local
bulk motion we mean the directed motion of a group of molecules as distinct from the random
PRWLRQRILQGLYLGXDOPROHFXOHV&RQVLGHUDVDQH[DPSOHDÀXLGÀRZLQJWKURXJKDSLSH(DFK
PROHFXOHRIWKHÀXLGKDVWZRGLVWLQFWPRWLRQVRQHDGLUHFWHGPRWLRQGRZQWKHSLSHLQWKHD[LDO
3 7he energy transfer in solids is due to lattice waves generated by molecular vibrations. 7he translational
motion of highly mobile free electrons in metals adds to these lattice waves and results in much higher rates
RIFRQGXFWLRQ6HH&DOOLVWHU:'DQG5HWKZLVFK'*0DWHULDO6FLHQFHDQG(QJLQHHULQJ$Q,QWURGXF-
tion, th ed., &h. 17, :iley, 200.
GLUHFWLRQ ODUJHO\EHFDXVHRIWKHSUHVVXUHJUDGLHQWLQWKHD[LDOGLUHFWLRQ DQGWKHRWKHUDUDQGRP

PRWLRQGHWHUPLQHGE\WKHWHPSHUDWXUHOHYHORIWKHÀXLG7KH¿UVWPRWLRQLVWHUPHGDVWKHORFDO
EXONPRWLRQDQGLVGHWHUPLQHGE\WKHHTXDWLRQVRIÀXLGG\QDPLFV7KHVHFRQGPRWLRQUHVXOWV
in GLৼXVLRQor conduction in the presence of a temperature gradient.
,IWKHUHLVDORFDOEXONPRWLRQVXSHUSRVHGRQWKHPROHFXODUPRWLRQ)RXULHUODZVWLOODSSOLHV
but RQO\WRWKHGLৼXVLRQDOWUDQVIHURIHQHUJ\,IZHDUHLQWHUHVWHGLQ¿QGLQJWKHWKHUPDOHQHUJ\
crossing any cross-sectional area of the pipe, as we most often are, this rate of transfer has to
EHPRGL¿HGGXHWKHEXONPRWLRQRIWKHPROHFXOHV7KHWUDQVIHURIKHDWZKHQORFDOEXONPRWLRQ
is present is termed as convectionDVRSSRVHGWRFRQGXFWLRQZKLFKLVWKHPHFKDQLVPRIGL൵XVH
transmission of heat in a stationary medium. 6olids transmit heat only by conduction, while
ÀXLGVKDYHconvection superimposed on conduction.
7o give an illustration of the convective process, consider a heated plate held vertically
in a cooler atmosphere. +eat will be conducted from the hot surface into the air, and the air
OD\HUDGMDFHQWWRWKHVROLGVXUIDFHZLOOKHDWXS7KHQH[WOD\HUZLOODOVRKHDWXSEXWWRDOHVVHU
H[WHQW$WHPSHUDWXUHJUDGLHQWZLOOEHVHWXSDFURVVWKHÀXLGLQWKLVPDQQHU%XWWKHWHPSHUDWXUH
JUDGLHQWZLOOFUHDWHDGHQVLW\JUDGLHQWLQWKHUHYHUVHGLUHFWLRQWKDWLVZLWKWKHOLJKWHVWÀXLG
QHDUHVWWRWKHSODWH%HFDXVHRIWKHVHGL൵HUHQFHVLQGHQVLW\EXR\DQF\IRUFHVZLOOFRPHLQWRSOD\
DQGWKHÀXLGOD\HUVLPPHGLDWHO\QH[WWRWKHSODWHZLOOVWDUWPRYLQJXSZDUGV7KHYHORFLW\DWWKH
ZDOOLV]HUR EHFDXVHRIWKHQRVOLSFRQGLWLRQWKHUH EXWLWLQFUHDVHVDVZHPRYH KRUL]RQWDOO\
LQWRWKHÀXLG$WVRPHGLVWDQFHDZD\IURPWKHSODWHWKHKHDWLQJH൵HFWRIWKHSODWHGHFUHDVHV
DV\PSWRWLFDOO\VRWKDWWKHGHQVLW\GL൵HUHQWLDODVZHOODVWKHYHORFLW\GHFUHDVHV7KHUHVXOWLQJ
YHORFLW\DQGWHPSHUDWXUHSUR¿OHVDUHDVVKRZQLQ)LJD&RQVHTXHQWO\DWKLQOD\HULVIRUPHG
DGMDFHQWWRWKHSODWHDFURVVZKLFKERWKWKHYHORFLW\DQGWKHWHPSHUDWXUHYDU\VLJQL¿FDQWO\7KLV
layer is referred to as the thermal boundary layer. 7his concept would be developed further in
&hapters and 7.
(KI6GORGTCVWTGCPFXGNQEKV[RTQſNGUKPJGCVVTCPUHGTD[EQPXGEVKQP
(a) (TGGQTPCVWTCNEQPXGEVKQPYJGTGVJGDWNMOQVKQPQHVJGƀWKFKUFWGVQDWQ[CPE[
D (QTEGFEQPXGEVKQPYJGTGVJGDWNMƀWKFOQVKQPKUECWUGFD[CHCPQTCDNQYGT
%HFDXVH RI WKLV YHUWLFDO PRWLRQ RI WKH ÀXLG KHDW WUDQVIHU QRZ WDNHV SODFH LQ ERWK WKH
KRUL]RQWDODVZHOODVWKHYHUWLFDOGLUHFWLRQV+HDWHGÀXLGQHDUWKHSODWHPRYHVXSDQGLVUHSODFHG
E\FROGHUÀXLGIURPEHORZ7KLVUHVXOWVLQDODUJHUUDWHRIKHDWUHPRYDOIURPWKHSODWHWKDQ
ZRXOGKDYHEHHQSRVVLEOHLIWKHÀXLGZDVQRWSHUPLWWHGWRPRYH7KHWHUPconvection refers to
this increase in heat transfer because RIWKHÀXLGPRWLRQ,QWKLVFDVHWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUSURFHVVLV
called free or natural convectionVLQFHWKHÀXLGPRWLRQDSSHDUVDVDQDWXUDOFRQVHTXHQFHRIWKH
KHDWWUDQVIHUSURFHVV,ILQVWHDGDLULVIRUFHGSDVWWKHSODWHE\DEORZHURUWKHSODWHLVGUDJJHG
in stationary ambient air, the resulting heat transfer is called forced convection. 7he resulting
YHORFLW\DQGWHPSHUDWXUHSUR¿OHVDUHDVVKRZQLQ)LJE
7KH FRROLQJ ODZ GXH WR 1HZWRQ (T VSHFL¿HV WKDW WKH UDWHRI FRROLQJ RI DQ REMHFW
SODFHG LQ D ÀXLG LV SURSRUWLRQDO WR WKH GL൵HUHQFH EHWZHHQ WKH ZDOO WHPSHUDWXUH Tw and the
DPELHQW ÀXLG WHPSHUDWXUH Tf . :e introduce a constant of proportionality h called the heat
WUDQVIHUFRH৽FLHQWLQ(T WRREWDLQ
Q h(Tw ± Tf )A ...(1.)
7KHFRH൶FLHQWhGHSHQGVXSRQWKHSK\VLFDOSURSHUWLHVRIWKHÀXLGJHRPHWU\RIWKHVXUIDFH
DQGRQWKHQDWXUHRIWKHPRWLRQZLWKLQWKHVXUURXQGLQJÀXLG7KLVODZLVIRXQGWRKDYHDZLGH
range of applicability, even though hLVIRXQGWREHDIXQFWLRQRIWKHWHPSHUDWXUHGL൵HUHQFH
(Tw ± Tf ) itself. %ut in many cases the variations in h with (Tw ± Tf ) over the temperature
range of interest is not large and the Newton law formulation with a constant value of h can
be employed usefully in such engineering design calculations. 7he central problem in heat
convection is the determination of the value of h for a given situation.
7here are two approaches that are employed for this one approach is based on empirically-
obtained correlations, and the second approach on obtaining the basic eTuations governing
ÀXLG ÀRZ DQG HQHUJ\ WUDQVIHU ZULWLQJ WKH DSSURSULDWH ERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQV DQG VROYLQJ WKH
HTXDWLRQVVXEMHFWWRWKRVHERXQGDU\DQGLQLWLDOFRQGLWLRQV8QIRUWXQDWHO\WKHHTXDWLRQVLQYROYHG
DUHVX൶FLHQWO\FRPSOLFDWHGWRWKZDUWFORVHGIRUPVROXWLRQVH[FHSWLQDIHZYHU\VLPSOH EXW
conceptually important) geometries and conditions. &hapter 7 outlines the method for some
such situations.
&onsiderable advances have been made in the last few decades in solving such problems
using numerical methods suitable for high-speed digital computers. 7here are many commercial
softwares available today which can be used for computation of Tuite complicated problems.
1.6 CONVECTIVE MASS TRANSFER
7KHGL൵XVLRQRIDFKHPLFDOVSHFLHVLVDOVRPRGL¿HGE\ÀXLGPRWLRQLQDPDQQHUVLPLODUWRWKH
GL൵XVLRQRIKHDWDVGLVFXVVHGLQ6HF,IDZKL൵RISHUIXPHLVUHOHDVHGLQVWLOODLULWGL൵XVHV
RXWDQGVSUHDGVDOODURXQGXQLIRUPO\%XWLILWLVUHOHDVHGLQDEUHH]HLWVGLVWULEXWLRQLQVSDFHLV
PRGL¿HGE\WKHEXONPRWLRQRIDLU3HUIXPHGL൵XVLQJXSVWUHDPLVSXVKHGEDFNVRWKDWLIWKHEUHH]H
is strong enough we may never perceive it at some distance upstream of the point of release. 7he
VPRNHSOXPHFRPLQJRXWRIDFKLPQH\RQDVWLOOGD\ULVHVXSGL൵XVLQJFRQLFDOO\$VWURQJEUHH]H
8QLWV:P2.. 7his is also termed as¿OPKHDWWUDQVIHUFRH৽FLHQW in engineering practice by imagining the
WKHUPDOERXQGDU\OD\HUDVD¿OPRIÀXLGR൵HULQJUHVLVWDQFHWRKHDWWUDQVIHU
7KHVH HPSLULFDO FRUUHODWLRQV DUH FRQYHQLHQWO\ VWDWHG LQ WHUPV RI GLPHQVLRQOHVV SDUDPHWHUV7KLV WH[W LQ-
troduces the basic background that leads to the introduction of such dimensionless parameters and their
VLJQL¿FDQFHLQVRPHGHWDLOVLQ&KDSWHU
KRZHYHUVZHHSVWKHSOXPHGRZQVWUHDPWKXVPRGLI\LQJWKHSDWWHUQRIGL൵XVLRQ )LJ
(a) (b)
(KI C #UOQMGRNWOGFKHHWUKPIEQPKECNN[QPCECNOFC[
D 2NWOGDGKPIUYGRVFQYPUVTGCOCPFFKHHWUKPIKPCUVTQPIYKPF
)UHHFRQYHFWLRQH൵HFWVDUHHQFRXQWHUHGLQPDVVWUDQVIHUWRR:DWHUYDSRXUVGL൵XVLQJLQWR
VWLOODLUUHGXFHWKHORFDOGHQVLW\ZKLFKGULYHVWKHDLUXSZDUGVGXHWREXR\DQF\H൵HFWVMXVWDV
the heated air close to a hot plate rises up, setting up convection. &onvective mass transfer plays
an important role in meteorological phenomena, burning of haystacks, spray-drying of milk,
ÀXLGLVHGEHGFDWDO\VLVFRROLQJWRZHUVHWF6RPHRIWKHVHDSSOLFDWLRQVDUHIXUWKHUGHVFULEHGLQ
6ec 1., and are taken up for detailed study in &hapters and 10.
1.7 RADIANT ENERGY EXCHANGE
7he three mechanisms of energy transport described above, namely, conduction, convection and
free molecular transfer, do not account for all the modes of heat transfer. 7he energy that we
receive from the sun cannot come to us through conduction, convection or even free-molecular
ÀRZ VLQFH WKHUH LV QR PHGLXP LQ WKH YDVW UHJLRQ EHWZHHQ WKH VXQ DQG WKH HDUWK 7KH VRODU
energy comes to us through yet another mechanism called radiation,WLVNQRZQWKDWZKHQD
ERG\LVKHDWHGWKHWKHUPDOH[FLWDWLRQRILWVPROHFXOHVUHVXOWVLQHPLVVLRQRISKRWRQV3KRWRQV
PD\EHFRQVLGHUHGDVOLWWOHEXQGOHVRIHQHUJ\FKDUDFWHUL]HGE\WKHLUZDYHOHQJWKV7KHVHDUH
HOHFWURPDJQHWLFZDYHVDQGWKHUDQJHRIZDYHOHQJWKVGHWHUPLQHVWKHNLQGRIH൵HFWWKH\SURGXFH
or the way they are sensed. )ig. 1. shows the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation. 7he
photons which have the wavelengths in the range from 0.3 î 10± m to 0.7 î 10± m (300
Angstrom units to 700 Angstrom units) are perceived by human eyes as light, the colour being
GHWHUPLQHGE\WKHH[DFWZDYHOHQJWK.
Fig. 1.4 The electromagnetic spectrum
7he radiation of longer wavelengths, up to about 0. mm, produces essentially a heating
H൵HFW7KHVHSKRWRQVKDYHYHU\ODUJHPHDQIUHHSDWKVHYHQLQWKHSUHVHQFHRIGHQVHJDVHV7KXV
a photon from a body at ordinary room temperature traversing in the atmosphere at ordinary
FRQGLWLRQVKDVDPHDQIUHHSDWKRIWKHRUGHURINPWKHH[DFWYDOXHGHSHQGLQJXSRQWKH
wavelength of the photon and the characteristics of the atmosphere. 6uch a mean free path is
YHU\ODUJHFRPSDUHGWRWKHOHQJWKVHQFRXQWHUHGLQPRVWSK\VLFDOSUREOHPVH[FHSWIRUFHUWDLQ
geophysical situations. :e can, therefore, assume that photons which are emitted at a surface
travel unrestricted WRWKHQH[WVXUIDFHXQUHVWULFWHGHYHQE\WKHJDVEHWZHHQWKHWZRVXUIDFHV
6ince the freTuency, and hence, the energy content, of the photons emitted by surfaces at high
temperatures is Tuite substantial, radiation as a mode of heat transfer is important in many
engineering situations.
6WHIDQ%ROW]PDQQODZJLYHVWKHDPRXQWRIHQHUJ\HPLWWHGE\DVXUIDFHDV
q HVT ...(1.)
where q LV WKH ÀX[ RI HQHUJ\ :P2),
T is the temperature of the surface in .elvin, V is
D XQLYHUVDO FRQVWDQW FDOOHG 6WHIDQ%ROW]PDQQ FRQVWDQW î ± :/m2., and H is a
FRH൶FLHQWZKLFKGHSHQGVRQWKHSURSHUWLHVRIWKHVXUIDFH,WLVWHUPHGDVHPLVVLYLW\ and its
PD[LPXPYDOXHLVXQLW\
(TJLYHVWKHDPRXQWRIHQHUJ\emittedE\DVXUIDFH,QJHQHUDODVXUIDFHDOVRUHFHLYHV
HQHUJ\IURPRWKHUVXUIDFHVVXUURXQGLQJLW,QDGGLWLRQWKHUHPD\EHHQHUJ\H[FKDQJHEHWZHHQ
surfaces due to convection. )ig. 1. depicts such a situation. %ody 1 receives radiations from
the surroundings (body 2) and the sun, and loses energy by radiation and by convection to the
VXUURXQGLQJV7KXVFDOFXODWLRQRIQHWHQHUJ\H[FKDQJHLVTXLWHFRPSOLFDWHGGXHWRWKHJHRPHWU\
IDFWRUV SDUWLDO DEVRUSWLRQ DQG UHÀHFWLRQ RI LQFLGHQW HQHUJ\ DQG WKH SUHVHQFH RI LQWHUDFWLQJ
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6ee &hapter .
(KI'PGTI[GZEJCPIGDGVYGGPDQF[CPFKVUUWTTQWPFKPIUKPVJGRTGUGPEG
of solar radiation and convective transfer
1.8 DESCRIPTIONS OF SOME HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER PROCESSES
1.8.1 Evaporative Air Cooler

6LJQL¿FDQWFRROLQJRf air can be obtained in hot and dry climates by the so called desert coolers.
6uch devices cool by sucking air through packed screens of wood shavings maintained wet by
dripping water ()ig. 1.). :ater from the wet screens evaporates to maintain the psychrometric
(i.e., air-water vapour) eTuilibrium7. 7herefore, the mass (or molar) fraction of water vapour is
KLJKHUQHDUWKHVFUHHQWKDQLQWKHGU\DLUIDUWKHUDZD\7KLVFDXVHVWKHZDWHUYDSRXUVWRGL൵XVH
away from the screens. 7his results in more water to evaporate to maintain the thermodynamic
eTuilibrium. 5ate of removal of water vapour from near the screens is accelerated by the
FRQYHFWLYH H൵HFWV RI DLU PRWLRQ WKURXJK WKH VFUHHQV DQG UHVXOWV LQ PRUH DQG PRUH ZDWHU
evaporating from the screens. 7his process of conversion of water in to vapour reTuires heat of
YDSRUL]DWLRQZKLFKFRROVWKHZDWHU DQGWKHVFUHHQV ZHOOEHORZWKHDPELHQWWHPSHUDWXUH7KH
KRW DLUEORZLQJWKURXJKWKHVFUHHQORVHVKHDWFRQQHFWLYHO\WRWKHFROGZHWVFUHHQV(TXLOLEULXP
LVUHDFKHGZKHQKHDWH[WUDFWHGIURPDLUHTXDOVWKHKHDWVXSSOLHGIRUYDSRUL]DWLRQDQGWKXV
the cooling capacity of such a device is controlled by the rate at which water evaporates. 7his
rate depends upon the ambient humidity and temperature, as well as on the area of the screens
7 7hermodynamic eTuilibrium reTuires that the vapour pressure of the vapour of species A at the interface
between a liTuid A and a gas B should be eTual to the saturation vapour pressure of the liTuid A (at the given
temperature), irrespective of the pressure of the gas B.
DQGWKHYHORFLW\DWZKLFKDLUSDVVHVWKURXJKWKHVFUHHQ$SURSHUGHVLJQFDOOVIRURSWLPL]LQJ
WKHPDVVWUDQVIHUUDWHV7KLVKDVEHHQDQDO\VHGLQVRPHGHWDLOVLQ([DPSOHRI&KDpter 10.
Fig. 1.6 (a) Wet-type air cooler (b) Heat-balance of a screen
A similar application is found in the cooling ponds of a power plant or an air-conditioning

SODQWH[FHSWWKDWLQWKHVHFDVHVRQHLVLQWHUHVWHGLQWKHKHDWORVWE\water (and not by air) when
DSDUWRIZDWHUHYDSRUDWHV,QWKHVHDSSOLFDWLRQVWKHZDWHUWKDWLVXVHGIRUFRROLQJWKHYDSRXUV
in the plant condensers needs to be cooled before re-circulation. As the water is sprayed up in
a cooling pond ()ig. 1.7), it breaks up in tiny droplets which provide a large surface area for
HYDSRUDWLRQ7KHHYDSRUDWLRQH[WUDFWVKHDWRIYDSRUL]DWLRQIURPWKHZDWHUGURSOHWVFRROLQJWKHP
down to the reTuired temperature.
Fig. 1.7 Transfer processes KPCURTC[RQPFHQTEQQNKPIQHEQQNCPVYCVGT
1.8.2 Moisture Pick-up from Lakes

As the sun shines, the surface of a lake or ocean ()ig. 1.) heats up. 7hermal eTuilibrium in the
absence of evaporation is reached when the radiative input to the surface eTuals the convective
loss to the atmosphere, plus the amount of heat conducted to the lower levels. %ut the larger
concentration of water vapour at the surface (since its temperature is higher), compared to that
in the ambient air, drives the water vapour up and away from the surface. Vapour eTuilibrium,
WKHQUHTXLUHVPRUHHYDSRUDWLRQDQGLQWKHSURFHVVHQHUJ\LVORVWWRKHDWRIYDSRUL]DWLRQ7KLV
PRGL¿HVWKHWKHUPDOHTXLOLEULXPLQGLFDWHGDERYH
(KI'PGTI[VTCPUHGTCVVJGUWTHCEGQHCNCMG
7KHSUHVHQFHRIDEUHH]HPRGL¿HVERWKWKHPDVVWUansfer rate (and thus, the rate of loss to heat

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1.8.3 Spray Drying

Dairy milk is usually preserved by removing water from it and converting it into a dry powder.
6LPLODUO\PDQ\SKDUPDFHXWLFDODQGLQGXVWULDOSURGXFWVDUH¿UVWPDGHDVVOXUU\DQGWKHQGULHG
to a powder. 2ne way of doing this is to use a spray dryer, where the slurry is fed to a spinning
GLVF )LJ 7KHVOXUU\VSUHDGVRQWKLVGLVFE\FHQWULIXJDODFWLRQ,WEUHDNVLQWRVPDOOGURSOHWV
ZKLOHÀRZLQJRYHUWKHHGJH7KHGURSOHWVHQFRXQWHUDKRWVWUHDPRIDLUDVWKH\IDOOWKURXJKWKH
(KI5EJGOCVKEQHCURTC[FT[GTYKVJVJGRTKPEKRCNVTCPUHGTRTQEGUUGUKPXQNXGF
GULHU6LQFHWKHVHWLQ\GURSOHWVR൵HUDFRPSDUDWLYHO\ODUJHDUHD LQUHODWLRQWRWKHLUYROXPH
UDSLGHYDSRUDWLRQUHVXOWV7KHODUJHVXUIDFHDUHDDOVRD൵RUGVDODUJHUDWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHUIRU
YDSRUL]DWLRQ)RUDZHOOGHVLJQHGV\VWHPDOOWKHZDWHUHYDSRUDWHVEHIRUHWKHGURSVUHDFKWKH
ERWWRPOHDYLQJD¿QHSRZGHU,WVKRXOGEHREYLRXVWKDWDSURSHUGHVLJQRIWKHGU\HUZRXOGFDOO
for an understanding of transfer processes.
1.8.4 Respiratory Gas Exchange in Lungs

7KH KXPDQ UHVSLUDWRU\ V\VWHP LV DQ H[DPSOH RI D YHU\ H൶FLHQW PDVV H[FKDQJHU ZKHUH WKH
YHQRXVEORRGH[FKDQJHVLWVFDUERQGLR[LGHIRUR[\JHQLQWKHLQKDOHGDLU7KHLQKDOHGDLUSDVVHV
through trachea and the rapidly branching bronchial tubes into the alveolar sacs, some 300
million of which constitute the bulk of the lung volume of about 2. litre ()ig. 1.10). 7he large
Fig. 1.10 (a) An alveolar lobule (b) The primary gas-exchange mechanism
number of these tiny structures provides as much as 70 m2RIVXUIDFHDUHDIRUJDVH[FKDQJH

which is more than 0 times the total skin area of the body. Around these respiratory sacs is a
network of alveolar capillaries. 7he capillaries form a nearly continuous sheet of blood around
WKHVDFVDQGSUHVHQWDKLJKO\IDYRXUDEOHPDVVWUDQVIHUFRQ¿JXUDWLRQ7KHZDOOVVHSDUDWLQJWKH
JDVDQGWKHEORRGDUHH[WUHPHO\WKLQ OHVVWKDQPm) and are permeable to gases, but not to the
FRQVWLWXHQWVRIEORRGSODVPD7KHGL൵HUHQFHVLQWKHFRQFHQWUDWLRQVRI&22 and 22 on the two
VLGHVRIWKHVHWKLQZDOOVVHWXSDFRQFHQWUDWLRQJUDGLHQWZLWKLQWKHZDOOVDQGUHVXOWLQGL൵XVLRQ
RIR[\JHQIURPDOYHRODUVDFVWRFDSLOODULHVDQGRI&22 in the reverse direction.
Fig. 1.11 Rotating-disc blood oxygenator

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FRQ¿JXUDWLRQ$URWDWLQJGLVFR[\JHQDWRU )LJ FRQVLVWVRIDODUJHQXPEHURISDUDOOHOGLVFV
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7here are many other organs in the body where mass transfer plays a key role. 7he
V\VWHPLF FDSLOODULHV IHHG R[\JHQ WR DQG DFFHSW PHWDEROLFDOO\ SURGXFHG &22 from tissues
WKURXJKGL൵XVLRQDFURVVPHPEUDQRXVZDOOV6LPLODUO\WKHIRHWXVLVVXSSOLHGZLWKR[\JHQDQG
QXWULHQWVWKURXJKDFRPSOH[PDVVH[FKDQJHV\VWHPEHWZHHQWKHPDWHUQDOEORRGÀRZLQJWKURXJK
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ZLWKRXWLQWHUPL[LQJ7KHQXWULHQWVDQGR[\JHQGL൵XVHIURPPRWKHUWRIRHWXVDQGWKHIRHWDO
PHWDEROLF ZDVWHV GL൵XVH LQ WKH UHYHUVH GLUHFWLRQ 6LPLODUO\ NLGQH\V UHPRYH WKH VROXEOH
end-products of body metabolism from the blood and control the concentration of many
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tiny vessels called nephrons.
1.8.5 Ablation of Meteorites Entering Atmosphere

:hen bodies such as meteorites or space-crafts enter earth s atmosphere from space, their
high velocities cause severe compression and shearing of air in the outer atmospheric layers,
resulting in very high temperatures of the gases surrounding the body. 7his causes high rates of
KHDWWUDQVIHUWRWKHERG\UHVXOWLQJLQKLJKWHPSHUDWXUHVZKLFKFDXVHPHOWLQJÀRZLQJDQGHYHQ
FKDUULQJRIWKHRXWHUOD\HUV([DPLQDWLRQRIPHWHRULWHVWKDWUHDFKWKHVXUIDFHRIHDUWKUHYHDOV
evidence of such high temperatures. 7his phenomenon of melting and charring of surfaces is
termed as ablation6LQFHDEODWLRQLVDQHQGRWKHUPLFSURFHVVLVGLVVLSDWHVVLJQL¿FDQWDPRXQW
RI KHDW SURGXFHG E\ WKH UHHQWU\ DHURG\QDPLFV DQG LV XVHG WR JRRG H൵HFW LQ WKH GHVLJQ RI
heat shields for payloads re-entering the earth¶s atmosphere. A layer of material ablates (i.e.,
YDSRUL]HVRUFKDUV RQWKHUHHQWU\LQWRHDUWK¶VDWPRVSKHUHWKHUHE\SURWHFWLQJWKHLQVLGHRIWKH
FUDIWRUPLVVLOHIURPWKHH[FHVVLYHKHDWORDGV$SURSHUGHVLJQRIWKLVheat shield would reTuire
DQXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHGL൵XVLRQDQGFRQYHFWLRQRIWKHDEODWLYHPDWHULDOWKURXJKWKHERXQGDU\
OD\HUWKDWGHYHORSVRQWKHYHKLFOHDQGRIKHDWÀRZWKURXJKWKLVOD\HU
1.8.6 Burning of Carbon in Air

7he rate of burning of a carbon particle in air is controlled by a number of heat-and mass-
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WRSURGXFH&27KLVLVDQHQGRWKHUPLFUHDFWLRQDQGUHTXLUHVDVXSSO\RIKHDWWRJRRQ,WDOVR
UHTXLUHVDFRQWLQXRXVVXSSO\RIR[\JHQDWWKHVXUIDFHRIWKHFDUERQSDUWLFOHDQGDGLVSODFHPHQW
of &2 away from the surface. :ithin the gas phase &2 combines with 22 to form &22 which
LVDQH[RWKHUPLFUHDFWLRQ)LJVKRZVWKHUHVXOWLQJWHPSHUDWXUHDQGVSHFLHVFRQFHQWUDWLRQ
GLVWULEXWLRQV ,W DOVR VKRZV WKH GLUHFWLRQ RI GL൵XVLRQV RI WKH YDULRXV TXDQWLWLHV$Q H൶FLHQW
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ZLWKHQRXJKR[\JHQ7KHGL൵XVLRQUDWHVDUHPRGL¿HGE\WKHYHORFLW\GLVWULEXWLRQRIWKHJDVHV
and by the level of turbulence within it.
Fig. 1.12 Variations of concentrations of the various species and directions of

their diffusion in the combustion of a carbon particle
1.9 HEAT TRANSFER FROM HUMAN BODY
$ VLJQL¿FDQW DPRunt of heat is generated inside a human body as a result of the metabolic
DFWLYLW\ WKDW JRHV RQ FRQWLQXDOO\ WR SURYLGH IRU FRPSOH[ IXQFWLRQV RI WKH RUJDQV DQG IRU
carrying out the various tasks. A typical 2-year old man consumes about 1,00 &alories
a day to maintain the basic life functions. 7his is eTual to about 7 :. 7his is the termed as
the basal metabolic rate7KLVUDWHJHWVPRGL¿HGE\WKHOHYHO RIDFWLYLW\ KH LQGXOJHV LQ DV
shown in 7able 1.1. 7his energy is produced in the body through metabolism of the food
intake through thousands of chemical reactions taking place within the cells of the human
body. Very little of this energy results in direct work, and most of it can be treated as heat
produced within the body.
&alorie (with a capital &) is a unit of energy used by nutritionists, and is eTual to 1,000 calorie, or .2 k-.
7hus, 1,00 &al/day represents 720 k-/day or 7 :.
dĂďůĞϭ͘ϭ͗dǇƉŝĐĂůŵĞƚĂďŽůŝĐƌĂƚĞƐĨŽƌĂĚƵůƚŵĂůĞƐŝŶĚƵůŐŝŶŐŝŶǀĂƌŝŽƵƐůĞǀĞůƐŽĨĂĐƟǀŝƟĞƐ
ĞŐƌĞĞŽĨĐƟǀŝƚǇ Average Metabolic rate, male adult, W
Seated, at rest 100
Seated, very light work 120
KĸĐĞǁŽƌŬ 130
Standing, walking slowly 130
Moderate work 160
>ŝŐŚƚďĞŶĐŚǁŽƌŬ 220
DŽĚĞƌĂƚĞǁŽƌŬ͕ĂŶĐŝŶŐ 250
Fast walking 300
Heavy work 430
A healthy human body has a very robust mechanism for maintaining the temperature. 7he
core temperature of a healthy body is maintained very close to 37& in almost all environmental
conditions. 7o maintain this constant core temperature, all the heat produced within the body
is conducted to the skin (the skin necessarily being at a temperature lower than the core
temperature of the body), and then rejected to the environment. 7ypically, the area of the skin in
the average human male is 1. m27KHVXUIDFHWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKHVNLQYDULHVVLJQL¿FDQWO\IURP
one part of the body to other, and with the ambient temperature. )ig. 1.13 shows the variations
RIWKHVNLQWHPSHUDWXUHVDWGL൵HUHQWSDUWVRIWKHERG\ZLWKWKHDPELHQWWHPSHUDWXUH.
(KI8CTKCVKQPUQHVJGUMKPVGORGTCVWTGUCVXCTKQWUNQECVKQPUYKVJ
the changing ambient temperature.
Adapted from &lesen, %.:., Thermal Comfort, 7echnical 5eview, %ruel and .jaer, 12
7here are essentially three mechanisms for the heat removal ()ig. 1.1). 2ne is convection
to the surrounding atmosphere, another is radiation to the surrounding, and the third is heat lost
DVKHDWRIYDSRUL]DWLRQRISHUVSLUDWLRQIURPWKHVNLQ
Fig. 1.14 Mechanisms of heat loss from the body

&onvective heat transfer is essentially through free convection 7he air in immediate contact
with the body heats up, becomes lighter, and rises up. &ooler air replaces it, comes in contact
with the body, and the cycle repeats removing heat continually. 7he lighter air rising up forms a
plume10 that can be seen in 6chlieren11 images (such as that shown in )ig. 1.1) that graphically
show the temperature gradients. )ig. 1.1 shows such a plume rising from a human head12.
Fig. 1.15 Thermal plume from a human body as seen in a Schlieren image.
Hot air is rising up from the body.
10 An interesting video clip of the plume rising from a human body can be seen at
KWWSZZZKHDOWK\KHDWLQJFRP'H¿QLWLRQV6FKOLHUHQSKRWRJUDSK\KWP8P%+;$ZTF
11 6chlieren techniTue relies on the fact that light rays are bent whenever they encounter changes in density of
DÀXLG,ISDUDOOHOUD\VRIOLJKWHQFRXQWHUDGHQVLW\JUDGLHQWWKHOLJKWLVEHQWRUUHIUDFWHGGL൵HUHQWLDOO\JLYLQJ
rise to changing pattern of light intensity in the image.
6ee http//www.grc.nasa.gov/:::/k-12/airplane/tunvschlrn.html
12 )URP &UDYHQ %$ DQG 6HWWOHV *$$ &RPSXWDWLRQDO DQG ([SHULPHQWDO ,QYHVWLJDWLRQ RI WKH +XPDQ
7KHUPDO3OXPH-)OXLGV(QJ ±
:ith Ts as temperature of the skin, Ta as the ambient temperature, the heat transfer rate
through free convection can be written as
Q h(Ts ± Ta)As (1.7)
where Ts is the area of the skin, and hLVWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRH൶FLHQWLQ:P2.. As the ambient
temperature Ta increases and approaches Ts, the rate of heat losses through convection decreases.
5ate of heat loss due to the second mode, i.e. the radiation, is the rate of heat emitted by the
skin, HsVTsAs, minus the rate at which heat received by the skin from the walls by assuming that
the walls of the room are at the same temperature Ta as the ambient. As will be shown in &hapter
, this last is HsVTDAs, so that the net rate at which the energy is lost by radiation is
Q HsV(Ts ± Ta)As (1.)
7he value of emissivity of skin is about 0.. 7his contribution to heat loss too decreases
as the ambient temperature increases.
:HWKXVVHHWKDWDVWKHDPELHQWWHPSHUDWXUHLQFUHDVHVLWEHFRPHVPRUHDQGPRUHGL൶FXOW
for the heat to be dissipated from the body. 7his is where the heat loss to perspiration comes
in. 2ur bodies have developed ability to perspire when we are hot and need to cool down.
7KHSHUVSLUDWLRQHYDSRUDWHVDQGGL൵XVHVDZD\PDNLQJPRUHDQGPRUHVZHDWHYDSRUDWH7KLV
HYDSRUDWLRQUHTXLUHVKHDWRIYDSRUL]DWLRQZKLFKLVVXSSOLHGE\WKHERG\WKXVFRROLQJLW
Note the following
1. 7he hotter it is, the more is the perspiration.
2. Draft from a fan makes us feel cooler. :hy"
3. :e feel more uncomfortable in humid weather, even if the temperatures are not as
high as in the peak of the dry part of the summer. :hy"
. :e prespire more when our clothes do not breathe. :hy"
:KDWKDSSHQVLILWLVWRRFROG",QFROGHQYLURQPHQWWKHUDWHRIKHDWORVVPD\H[FHHGWKH
rate of heat production within the body resulting in decrease in core body temperature. A person
can become uncomfortable even when the core body temperature drops by just 0.&. 2ur skin
is a remarkable organ. As the temperature drops, goose bumps develop increasing the thermal
resistance of our skin. )urther, the blood supply near the surface is reduced drastically, causing
the skin temperature to drop, while the core temperature is relatively unchanged. As temperature
drops further, shivering may begin, which can increase the metabolic heat generation to go up
E\DVPXFKDVVL[WLPHV
á EXAMPLE 1.1
Heat transfer from/to a human body : )or heat transfer purposes, a standing unclothed man
can be modelled as a 30-cm diameter, 1.70-m long vertical cylinder with both the top and bottom
surfaces insulated. 5ate of metabolic heat generation in a person indulging in moderate activity
is about 120 :. Determine
(a) thermal resistance of the skin if the skin temperature is 2&,
(b) heat loss by radiation, assuming that the walls of the room are at the ambient
temperature of 1&,
(c DYHUDJHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRH൶FLHQWLI:LVEHLQJORVWE\FRQYHFWLRQDQGUDGLDWLRQSXW
together, walls of the room are at the ambient temperature,
(d) how much perspiration must be evaporating from the body,
(e) heat loss by radiation, assuming that the walls of the room are at & below the
ambient temperature,
(f) heat loss by radiation, assuming that the walls of the room are at & above the ambient
temperature,
(g) increase in the convective heat transfer rate if the ambient temperature decrease to
13&.
SOLUTION:
ΔT (37 − 28)°C
(a 7KHUPDOUHVLVWDQFHLVREWDLQHGIURP(TRth = 0.07 ./:.
Qth 120 W
All of the metabolic heat must reach the surface of skin to be dissipated by any of the
three modes discussed above.
(b) +eat loss by radiation iVJLYHQE\(TQ HsV(Ts ± Ta)As. +ere, V .7 î 10±
:/m2., Hs 0., Ts (273 2) ., Ta (273 1)., and As SDL 1. m28VLQJ
these values, we get Qrad 0. î .7 î 10±(:/m2.)(301 ± 22). î 1. (m2)
:DVLJQL¿FDQWDPRXQW
(c) 6ince the convective plus the radiative loss is 0 :, the convective loss is .1 :. 7hen
E\(Th Qth/(Ts ± Ta)As .1 :/((.) î 1. m2) 0.3 :/m2., a very low value.
(d) 2ut of a total of 120 :, 0 : are being removed by convection and radiation.
7KHUHIRUH:PXVWEHSLFNHGXSDVWKHKHDWRIYDSRXUL]DWLRQRISHUVSLUDWLRQ6LQFH
hfgWKHKHDWRIYDSRXULV]DWLRQRIZDWHUDWURRPWHPSHUDWXUHLVDERXWî3 k-/kg,
this would mean that about 30 (:)/ 2.2î103 k-/kg 1.3î10í kg/s, or 0.013 g/s, or
.1 g/hr must evaporate.
(e) :hen the walls are at & below the ambient temperature, using Ta as 1& instead
of 1 &, we get Qrad 0. î .7 î 10±(:/m2.)(301 ± 27). î 1. (m2)
122.7 :, more than the metabolic heat. :e would need to use winter clothing, or to
heat up the walls.
(f) :hen the walls are at & above the ambient temperature, using Ta as 2& instead of
2&, we get Qrad 0. î .7 î 10±(:/m2.) (301±27) . î 1. (m2) 3.7 :,
OHVVWKDWLQ3DUWEDERYH7KLVLVQRWVX൶FLHQWIRUFRPIRUW and the person will feel hot.
á EXAMPLE 1.2
Heat transfer from a male indulging in heavy exercise : /HWXVUHGRWKHH[DPSOHDERYHE\
assuming that the subject is indulging in heavy workout and producing 00 : of metabolic
KHDW ,I WKH VNLQ WHPSHUDWXUH DQG WKH DPELHQW WHPSHUDWXUHV DUH WKH VDPH & DQG &
respectively), determine the heat loss through each mode.
SOLUTION:
6ince the temperatures are the same, the radiative and convective losses will be the same as
FDOFXODWHGLQ([DPSOHDERYH
7hus, Qrad 0. :, and Qconv .1 :.
7he evaporative loss then is 00 ± 0 310 :
7he rate of evaporation of perspiration, thus, is 310 :/2.2 î 103 k-/kg 1.0 î 10í kg/s,
or 0.0 kg/hr, or more than one-half litre per hour.
Problems
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GUDXJKW,GHQWLI\WKHYDULRXVKHDWWUDQVIHUSURFHVVHVWKDWWDNHSODFH
Fig. PI.1 Construction of a Thermos bottle
7KHFDSRIWKHYDFXXPÀDVNRI3URELVQRZOHIWXQVFUHZHG,GHQWLI\WKHDGGLWLRQDO
transfer processes that come into play.
$SRRORIRLOLVEXUQLQJDVVKRZQ,GHQWLI\WKHYDULRXVWUDQVIHUSURFHVVHVWDNLQJSODFH
Fig. PI.3 Burning of a pool of oil

1. :hen a space vehicle approaches earth, it accelerates rapidly due to the force of
gravity. 7here is an intense heating of the vehicle surface at the resultant high speeds.
7his heating may result in undesirably high temperatures within the vehicle if adeTuate
measures are not taken to protect against it. 2ne way to overcome this is to provide a
surface layer of a material (termed as heat shield WKDWPHOWVDQGYDSRUL]HVDQGWKXV
DEVRUEVKHDW7KLVSKHQRPHQRQLVFDOOHGDEODWLRQ VHH6HF ,QGLFDWHWKHUHJLRQV
(and directions) of heat and mass transfer processes taking place in this problem.
Fig. PI.4 Ablation on re-entry of space vehicles
1. &ement sets by absorbing water and releasing heat. 7his heat is detrimental to the
SURSHUFXULQJRIWKHFRQFUHWH,WLVQHFHVVDU\WRFORVHO\FRQWUROWKHWHPSHUDWXUHVGXULQJ
the setting of concrete in the construction of large concrete structures, like river dams,
to obtain the desired structural strength, in so much so that refrigerants are sometimes
XVHG WR UHPRYH WKH KHDW ,QGLFDWH ZKDW UDWH SURFHVVHV FRQWURO WKH WHPSHUDWXUH
distribution in a structure.
:DWHULVXVHGDVDFRRODQWLQPDQ\FHQWUDODLUFRQGLWLRQLQJV\VWHPV,WLVQHFHVVDU\WR
re-circulate this coolant water. 7his means that heat must be removed from this water
before recirculation. 2ne method is to evaporate a part of this water (in spray ponds
ZKLFK KDYH DGGHG DHVWKHWLF DSSHDO WR FRRO WKH UHVW ,QGLFDWH WKH GL൵HUHQW WUDQVIHU
processes involved in this.
1.7 &onsider the design of a popular solar cooker shown. :hat are the various transfer
processes involved" :hat processes are helping the cooking and what are working
adversely" :hat could be the possible purpose served by the glass cover"
(KI2+%QPUVTWEVKQPQHCUQNCTEQQMGT
$WHPSHUDWXUHSUREHLVXVHGWRPHDVXUHWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRIDKRWJDVVWUHDPÀRZLQJ
LQDFKDQQHOZKRVHZDOOVDUHPDLQWDLQHGZHOOEHORZWKHJDVWHPSHUDWXUH,WLVQRWLFHG
WKDWWKHWHPSHUDWXUHPHDVXUHGLVOHVVWKDQWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKHJDVVWUHDP,GHQWLI\
the various transfer processes taking place in order to understand the cause of this
error in measurement. 6uggest ways of decreasing this error.
Fig. PI.8 A thermocouple in gas line
1. )ig. P1. shows the typical design of a combustion chamber of a furnace burning
SXOYHUL]HGFRDO,GHQWLI\WKHYDULRXVWUDQVIHUSURFHVVHVLQYROYHGDQGVXJJHVWDUHDVRQ
ZK\FRDOQHHGVWREHSXOYHUL]HG
Fig. PI.9 A combustion chamber
7RSURWHFWDJDLQVWH[FHVVLYHGLUHFWUDGLDWLRQUHFHLYHGE\DSHUVRQIURPD¿UHSODFH
LQVLGHDURRPDGRXEOHJOD]HGVFUHHQFRQVLVWLQJRIWZRYHUWLFDOJODVVSODWH VHSDUDWHG
E\DVSDFHRSHQDWWRSDQGERWWRP LVSODFHGEHWZHHQD¿UHSODFHDQGWKHLQWHULRURID
URRP([SODLQKRZLWZRUNV
,GHQWLI\WKHKHDWWUDQVIHUSURFHVVHVWKDWGHWHUPLQHWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRQWKHLQVLGHRID
room on a hot summer day.
&RQVLGHUDWXQJVWHQ¿ODPHQWOLJKWEXOE¿OOHGZLWKQLWURJHQJDV,GHQWLI\DOOWKHKHDW
transfer processes that determine the steady-state temperature of (a WKH¿ODPHQWDQG
(b) the glass casing.
,QGLFDWHWKHLPSRUWDQWPRGHVRIKHDWDQGRUPDVVWUDQVIHULQYROYHGLQWKHIROORZLQJ
cases
(a) heating of water to boiling in an uncovered pan over an electric stove,
(b) an automobile radiator,
(c) Tuenching of a steel ingot in water,
(d) formation of clouds,
(e R[\JHQFXWWLQJRIPHWDOV
(f) drying of paint, and
(g) corrosion of steel in atmosphere.
,Q¿OWUDWLRQRIKRWDLULQWRDLUFRQGLWLRQHGURRPVWKURXJKFUDFNVDURXQGZLQGRZVKXWWHUV
and doors represents additional cooling that must be provided by air-conditioners. 7his
LQ¿OWUDWLRQLVH[SUHVVHGLQWHUPVRIDLUFKDQJHVSHUKRXU RU$&+ $YDOXHRI$&+
indicates that the whole volume of air inside the room is replaced every hour. An A&+
YDOXHRILVDERXWSDUIRUIDLUO\JRRGFRQVWUXFWLRQRIKRXVHVLQ,QGLD'HWHUPLQHWKH
DPRXQWRIKHDWORDGSHUGD\RQDURRP RIVL]HLVPîPîP PDLQWDLQHGDW&
due to an A&+ of 2 if the average (over 2 hours) outside air-temperature is 0& on
a very hot day. Determine the cost per day of removing this heat by a -star rated 13
air-conditioner if the cost of electricity is 5s. .0 per k:h.
$WKLQPHWDOVKHHWLVPRXQWHGRQDQLQVXODWLQJERDUGDQGH[SRVHGWRVXQOLJKW,IWKH
KHDWWUDQVIHUFRH൶FLHQWIRUFRQYHFWLRQLV:P2., the temperature at the surface of
the plate is 3&, air temperature is 2&, and if the plate absorbs 70 of the radiation
incident on it, determine the radiation being received from the sun per sTuare meter of
the area of the plate.
Fig. PI.15
13 6WDUUDWLQJRIDQDLUFRQGLWLRQHULVSURYLGHGRQWKHEDVLVRILWVFRH൶FLHQWRISHUIRUPDQFH &23 &23LV

GH¿QHG DV WKH UDWLR RI DPRXQW RI KHDW UHPRYHG WR WKH DPRXQW RI HOHFWULF HQHUJ\ FRQVXPHG 2QH VWDU LV
DZDUGHGWRD&23RIDWOHDVWIRUDVSOLWDLUFRQGLWLRQHU(DFKDGGHGWRWKHYDOXHRI&23DERYH
merits another star. 7hus, a -star rated A& has a &2P of at least 3.0.
CHAPTER
2
Conduction: Heat Transfer in
Stationary Medium
2.1 INTRODUCTION
5HFDOO WKDW WKH WZR EDVLF PRGHV RI KHDW WUDQVIHU LQWURGXFHG LQ &KDSWHU DUH GL൵XVLRQ DQG
UDGLDWLRQ(QHUJ\LQDGL൵XVLRQSURFHVVLVWUDQVIHUUHGWKURXJKFRXQWOHVVLQWHUPROHFXODULQWHUDFWLRQV
while it is transferred in radiation by photons directly moving from one surface to another
ZLWKRXWWKHDLGRIWKHPHGLXPLQEHWZHHQ&RQYHFWLRQLQÀXLGVLVVHHQDVDPRGL¿FDWLRQRIWKH
GL൵XVLRQDOWUDQVIHUE\WKHVXSHUSRVHGPRWLRQRIWKHPHGLXPLWVHOI:HVWXG\LQWKLVFKDSWHUWKH
FRQGXFWLYHWUDQVIHURIKHDWLQWKHDEVHQFHRIFRQYHFWLYHH൵HFWVLHLQDVWDWLRQDU\PHGLXP$
VROLGPHGLXPQHFHVVDULO\VDWLV¿HVWKLVFULWHULRQ
(QHUJ\ LQ FRQGXFWLRQ LV WUDQVIHUUHG WKURXJK LQWHUPROHFXODU LQWHUDFWLRQV DQG WKHUHIRUH
LWVÀX[GHSHQGVRQWKHORFDOJUDGLHQWRIWHPSHUDWXUHDQGWKHWKHUPRSK\VLFDOSURSHUWLHVRIWKH
PHGLXP:H¿UVWVWXG\WKHSK\VLFDOODZZKLFKJRYHUQVWKHUDWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHULQFRQGXFWLRQ
:HDUHXVXDOO\LQWHUHVWHGLQWKHUDWHRIKHDWÀRZDVZHOODVWKHSDWWHUQRIWHPSHUDWXUHZKLFKWKH
KHDWÀRZJHQHUDWHVXQGHUVWHDG\RUXQVWHDG\FRQGLWLRQV7KHPHWKRGRORJ\XVHGIRUWKLVVWXG\
is outlined in 6ec. 2.3.
2.2 A PHYSICAL LAW FOR RATE OF HEAT TRANSFER

&onsider a slab of solid medium of thickness bDQGRILQ¿QLWHH[WHQWLQWKHRWKHUWZRGLUHFWLRQV
()ig. 2.1). Let the slab be at a uniform temperature T To initially. Imagine that the temperature
of the surface at y 0 is raised to Ts at time t E\VRPHPHFKDQLVPDQGLVKHOGDWWKDWOHYHO
VXEVHTXHQWO\7KHVXUIDFHDWy b is held at the initial temperature To throughout. %ecause of the
LQLWLDOWHPSHUDWXUHGL൵HUHQFHQHDUy KHDWÀRZVLQWKHSRVLWLYHyGLUHFWLRQ6RPHRIWKHKHDW
LVUHWDLQHGE\WKHLQWHUPHGLDWHOD\HUVWKHUHE\UDLVLQJWKHLUWHPSHUDWXUHVZKLOHWKHUHPDLQLQJ
KHDWÀRZVRQ7KHWHPSHUDWXUHSDWWHUQDFURVVWKHVODEFKDQJHVZLWKWLPHWLOODVWHDG\VWDWHOLQHDU
WHPSHUDWXUHGLVWULEXWLRQLV¿QDOO\REWDLQHG,QWKHVWHDG\VWDWHWKHKHDWÀX[DFURVVDOOOD\HUV
RIWKHVROLGLVWKHVDPHVLQFHQRIXUWKHUHQHUJ\LVUHWDLQHGE\DQ\OD\HU7KLVVWHDG\VWDWHÀX[
LVJLYHQE\WKHIROORZLQJH[SHULPHQWDOO\REWDLQHGUHODWLRQZKLFKLVNQRZQDV)RXULHUODZRI
heat conduction
T − To
q k s
b
CONDUCTION: HEAT TRANSFER IN STATIONARY MEDIUM 25
where qLVWHUPHGDVKHDWÀX[GH¿QHGDVWKHUDWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHUper unit area7KHFRQVWDQWk

LVFDOOHGWKHFRH൶FLHQWRIWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\RUVLPSO\WKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\,WFDQHDVLO\
EHYHUL¿HGWKDW6,XQLWRIKHDWÀX[qLV:DWWSHUPHWHUVTXDUHG :P2 DQGWKDWRIWKHUPDO
conductivity kDUH:DWWSHUPHWHUSHU.HOYLQ :P.
Fig. 2.1 Temperature variations across the thickness of a slab at various instants
7KHWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\kLVDPDWHULDOSURSHUW\ZKLFKKDVEHHQREVHUYHGWRKDYHDZHDN
dependence on the temperature level. Its value can be taken as constant over small temperature
LQWHUYDOV:HDSSO\WKLVODZWRDQHOHPHQWRILQ¿QLWHVLPDOWKLFNQHVVWRREWDLQWKHGL൵HUHQWLDO
form of the heat conduction law as
dT
qy −k
dy
where subscript yGHQRWHVWKHGLUHFWLRQRIÀX[7KHPLQXVVLJQVLJQL¿HVWKDWWKHGLUHFWLRQRI
KHDWÀX[LVDGLUHFWLRQRSSRVHGWRWKDWLQZKLFKWKHWHPSHUDWXUHLQFUHDVHVVLJQLI\LQJthat heat
ÀRZVIURPDKRWWHUUHJLRQWRDFROGHURQH.
If we assume an isotropic medium1 (one in which the material properties do not vary with
GLUHFWLRQ WKHKHDWÀX[HVDFURVVx DQGz-SODQHVDUHJLYHQUHVSHFWLYHO\E\
dT dT
qx −k and qz = −k
dx dz
:H FDQ WUHDW qx qy and qz as the three components of the KHDW ÀX[ YHFWRU q ZKLFK LV
obtained by combining the three eTuations into 2
q ±k T ...(2.1)
§ w w w ·
where is the gradient operator ¨ Öi Öj kÖ ¸ LQ WKH FDUWHVLDQ FRRUGLQDWHV DQG
© wx wy wz ¹
1 0HWDOVDUHJHQHUDOO\LVRWURSLF:RRGLVRQHPDWHULDOZKLFKKDVGL൵HUHQWFRQGXFWLYLWLHVDORQJDQGDFURVV
LWVJUDLQVVRWKDWLWLVQRWLVRWURSLF
2 :HKDYHUHSUHVHQWHGYHFWRUTXDQWLWLHVZLWKEROGV\PEROVWKURXJKRXWWKLVWH[W
§Ö w Ö w w ·
¨r T kÖ ¸ in the cylindrical polar coordinates.
© wr r wT wz ¹
(TLVWKHGL൵HUHQWLDOIRUPRIWKH)RXULHUODZRIKHDWFRQGXFWLRQZKLFKLVWKHEDVLF
phenomenological law governing the rate of heat transfer.
2.3 METHODOLOGY
/HW XV ORRN DW D VLPSOH SUREOHP RI RQH GLPHQVLRQDO FRQGXFWLRQ$ VWUXW SURYLGHV D SDVVDJH
for heat conduction between two walls at temperatures T1 and T2 )LJ 7KHWHPSHUDWXUH
along the strut at the steady state varies from T1 at one end to T2DQGWKHRWKHUDQGVXVWDLQVKHDW
conduction across it. +eat is also convected out of the lateral surface of the strut to the ambient.
7KH GULYLQJ SRWHQWLDO IRU FRQGXFWLRQ DORQJ WKH VWUXW LV WKH WHPSHUDWXUH YDULDWLRQV DORQJ WKH
xGLUHFWLRQZKLOHWKDWIRUODWHUDOFRQYHFWLRQLVWKHGL൵HUHQFHEHWZHHQWKHORFDOWHPSHUDWXUHDQG
WKHDPELHQWVD\DWWHPSHUDWXUHTI:HQHHGWRREWDLQWKHKHDWFXUUHQWIURPRQHZDOOWRWKHRWKHU
Fig. 2.2 Heat transfer in a strut connecting two surfaces
7KHPHWKRGRORJ\RIVROYLQJVXFKSUREOHPVFRQVLVWVRILQYRNLQJWKHODZRIFRQVHUYDWLRQ
RIHQHUJ\DQGUHODWLQJDOOKHDWFXUUHQWVWKURXJKWKLVODZ:HDSSO\WKHODZRIFRQVHUYDWLRQRI
HQHUJ\LQWKLVSUREOHPWRDQLQ¿QLWHVLPDOVOLFHG[of the strut as shown in the enlarged view.
,QWHUPVRIWKHQRWDWLRQRI)LJWKHHQHUJ\EDODQFHHTXDWLRQJLYHVWKHQHWUDWHRIKHDWLQSXW
WRWKHLQ¿QLWHVLPDOHOHPHQWDV Q1 ± Q2 ± Q3 ZKHUHQ1 and Q2 are conduction currents along
WKHVWUXWDQGQ3LVWKHFRQYHFWLYHGLVVLSDWLRQIURPWKHODWHUDOZDOOVWRWKHDPELHQW7KLVQHW
LQSXWZRXOGJRWRFKDQJHWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKHHOHPHQWWLOOWKHVWHDG\VWDWHLVUHDFKHG7KH
WHPSHUDWXUHVDWVWHDG\VWDWHGRQRWFKDQJHZLWKWLPHDQGWKHUHIRUH Q1 ± Q2 ± Q3) must vanish.
:HWKHQLQYRNHWKHUDWHHTXDWLRQVVXFKDV(TVDQGWRHYDOXDWHWKHYDULRXVQcs in terms
RIWKHWHPSHUDWXUH¿HOG7KLVUHVXOWVLQDGL൵HUHQWLDOHTXDWLRQIRUWHPSHUDWXUHYDULDWLRQVDORQJ
WKHVWUXW7KLVHTXDWLRQFDQEHVROYHGWRREWDLQWKHWHPSHUDWXUH¿HOGDQGWKHQWKHKHDWFXUUHQW
can be evaluated.
CONDUCTION: HEAT TRANSFER IN STATIONARY MEDIUM 27
,QDPRUHJHQHUDOSUREOHPWKHWHPSHUDWXUH¿HOGPD\YDU\LQPRUHWKDQRQHVSDFHGLUHFWLRQ
KHDWVRXUFHVRUVLQNVPD\EHHPEHGGHGZLWKLQWKHPHGLXPRUWKHFRQGXFWLYLW\k of the medium
PD\FKDQJHZLWKWHPSHUDWXUH DQGKHQFHZLWKORFDWLRQ EXWWKHEDVLFPHWKRGRORJ\UHPDLQV
WKHVDPH:HVWDUWZLWKDQHQHUJ\EDODQFHHTXDWLRQIRUWKHZKROHERG\DWKLQVOLFHor a thin
VKHOORILWRURIDQLQ¿QLWHVLPDOHOHPHQWZLWKLQLWDQGH[SUHVVWKHFXUUHQWVZLWKLQWKLVHTXDWLRQ
XVLQJWKHUDWHHTXDWLRQV7KHUDWHHTXDWLRQVUHODWHWKHKHDWFXUUHQWVWRWHPSHUDWXUHGL൵HUHQWLDOV
RUWHPSHUDWXUHJUDGLHQWV7KLVUHVXOWVLQDQHTXDWLRQIRUWKHWHPSHUDWXUH¿HOGZKLFKLVVROYHG
using the appropriate boundary and initial conditions.
á EXAMPLE 2.1 ENERGY BALANCE
&RQVLGHUVWHDG\VWDWHRQHGLPHQVLRQDOKHDWFRQGXFWLRQWKURXJKDFRQLFDOERG\ )LJ ZLWK
KHDWVRXUFHVHPEHGGHGLQLW7KHDUHDRIFURVVVHFWLRQRIWKHERG\DWDORFDWLRQx is given as
Fig. 2.3
A(x) 3 ± x ZLWK x PHDVXUHG LQ P DQG A in m27KH WHPSHUDWXUH GLVWULEXWLRQ LV JLYHQ E\
§ x2 ·
T(x ¨1 x ¸ with TPHDVXUHGLQ.,IWKHFRQGXFWLYLW\k :P.¿QGWKHWRWDO
© 2 ¹
strength of the heat sources embedded within the body. It is given that the lateral (conical) face
RIWKHERG\LVLQVXODWHGVRWKDWWKHUHLVQRGLVVLSDWLRQRIKHDWIURPWKHUH
SOLUTION:
&onsider the energy balance of the whole body.
heat transfer going in at the left end is Qx 0 ±kA(G7G[)x 0DQG
heat transfer going out at the right end is Qx 1 ±kA(G7G[)x 1
%\HQHUJ\EDODQFHWKHGL൵HUHQFHRIWKHWZRLVWKHQHWKHDWSURGXFHGZLWKLQWKHERG\
Qx 0 ±kA(G7G[)x 0 ±>1 î (3 ± x î ±±x)@x 0 :
Qx 1 ±kA(G7G[)x 1 ±>1 î (3 ± x î ±±x)@x 1 :
6RWKHGL൵HUHQFHRI:PXVWEHSURGXFHGZLWKLQWKHERG\LIWKHWHPSHUDWXUHVDUHQRW
changing with time.
2.4 BASIC EQUATION OF HEAT CONDUCTION

&RQVLGHUDVWDWLRQDU\KRPRJHQHRXVPHGLXP,PDJLQHDQLQ¿QLWHVLPDOO\VPDOOHOHPHQWZLWKLQLW
with one corner P located at (xyz DQGZLWKIDFHVSDUDOOHOWRWKHFRRUGLQDWHSODQHVDVVKRZQ
LQ)LJ/HWWKHGLPHQVLRQVRIWKHHOHPHQWLQWKHWKUHHFRRUGLQDWHGLUHFWLRQVEHGxGyDQG
GzUHVSHFWLYHO\:HFKRRVHDQLQ¿QLWHVLPDOYROXPHVRWKDWWKHSURSHUW\YDOXHVLQWKHYROXPH
FDQEHDSSUR[LPDWHGE\WKHLUYDOXHVDW xyz).
(KI+PſPKVGUKOCNGNGOGPVHQTQDVCKPKPIEQPFWEVKQPGSWCVKQP
,IZHFRQVLGHUWKHHOHPHQWDVDV\VWHPWKHODZRIFRQVHUYDWLRQRIHQHUJ\UHTXLUHVWKDWWKH
rate of change of thermal energy stored within the elemental volume must be eTual to the rate
RIWUDQVIHURIHQHUJ\LQWRWKHYROXPHE\FRQGXFWLRQSOXVWKHUDWHRISURGXFWLRQRIHQHUJ\ZLWKLQ
the element.
7KHFKDQJHLQWKHWKHUPDOHQHUJ\FRQWDLQHGZLWKLQDV\VWHPLVWKHSURGXFWRILWVPDVVLWV
VSHFL¿F KHDW DQG WKH FKDQJH LQ LWV WHPSHUDWXUH7KXV WKH UDWH DW ZKLFK WKH HQHUJ\ FRQWDLQHG
∂T
within the system changes is U î (Gx Â GyÂGz) î C î ZKHUHU î (Gx Â GyÂGz) is the mass of
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∂t
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Ebook Elements of Heat and Mass Transfer Second Edition Gupta Online PDF All Chapter

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Elements of Heat and Mass Transfer

Second Edition Gupta

Incropera s Principle of Heat and Mass Transfer

Computational Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer, 2nd

Heat Transfer Evolution Design and Performance 1st

Heat and Mass Transfer in Building Energy Performance

Advanced Heat Transfer 3rd Edition Greg F. Naterer

Inverse Heat Transfer Fundamentals and Applications 2nd

Advances in Nanofluid Heat Transfer 1st Edition Hafiz

Heat Transfer Modelling Using COMSOL 1st Edition Layla

All rights reserved.

Preface to the Second Edition vii

1. TRANSFER PROCESSES 1–23

2. CONDUCTION: HEAT TRANSFER IN STATIONARY MEDIUM 24–53

         

3. STEADY-STATE CONDUCTION 54–113

5. NUMERICAL METHODS FOR CONDUCTION PROBLEMS 153–206

$ 6WHDG\VWDWH±GFRQGXFWLRQLQWKHVODERIVHF 

6. CONVECTION–EMPIRICAL APPROACH 207–282

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7. CONVECTION–ANALYTIC APPROACH 283–354

$ 5H\QROGV7UDQVSRUW7KHRUHP 

8. RADIATIVE TRANSFER 355–422

9. MASS TRANSFER 423–466

10. CONVECTIVE MASS TRANSFER 467–498

11. HEAT AND MASS EXCHANGERS 499–534

1.2 NATURE OF TRANSFER PROCESSES

1.3 CONCEPT OF DRIVING POTENTIAL

1.4 PHYSICAL MECHANISMS

1.5 HEAT TRANSFER IN FLUIDS–CONVECTION

GLUHFWLRQ ODUJHO\EHFDXVHRIWKHSUHVVXUHJUDGLHQWLQWKHD[LDOGLUHFWLRQ DQGWKHRWKHUDUDQGRP

1.7 RADIANT ENERGY EXCHANGE

Fig. 1.4 The electromagnetic spectrum

1.8 DESCRIPTIONS OF SOME HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER PROCESSES

1.8.1 Evaporative Air Cooler

Fig. 1.6 (a) Wet-type air cooler (b) Heat-balance of a screen

A similar application is found in the cooling ponds of a power plant or an air-conditioning

Fig. 1.7 Transfer processes KPCURTC[RQPFHQTEQQNKPIQHEQQNCPVYCVGT

1.8.2 Moisture Pick-up from Lakes

7KHSUHVHQFHRIDEUHH]HPRGL¿HVERWKWKHPDVVWUansfer rate (and thus, the rate of loss to heat

1.8.3 Spray Drying

1.8.4 Respiratory Gas Exchange in Lungs

number of these tiny structures provides as much as 70 m2RIVXUIDFHDUHDIRUJDVH[FKDQJH

Fig. 1.11 Rotating-disc blood oxygenator

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1.8.5 Ablation of Meteorites Entering Atmosphere

1.8.6 Burning of Carbon in Air

Fig. 1.12 Variations of concentrations of the various species and directions of

1.9 HEAT TRANSFER FROM HUMAN BODY

Fig. 1.14 Mechanisms of heat loss from the body

Fig. PI.1 Construction of a Thermos bottle

Fig. PI.3 Burning of a pool of oil

Fig. PI.4 Ablation on re-entry of space vehicles

Fig. PI.8 A thermocouple in gas line

Fig. PI.9 A combustion chamber

13 6WDUUDWLQJRIDQDLUFRQGLWLRQHULVSURYLGHGRQWKHEDVLVRILWVFRH൶FLHQWRISHUIRUPDQFH &23 &23LV

2.2 A PHYSICAL LAW FOR RATE OF HEAT TRANSFER

where qLVWHUPHGDVKHDWÀX[GH¿QHGDVWKHUDWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHUper unit area7KHFRQVWDQWk

$ 6WHDG\VWDWH±GFRQGXFWLRQLQWKHVODERIVHF

)RUFHG&RQYHFWLRQLQ3LSHVDQG'XFWV

$ 5H\QROGV7UDQVSRUW7KHRUHP

GLUHFWLRQ ODUJHO\EHFDXVHRIWKHSUHVVXUHJUDGLHQWLQWKHD[LDOGLUHFWLRQ DQGWKHRWKHUDUDQGRP

number of these tiny structures provides as much as 70 m2RIVXUIDFHDUHDIRUJDVH[FKDQJH

WKHVKHOODQGR[\JHQ RUDQR[\JHQULFKDLU ÀRZVLQWKHXSSHUSRUWLRQ7KHURWDWLQJGLVFVSLFN

13 6WDUUDWLQJRIDQDLUFRQGLWLRQHULVSURYLGHGRQWKHEDVLVRILWVFRH൶FLHQWRISHUIRUPDQFH &23 &23LV

where qLVWHUPHGDVKHDWÀX[GH¿QHGDVWKHUDWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHUper unit area7KHFRQVWDQWk