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Published in Journals: Energies, Electronics
and Processes
Topic Reprint
Energy Storage and

Conversion Systems
Edited by
Alon Kuperman and Alessandro Lampasi
mdpi.com/topics
Systems
Systems
Editors
Alon Kuperman
Alessandro Lampasi
Basel • Beijing • Wuhan • Barcelona • Belgrade • Novi Sad • Cluj • Manchester

Editors
Alon Kuperman Alessandro Lampasi
Ben-Gurion University of the ENEA
Negev Frascati, Italy
Beer-Sheva, Israel
Editorial Office
MDPI
St. Alban-Anlage 66
4052 Basel, Switzerland
This is a reprint of articles from the Topic published online in the open access journals Energies (ISSN
1996-1073), Electronics (ISSN 2079-9292), and Processes (ISSN 2227-9717) (available at: https://www.
mdpi.com/topics/energy).
For citation purposes, cite each article independently as indicated on the article page online and as
indicated below:
Lastname, A.A.; Lastname, B.B. Article Title. Journal Name Year, Volume Number, Page Range.
ISBN 978-3-0365-9322-7 (Hbk)

ISBN 978-3-0365-9323-4 (PDF)
doi.org/10.3390/books978-3-0365-9323-4
© 2023 by the authors. Articles in this book are Open Access and distributed under the Creative
Commons Attribution (CC BY) license. The book as a whole is distributed by MDPI under the terms
and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs (CC BY-NC-ND)
license.
Contents
About the Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Hongzhe Zhang, Fang Ye, Hang Guo and Xiaoke Yan

Sodium-Potassium Alloy Heat Pipe under Geyser Boiling Experimental Study:
Heat Transfer Analysis
Reprinted from: Energies 2021, 14, 7582, doi:10.3390/en14227582 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Wei Wu, Yusong Gao and Zhijian Jin

Magnetic Field Saturation of Non-Insulation High-Temperature Superconducting Coils
during Overcurrent
Reprinted from: Electronics 2021, 10, 2789, doi:10.3390/electronics10222789 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Stephan Renninger, Paul Rößner, Jan Stein, Maike Lambarth and Kai Peter Birke
Towards High Efficiency CO2 Utilization by Glow Discharge Plasma
Reprinted from: Processes 2021, 9, 2063, doi:10.3390/pr9112063 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Ahmed M. Fares, Matias Kippke, Mohamed Rashed, Christian Klumpner and Serhiy Bozhko
Development of a Smart Supercapacitor Energy Storage System for Aircraft Electric
Power Systems
Amirhossein Banaei and Amir Zanj

A Review on the Challenges of Using Zeolite 13X as Heat Storage Systems for the
Residential Sector
Watcharakorn Pinthurat and Branislav Hredzak

Distributed Control Strategy of Single-Phase Battery Systems for Compensation of Unbalanced
Active Powers in a Three-Phase Four-Wire Microgrid
Shuyan Zhang, Kaoshe Zhang, Gang Zhang, Tuo Xie, Jiaxing Wen, Chao Feng
and Weihong Ben
The Bi-Level Optimization Model Research for Energy-Intensive Load and Energy Storage
System Considering Congested Wind Power Consumption
Reprinted from: Processes 2022, 10, 51, doi:10.3390/pr10010051 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Miftah Altwieb, Rakesh Mishra, Aliyu M. Aliyu and Krzysztof J. Kubiak

Heat Transfer Enhancement by Perforated and Louvred Fin Heat Exchangers
Reprinted from: Energies 2022, 15, 400, doi:10.3390/en15020400 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Jorge Olmedo-González, Guadalupe Ramos-Sánchez, Erika Paola Garduño-Ruiz

and Rosa de Guadalupe González-Huerta
Analysis of Stand-Alone Photovoltaic—Marine Current Hybrid System and the Influence on
Daily and Seasonal Energy Storage
Vaclav Novotny, Vit Basta, Petr Smola and Jan Spale

Review of Carnot Battery Technology Commercial Development
v
Ruben Rafael Boros and István Bodnár
Grid and PV Fed Uninterruptible Induction Motor Drive Implementation and Measurements †
Junfang Li, Yue Xing and Donghui Zhang

Planning Method and Principles of the Cloud Energy Storage Applied in the Power Grid Based
on Charging and Discharging Load Model for Distributed Energy Storage Devices
Reprinted from: Processes 2022, 10, 194, doi:10.3390/pr10020194 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Rekabra Youssef, Md Sazzad Hosen, Jiacheng He, Mohammed AL-Saadi, Joeri Van Mierlo
and Maitane Berecibar
Thermal Performance Improvement for Different Strategies of Battery Thermal Management
Systems Combined with Jute—A Comparison Study †
Bizhong Xia, Bo Ye and Jianwen Cao

Polarization Voltage Characterization of Lithium-Ion Batteries Based on a Lumped Diffusion
Model and Joint Parameter Estimation Algorithm
Kangqi Tian, Li Song, Yongyan Chen, Xiaofeng Jiao, Rui Feng and Rui Tian
Stress Coupling Analysis and Failure Damage Evaluation of Wind Turbine Blades during
Strong Winds
Xinsheng Zhang, Fei Xiao, Ruitian Wang, Wei Kang and Beichao Yang
Modeling and Design of High-Power Enhanced Leakage-Inductance-Integrated
Medium-Frequency Transformers for DAB Converters
Hongyuan Yuan, Youjun Han, Yu Zhou, Zongke Chen, Juan Du and Hailong Pei
State of Charge Dual Estimation of a Li-ion Battery Based on Variable Forgetting Factor
Recursive Least Square and Multi-Innovation Unscented Kalman Filter Algorithm
Yang Guo and Ziguang Lu

A Robust Algorithm for State-of-Charge Estimation under Model Uncertainty and Voltage
Sensor Bias
Lawrie Swinfen-Styles, Seamus D. Garvey, Donald Giddings, Bruno Cárdenas

and James P. Rouse
Analysis of a Wind-Driven Air Compression System Utilising Underwater Compressed Air
Energy Storage
Sandro Hiller, Christian Hartmann, Babette Hebenstreit and Stefan Arzbacher

Solidified-Air Energy Storage: Conceptualization and Thermodynamic Analysis
Ralf Peters, Nils Wegener, Remzi Can Samsun, Felix Schorn, Julia Riese, Marcus Grünewald
and Detlef Stolten
A Techno-Economic Assessment of Fischer–Tropsch Fuels Based on Syngas from Co-Electrolysis
Reprinted from: Processes 2022, 10, 699, doi:10.3390/pr10040699 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
vi
Phan Anh Duong, Borim Ryu, Chongmin Kim, Jinuk Lee and Hokeun Kang
Energy and Exergy Analysis of an Ammonia Fuel Cell Integrated System for Marine Vessels
Nimat Shamim, Vilayanur V. Viswanathan, Edwin C. Thomsen, Guosheng Li, David M. Reed
and Vincent L. Sprenkle
Valve Regulated Lead Acid Battery Evaluation under Peak Shaving and Frequency Regulation
Duty Cycles
Chenliang Li, Ruizhi Li and Yingke Zhou

Preparation of a Honeycomb-like FeNi(OH/P) Nanosheet Array as a High-Performance
Cathode for Hybrid Supercapacitors
Xiaoyu Li, Tengyuan Wang, Jiaxu Li, Yong Tian and Jindong Tian
Energy Consumption Estimation for Electric Buses Based on a Physical and Data-Driven
Fusion Model
Paolo Maria Congedo, Cristina Baglivo, Simone Panico, Domenico Mazzeo

and Nicoletta Matera
Optimization of Micro-CAES and TES Systems for Trigeneration
Anti Kur, Jo Darkwa, John Calautit, Rabah Boukhanouf and Mark Worall
Solid–Gas Thermochemical Energy Storage Materials and Reactors for Low to
High-Temperature Applications: A Concise Review
Wenwen Ye, Dourna Jamshideasli and Jay M. Khodadadi

Improved Performance of Latent Heat Energy Storage Systems in Response to Utilization of
High Thermal Conductivity Fins
vii
About the Editors
Alon Kuperman
Alon Kuperman earned his Ph.D. degree in electrical and computer engineering from the
Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beersheba, Israel, in 2006. He served as a Marie Curie Training
Site Member at Imperial College London, London, U.K, from 2003 to 2006 and later as an Honorary
Research Fellow at the University of Liverpool, Liverpool, U.K., from 2008 to 2009. He is currently
affiliated with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Ben-Gurion University, Israel,
where he heads the Power and Energy Systems track and directs the Applied Energy Laboratory.
His research interests include all aspects of energy conversion and applied control.
Alessandro Lampasi
Alessandro Lampasi earned his M.Sc. degree in electronic engineering and a Ph.D. degree
in electrical engineering from the University of Rome Sapienza, Rome, Italy, in 2002 and 2006,
respectively. He is currently affiliated with the Italian National Agency for New Technologies,
Energy and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA), Frascati, Italy, and the consortium for the
construction of the Divertor Tokamak Test (DTT) facility, where he is in charge of several international
projects concerning nuclear fusion, power systems and energy storage. His current research interests
include modeling and measurement techniques in the fields of nuclear fusion, power electronics,
energy storage and applied electromagnetics.
ix
Preface
Energy storage and conversion are crucial research and industry topics, especially within the
context of sustainable development. Scientific and technological progress in these fields have the
potential to improve energy use efficiency across traditional, renewable and unconventional sources.
Energy storage technologies, including batteries, fuel cells, supercapacitors (ultracapacitors) and
superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES), combined with decreasing costs are creating new
scenarios and opportunities in the development and market of energy generation, grids, industrial
plants, complex systems and consumer electronics.
This reprint collects some of the latest developments and applications in these interdisciplinary
fields, offering a common framework for authors from different research areas.
Alon Kuperman and Alessandro Lampasi

Editors
xi
energies
Article
Sodium-Potassium Alloy Heat Pipe under Geyser Boiling
Experimental Study: Heat Transfer Analysis
Hongzhe Zhang 1 , Fang Ye 1, *, Hang Guo 1 and Xiaoke Yan 2
1 MOE Key Laboratory of Enhanced Heat Transfer and Energy Conservation, Beijing Key Laboratory of Heat
Transfer and Energy Conversion, College of Energy and Power Engineering, Beijing University of Technology,
Beijing 100124, China; ZhangHongZhe@emails.bjut.edu.cn (H.Z.); hangguo@sohu.com (H.G.)
2 National Institute of Metrology, Beijing 100013, China; yanxk@nim.ac.cn
* Correspondence: yefang@bjut.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-10-67396661 (ext. 8002)
Abstract: In the geyser boiling mode, the working fluid state is divided into a boiling process and a
quiet process, and the sodium-potassium (Na-K) alloy heat pipe can discontinuously transfer heat at
each boiling. The overheating of the liquid working fluid at the bottom causes short-term boiling
and forms slug bubble, the strong condensing ability quickly conducts heat from the evaporator
section. And geyser boiling can occur before the working fluid forms continuous flow, so it transfers
more heat at lower temperatures than natural convection cooling. In this study, the heat transfer
process of a Na-K alloy heat pipe with forced convection cooling under different heating power
was experimental studied. The geyser boiling mode can make the Na-K alloy heat pipe work below
650 ◦ C and reduce the start-up time. In the process of geyser boiling, the heat transfer quantity was
increased by the boiling frequency and the amount of vapor produced in a single boiling. The boiling
temperature had no obvious change with the increased of heating power, and the condenser section
temperature increased with the heating power.
Citation: Zhang, H.; Ye, F.; Guo, H.;
Yan, X. Sodium-Potassium Alloy Keywords: sodium-potassium alloy; geyser boiling; forced convection cooling; start-up performance;
Heat Pipe under Geyser Boiling heat transfer performance
Experimental Study: Heat Transfer
Analysis. Energies 2021, 14, 7582.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14227582
1. Introduction
Academic Editors: Alon Kuperman
Heat pipes rely on the phase transformation of the working fluid to transfer heat by
and Alessandro Lampasi
using latent heat. Therefore, heat pipes have high heat transfer performance [1], isother-
mal performance [2] and thermal response speed [3]. The working temperature of high
Received: 11 October 2021
Accepted: 10 November 2021
temperature heat pipes is higher than 750 K. Sodium, potassium and other alkali metals
Published: 12 November 2021
are often used as working fluid for high temperature heat pipe because of their high boil-
ing temperature, low saturation pressure, high latent heat of vaporization and high heat
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
transfer performance. Alkali metal heat pipes have been used in many high temperature
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
applications such as high temperature isothermal heater [4], thermometric calibration sys-
published maps and institutional affil- tem [5,6], solar energy utilization system [7,8], residual heat removal system [9–12], high
iations. temperature thermal management [13–15] and so on. The alloy of suitable ratio of sodium
and potassium is liquid at room temperature, so the sodium-potassium (Na-K) alloy heat
pipe has great advantages in cold-start and working fluid filling. Na-K alloy was the first
used as coolant in nuclear industry, Anderson et al. [16] proposed to replace pure metals
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
such as sodium and potassium as high temperature heat pipe working fluid. The thermal
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
properties and flow characteristics of Na-K (78% by mass of potassium) alloy were studied
This article is an open access article
by Serizawa et al. [17] and Timothy et al. [18]. The results showed that the heat transfer
distributed under the terms and performance of the alloy is better than sodium and potassium. The start-up performance of
conditions of the Creative Commons liquid metal heat pipes is very different from the low temperature heat pipes, the effect of
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// compressibility must be considered at start-up stage because of the low pressure and low
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ density of vapor. The continuous flow can be formed only after the working fluid reaches
4.0/). a certain temperature, then the vapor density and pressure increase significantly and the
Energies 2021, 14, 7582. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14227582 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

1
Energies 2021, 14, 7582
heat pipe can transfer heat effectively. Similar to other alkali metal heat pipes, the heat
transfer limits such as sonic limit and viscosity limit also appear in the start-up process of
Na-K alloy heat pipes. Na-K alloy heat pipes also have several advantages, different mass
ratios of sodium and potassium can be selected according to the requirements of working
temperature. Due to the melting point of the Na-K alloy is below room temperature when
the mass fraction of potassium is between 46% and 89%. Therefore, there is no frozen
limit at room temperature and it is beneficial to the manufacture of heat pipe such as the
high temperature oscillating heat pipe [19], and there is no solidification limit, the working
fluid will not solidify into solid state in the condenser section, avoid that the working fluid
cannot return and the evaporator section dry burning.
At present, Na-K alloy heat pipes have been applied in many fields such as molten
salt residual heat utilization system [20], high temperature cooling system [21] and so on.
Working conditions have a great influence on the start-up heat transfer performance of
Na-K alloy heat pipe. When the length of condenser section is too long, the working fluid
is not easy to fill the whole heat pipe [22,23]. When the length of the condenser section
is too small, the condenser amount of the working medium is small, which increases the
gas pressure [23,24]. The inclination angle of heat pipe will affect the effective heating
area of evaporator and the driving force of reflux liquid, and the most suitable inclination
angle of Na-K alloy heat pipe is 55◦ [25]. The Na-K alloy heat pipe has been proved to
be an effective high thermal conductivity element, the heat transfer ability and service
temperature of Na-K alloy heat pipe are between those of sodium heat pipe and potassium
heat pipe in full start state. Because the melting point of Na-K alloy is lower than room
temperature, it is safer in working fluid filling and cold start process, so the Na-K alloy
heat pipe is a kind of safer heat pipe which can replace sodium heat pipe. And there is
no solidification phenomenon in geyser boiling. The geyser boiling is a kind of repeated
process in which the working fluid suddenly boils and returns to calm.
In this article, Section 2 Literature review presents related works on the geyser boil-
ing. Section 3 Experimental methods presents the equipment, experimental system and
experimental method. Section 4 Results and discussions presents working process of Na-K
alloy heat pipe and effects of heating power on geyser boiling process, heat pipe wall
temperature distribution and heat transfer performance. Section 5 Conclusions presents
the main conclusions in this study.
2. Literature Review
Noie et al. [26] studied the influence of the inclination angle on the heat transfer
coefficient of the condenser under different liquid charge ratios. It was found that geyser
boiling occurred when the liquid charge ratios is greater than 30%.
Emani et al. [27] studied the effects of liquid charge ratio, inclination and cooling
water mass flow on the geyser boiling. It was found that when the inclination angle was
reduced, the geyser period and the temperature fluctuation range were reduced, and the
geyser boiling phenomenon disappeared when the inclination angle was less than 15◦ . The
mass flow rate of the cooling water has little effect on the geyser boiling phenomenon.
Lin et al. [28] studied the influence of heating power, condenser temperature, liquid
charge ratio and evaporator length on water and ethanol geyser boiling. The correlation
equation of heat transfer coefficient in geyser boiling was proposed.
Wang et al. [29] presented a combined CFD/visualization study and used the VOF
method to improve the Lee model. The improved model had better predictive performance,
and the heat transfer behavior obtained was closer to the actual phenomenon in the
visualization experiment.
Some literature studied how to suppress geyser boiling. Casarosa et al. [30] studied the
influence of heating power and condenser pressure on geyser boiling. When the condenser
pressure remained constant, the boiling frequency increased linearly with the increase of
heating power. When the heating power was constant, increasing the condenser pressure
reduced the geyser boiling, and even eliminated the geyser boiling.
2
Energies 2021, 14, 7582
Kujawska et al. [31] studied the geyser boiling phenomenon of heat pipes using
nanofluids. It was found that nanofluids can reduce or even inhibit geyser boiling. The
deposition of nanoparticles on the evaporator wall increases the number of nucleation
points that can form vapor bubbles and prevents the formation of gas plugs.
Although most literatures hope to eliminate geyser boiling [32,33], some literatures
have noticed that geyser boiling can be applied. Kuncoro et al. [34] studied the effects of
temperature and pressure on the geyser boiling of water and R113. The study found that
the temperature distribution inside the liquid has a great influence on geyser boiling. And
in this research, it was found that the start-up time of the heat pipe is reduced after geyser
boiling occurs.
Tecchio et al. [35] studied the effects of heat flux and vapor pressure on geyser boiling
in loop thermosyphons with liquid charge rates of 0.5 and 0.9. Geyser boiling occurred
when the heat flux was higher than 12.5 kW/m2 and vapor pressures was below 25 kPa,
and the dimensionless pressure rates were about 1.0. And it was noted that the heat transfer
quantity obviously increased when geyser boiling occurred.
Jia et al. [22] studied the effect of heating temperature on the heat transfer performance
of Na-K alloy heat pipe. Under cooling water cooling, geyser boiling phenomenon occurred,
and the start-up temperature and working temperature of heat pipe were lower than those
under natural convection. Compared with the study of heat transfer performance of Na-K
alloy heat pipe under natural convection cooling by Guo et al. [24], geyser boiling can
reduce the lowest working temperature of Na-K alloy heat pipe. Under forced convection
cooling of cooling water, when the heating temperature reached 600 ◦ C, geyser boiling
occurred in the heat pipe and the heat transfer quantity increased. But under the same
heating conditions and natural convection cooling, the phase transformation process of
working fluid became violent only when the heating temperature reached 725 ◦ C [23,24].
Moreover, geyser boiling can transfer more heat at lower temperatures. When the heating
temperature was 650 ◦ C, the heat transfer quantity under natural convection cooling of air
was 475 W [24], and the heat transfer quantity under cooling water was 790 W [22].
Therefore, the heat pipe could transfer heat effectively in the geyser boiling state, and
the working temperature range of the heat pipe is greatly improved. The influence of
heating power on the heat transfer process of Na-K alloy heat pipe under forced convective
cooling, along with the variation of wall temperature during the geyser boiling process
under forced convective cooling need to be further studied.
In this study, the influence of heating power on heat transfer process of Na-K (77.8% by
mass of potassium) alloy heat pipe under forced convective cooling was studied experi-
mentally, and the variation of wall temperature during geyser boiling process under forced
convective cooling was analyzed.
3. Experimental Methods
3.1. Experimental Setup and Procedure
The main equipment includes Na-K alloy heat pipe, heating furnace, power con-
troller, cooling water circulator, data collector, computer and so on. Figure 1 shows the
experimental system of heat pipe under forced convection cooling.
Figure 2 shows the experimental procedures. During the experiment, the heat pipe
was heated from room temperature. The heating condition is that the heating power was
constant at 800 W, 1000 W, 1200 W and 1400 W respectively. The cooling condition is
that the cooling water flow was constant at 16 mL/s, and the temperature of constant
temperature water tank was constant at 20 ◦ C. Each temperature was obtained through
the data collector, and the acquisition frequency was 3 s/time. In geyser boiling, the wall
temperature of the heat pipe changes periodically and drastically. The start-up process of
heat pipe is from the beginning of heating to the first boiling. From the beginning of heating
to the first boiling, it is the start-up process of the heat pipe. At least 20 stable and complete
boiling fluctuation cycles need to be recorded in each group of experiment. Because the
heat pipe always kept geyser boiling, the time-average values of the wall temperature, the
3
Energies 2021, 14, 7582
temperature of the cooling water jacket, the outlet and inlet temperature of the cooling
water in the calculation are taken within 5 boiling after the stable fluctuation.
Figure 1. Experimental system of Na-K heat pipe under forced convection cooling.
Figure 2. Experimental procedures of Na-K heat pipe of (a) Experimental conditions; (b) Operation
status of Na-K heat pipe.
The temperature of the outer wall of heat pipe, the outlet and inlet of the cooling
water, the ambient and the outer wall of the cooling water jacket were measured. Figure 3
shows the distribution of temperature measuring points on the outer wall, these measuring
points were numbered as P1 to P15 in turn. The evaporator section was 580 mm long
with 5 measuring points, the insulation section was 90 mm long with 1 measuring point,
the condenser section was 330 mm long with 9 measuring points due to the large axial
4
Energies 2021, 14, 7582
temperature variation of the condenser section. The heat pipe was always placed vertically
during the experiment.
Figure 3. Location of temperature measuring points.
A Na-K alloy gravity heat pipe was used in the experiment. The mass fraction of metal
potassium and sodium in the Na-K alloy are 77.8% and 22.2% respectively. Compared
with sodium and potassium, the Na-K alloy has low melting point and it is liquid at room
temperature. As an alkali metal heat pipe working fluid, Na-K alloy is easy to fill and will
not condense in the condenser section. Table 1 presents the thermophysical properties of
the Na-K alloy.
Table 1. Thermophysical properties of the Na-K (77.8% by mass of potassium) alloy.
Properties Values
Melting temperature (0.1 MPa) −12.6 ◦ C
Boiling temperature (0.1 MPa) 785.1 ◦ C
Vapor pressure (700 ◦ C) 0.489 kPa
Density (700 ◦ C) 731.1 kg/m3
Specific heat (700 ◦ C) 1.01 kJ/(kg·K)
Viscosity (700 ◦ C) 1.5 × 10−3 Pa·s
Latent heat of vaporization (0.1 MPa) 3453.5 kJ/kg
The shape of heat pipe is cylindrical, the parameters of the Na-K alloy heat pipe is
presented in Table 2. In our previous work [24], the Na-K heat pipe had best start-up
performance under the length of evaporator, condenser, and adiabatic section in Table 2.
Table 2. Parameters of the Na-K alloy heat pipe.
Parameters Specifications
Total length 1000 mm
Outer diameter 25 mm
Inner diameter 20 mm
Working fluid weight 70 g (about 78 cm3 , 25.3% of the heat pipe internal volume)
Container material Inconel 600
Evaporator section length 580 mm
Condenser section length 330 mm
Adiabatic section length 90 mm
The heating system is composed of single-phase full digital thyristor power controller,
voltage regulating power supply and heating furnace, which can realize the constant
temperature heating and the constant power heating of Na-K alloy heat pipe.
The power controller precisely controls the heating power by adjusting the voltage and
current of the circuit through the thyristor controller. In this experiment, the constant power
output mode was mainly used. The depth of heating furnace is 1000 mm, the resistance
heating wire was used, and the heating temperature range is 20~1000 ◦ C. The maximum
temperature difference is less than 20 ◦ C when heating at 800 ◦ C constant temperature. The
heating furnace can be heated at 0~7 kW constant power by the power controller and the
control accuracy is ±0.01 kW.
5
Energies 2021, 14, 7582
The cooling system is composed of annulus type cooling water jacket and cooling
water circulator. The cooling water jacket is made by stainless steel, the length of water
jacket is 330 mm, which is the same as the length of condenser section. The cooling water
in the jacket was upward flow and the gap between the cooling water jacket and the
condensation section of the heat pipe was filled with copper powder. The temperature
control accuracy of the cooling water circulator is ±0.1 ◦ C and the flow control accuracy
is ±0.3 mL/s.
The temperature data were recorded by a data collector with voltage accuracy of 0.004%.
Because the gap between cooling water jacket and heat pipe is very small and the
volume of standard thermocouple is too large to be arranged on the condenser section wall.
Therefore, the self-made K-type thermocouples which were welded with 0.2 mm diameter
nickel-chromium alloy wires and nickel-aluminum alloy wires were used after calibrated
by China Institute of Metrology, and the uncertainty of all self-made K-type thermocouples
is 1.2 K.
3.2. Data Processing

The calculation methods of the equivalent heat transfer coefficient, the equivalent ther-
mal resistance, and the heat transfer coefficient of evaporator section and condenser section
are shown in Equations (1)–(5). The equations were taken from the National standards of
China “Testing method for heat transfer performance of heat pipes (GB/T14812-2008)”.
The heat transfer quantity can be calculated by subtracting the heat leakage of cooling
water jacket from the cooling water.
Q = Gc p ( Tj,out − Tj,in ) − hja ( Ta − Tj ) Aj (1)
The hja is the convective heat transfer coefficient between water jacket out wall and
air, it is about 20 W/(m2 ·◦ C). The equivalent heat transfer coefficient can be calculated by
considering the heat pipe as a uniform solid,
Q
K= (2)
( Te − Tc ) Ahp
The heat leakage of heat pipe insulation section and the heat resistance of heat pipe
wall is small, so the insulation section temperature can be used as the temperature of
working fluid vapor of heat pipe. The heat transfer coefficient of evaporator section and
condenser section can be defined as
Q
he = (3)
( Te − Ta ) Ae
Q
hc = (4)
( Ta − Tc ) Ac
The equivalent thermal resistance can be defined as
Te − Tc
R= (5)
Q
In Equations (2)–(5), the average wall temperature was taken as the average tempera-
ture of each section.
T + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5
Te = 1 (6)
5
T7 + T8 + · · · + T15
Tc = (7)
9
6
Energies 2021, 14, 7582
According to the measurement accuracy of temperature and heating power, the

uncertainty of thermal resistance and effective thermal conductivity was calculated. The
uncertainty of thermal resistance is defined as [36]

2 2
δR δT δQ
= + (8)
R T Q
Therefor, the maximum relative thermal resistance uncertainty was ±0.41%.
3.3. Experimental Repeatability

Figure 4 shows the reproducibility of the time-average wall temperature. Three
experiments under the same conditions were completed in three different days. The
heating power was 800 W, the cooling water temperature was 20 ◦ C and the cooling water
flow rate was 16 mL/s. From this Figure, the experimental error of time-average wall
temperature of heat pipe was less than 2%. Therefore, it could be considered that the
experimental results were accurate.
Figure 4. Reproducibility of time-average wall temperature of Na-K alloy heat pipe.
4. Results and Discussions

4.1. Start-Up Process
During the start-up process of Na-K alloy heat pipe, the flow state of working fluid will
transform from the rarefied vapor flow to the continuum vapor flow. The Na-K alloy heat
pipe can only achieve efficient heat transfer when the continuum vapor flow is established.
Knudsen number can be used to determine whether the working fluid forms continuous
flow, the Knudsen number can be calculated by the ratio of mean free path of working
fluid and diameter of the vapor flow passage.
λ
Kn = (9)
D
7
Energies 2021, 14, 7582
It is generally believed that continuous flow can be formed only when Knudsen
number is less than 0.01 [20,37]. The temperature that can make the working fluid vapor
form a continuous flow is named the transition temperature, it can be defined as [20,37]
2
πM μv
Ttr ≥ (10)
2 × 10−4 Rg ρv D
The vapor transition temperature is mainly affected by the height of vapor space
which is the inner diameter of heat pipe. The transition temperature of Na-K (77.8% by
mass of potassium) alloy is about 340.2 ◦ C when the inner diameter of the heat pipe is
20 mm.
Figure 5 shows the temperature variation of each measurement point under different
heating power during the start-up process and working process. The sonic limit appeared
in the start-up process under all heating power. The sonic limit is very common in the
start-up process of alkali metal heat pipes, and it will disappear with the increase of vapor
temperature [38]. An intense boiling occurred in the heat pipe after heating for 25 to
40 min under all heating power, the evaporator section temperature decreased sharply
while the condenser section temperature increased rapidly. Because a large amount of high
temperature vapor flowed to the condenser section, and the sound of liquid working fluid
impacting the end cover of condenser section could be heard clearly during the boiling.
Figure 5. Temperature distribution of Na-K alloy heat pipe under heating power of (a) 800 W; (b) 1000 W; (c) 1200 W;
(d) 1400 W.
8
Energies 2021, 14, 7582
Due to the intense boiling and strong forced convection cooling, the evaporator section
temperature decreased greatly after the first boiling, and a large amount of heat was taken
away by the cooling water, so the heat pipe can not maintain continuous boiling state.
Therefore, the condenser section temperature began to decrease, and the evaporator section
temperature raised. About 2 to 3 min later, another intense boiling occurred and this
process was repeated, then the geyser boiling occurred in the heat pipe [28,38]. Because the
melting point of Na-K alloy is lower than room temperature and there is no solidification
limit, the working fluid will not solidify into solid state in the condenser section. Even if
the condenser section temperature was reduced to 40 ◦ C during the geyser boiling process,
the Na-K alloy heat pipe can work normally.
Since measuring point 1 to measuring point 5 were in the evaporator section, the
temperature rises gently in the start-up stage. When the heating time was 20 min to 25 min,
the temperature of measuring point 4 decreases slightly, because the liquid level of liquid
Na-K alloy is lower than measuring point 4. At this time, the Na-K alloy had begun a
large number of phase transformation on the liquid surface, and the temperature change of
measuring point 4 in the start-up stage was very small.
The flow state of Na-K alloy transformed from the rarefied vapor flow to the contin-
uum vapor flow when temperature reached the transition temperature, and the flow of
Na-K alloy increased greatly, which greatly increased the wall temperature of heat pipe.
The temperature of measuring point 6 in the adiabatic section rose sharply at 20 min to
30 min, indicating that the working fluid in the adiabatic section had changed to continu-
ous vapor flow at this time. Since the liquid level of Na-K alloy is lower than measuring
point 4, measuring point 5 in the evaporation section also had the process of flow state
transformation, and the temperature of measuring point 5 also increased greatly in a short
time. The temperature from measuring point 4 to measuring point 6 was maintained at
about 400 ◦ C after flow state transformation, which is close to the theoretical transition
temperature of Na-K alloy.
In the start-up state, because there were few Na-K alloys entering the condenser
section, the temperature of only a few measuring points increased, and most measuring
points were at room temperature. Therefore, geyser boiling can occur before continuous
flow is formed in the condenser section under forced convection cooling.
4.2. Working Process

In the working state, when the temperature of measuring point 1 at the bottom of
the heat pipe reached about 650 ◦ C, a violent boiling occurred at the bottom of the heat
pipe to produce Taylor bubble, which is a kind of elastic flow bubble. A large amount
of vapor carried liquid Na-K alloy into the condenser section, reduced the temperature
of each measuring point in the evaporator section and increased the temperature of each
measuring point in the condenser section, and the sound of liquid working fluid hitting
the top of the heat pipe could be heard. Then, due to the strong cooling capacity of the
cooling water, the heat input in the evaporation section was not enough to maintain the
continuous boiling of Na-K alloy, so that the temperature of each measuring point in the
condenser section decreased rapidly, and the temperature of each measuring point in the
evaporator section rose again. A new boiling occurred when the temperature of measuring
point 1 reached about 650 ◦ C again, and then the heat pipe repeated this process to form
geyser boiling.
Compared with the temperature fluctuation under different heating power in Figure 5,
with the increased of heating power, the temperature distribution at the beginning and the
end of each single boiling was very close. Because the working fluid returned to the same
state after each boiling, increasing the heating power only increases the boiling frequency.
The time-average wall temperature of each measurement point is the average value of
temperature within 5 boiling after the stable fluctuation. Figure 6 shows the time-average
wall temperature distribution of heat pipe under different heating power. The average
temperature of condenser section was obviously increased with the heating power, and
9
Energies 2021, 14, 7582
the temperature uniformity was slightly improved. Due to the strong heat transfer ability
of forced convection, there was a large temperature gradient along the heat pipe, the
vapor temperature decreased rapidly after entered the condenser section. The temperature
gradient at 795 mm to 970 mm decreased obviously, indicating that there was less Na-K
alloy here and the flow state is rarefied vapor flow.
Figure 6. Average temperature distribution of heat pipe under different heating power.
Figure 7 shows the start-up time and average temperature of evaporator section during
each boiling under different heating power. The start-up time is the first time of intense
boiling of the heat pipe. The average temperature of evaporator section was calculated
according to Equation (6) from Figure 6. The start-up time decreased as the heating power
increases, indicating that the heating power has greater influence on the temperature of
working fluid in the non-boiling state. The next boiling time will be reduced, and it can be
seen in Figure 5 that the fluctuation frequency increased at higher heating power. Geyser
boiling would not make the maximum temperature of evaporator section continue to
increase, the temperature of P6 in the insulation section was maintained at about 400 ◦ C.
That meant the starting condition of each boiling and the temperature of vapor was very
close to 400 ◦ C during a single boiling, so the average temperature of evaporator section
had small differences, and the temperature of the evaporation section is relatively close
in Figure 6. It means that Na-K alloy heat pipes can work at lower temperature under
geyser boiling. With the increased of heating power, the mass of vapor produced in single
boiling increased, and the average temperature of evaporation section increased after a
single boiling.
Figure 8 shows the average temperature difference of some measurement point at
the condenser section in each single boiling and the average fluctuation cycle of each
single boiling. With the increased of heating power, the evaporation of the working fluid
increased, and the condenser section temperature increased obviously after the end of
single boiling. Since the average temperature of evaporation section under different heating
power in Figure 7 has little difference, it shows that the mass flow of working fluid during
single boiling increases with the heating power. When the heating power was 800 W, the
geyser boiling cycle was obviously longer, so the temperature difference in the condenser
section was obvious in Figure 6. The lower heating power made the temperature rise slowly
in the evaporator section, it took a longer time to reach the required boiling temperature.
As the heating power reached 1400 W, the mass of vapor reaching the condenser section
was higher, and it needed more time to cool due to the heat dissipation condition of the
condenser section, so the temperature fluctuation frequency was close to the frequency
under 1200 W heating.
10
Energies 2021, 14, 7582
Figure 7. Start-up time and average temperature of evaporator section during the each boiling under
different heating power.
Figure 8. Average temperature difference and fluctuation cycle of condenser section during
geyser boiling.
4.3. Heat Transfer Performance

The temperature change in the middle of the condenser section was most obvious in a
single boiling. The wall temperature was greatly affected by the cooling water when the
vapor just entered the condenser section. Because the vapor temperature was higher before
boiling, the wall temperature change was small at the entrance of condenser section. When
the vapor arrived the end of the condenser section, most of the heat had been taken away
by the cooling water, the cooling water temperature was also increased and the cooling
capacity decreased, so the temperature change of the heat pipe was also small at end of the
condenser section.
Figures 9 and 10 show the heat transfer quantity, the equivalent heat transfer co-
efficient, the equivalent thermal resistance, and the surface heat transfer coefficient of
evaporator section and condenser section of heat pipe during working process according
to Equations (1)–(5). With the increase of heating power, the heat transfer performance
11
Energies 2021, 14, 7582
of heat pipe was improved. Because the average temperature of the evaporator section
changed little, it can be further proved that the mass flow of working fluid increases with
the heating power in single boiling. The heat transferred by the heat pipe was only about
half of the input of the heating controller, and a lot of heat was lost by the heating furnace.
In this study, the minimum thermal resistance was about 0.6 K/W, and equivalent heat
transfer coefficient could reach about 5500 W/(m2 ·◦ C).
Figure 9. Heat transfer quantity and equivalent thermal resistance of heat pipe under different
heating power.
Figure 10. Heat transfer coefficient of heat pipe under different heating power.
Compared with Figures 6, 9 and 10, although there was a large temperature gradient
along the heat pipe under 800 W to 1400 W heating, the increased of heating power could
improve the evaporation rate and promoted the heat transfer of the evaporator section.
Due to a large amount of vapor entered the condenser section, the heat transfer of the
condenser section had been promoted and the vapor flow rate was increased, so the heat
transfer coefficients increased linearly.
Table 3 presents the operating parameters of Na-K heat pipe under different heating
power. From the Table 3, the effective heat transfer of heat pipe increased with the heating
12
Energies 2021, 14, 7582
power, but the maximum temperature of heat pipe and the average temperature of evapo-
ration section (Te ) change little, while the fluctuation cycle of geyser boiling decreased and
the average temperature of condensation section (Tc ) increased. Therefor, the geyser boiling
mainly increases heat transfer by increasing boiling frequency rather than increasing the
temperature of Na-K heat pipe.
Table 3. Operating parameters of Na-K heat pipe under different heating power.
Maximum
Heating Average Temperature of Fluctuation Average Temperature of Effective Heat
Temperature of
Power Evaporator Section (T e ) Cycle Condenser Section (T c ) Transfer Quantity
Heat Pipe
800 W 696.3 ◦ C 508.1 ◦ C 3.02 min 133.0 ◦ C 461.2 W
1000 W 672.7 ◦ C 510.7 ◦ C 2.51 min 146.6 ◦ C 518.5 W
1200 W 679.5 ◦ C 516.5 ◦ C 2.20 min 166.3 ◦ C 644.2 W
1400 W 684.4 ◦ C 521.2 ◦ C 2.15 min 172.8 ◦ C 793.1 W
Although geyser boiling will cause temperature fluctuation and shell vibration. Geyser
boiling can make Na-K alloy heat pipe working at lower temperature. Table 3 presents the
maximum temperature of heat pipe under geyser boiling was only about 700 ◦ C when the
effective heat transfer quantity of heat pipe reached 800 W. Compared with our previous
work of Guo et al. [24], under the natural convection cooling, the effective heat transfer
quantity can reach 800 W only when the maximum temperature is above 800 ◦ C. Therefore,
geyser boiling reduced the operating temperature of the Na-K alloy heat pipe by 100 ◦ C.
Geyser boiling also can make Na-K alloy heat pipe have higher heat transfer quantity
at lower temperature. Figure 6 and Table 3 present that when the maximum average
temperature of the evaporator section was 600 ◦ C, the effective heat transfer quantity under
geyser boiling reached 800 W. While the Na-K alloy heat pipe has not start at the same
temperature under natural convection cooling conditions, and the effective heat transfer
was less than 50 W [24,25].
5. Conclusions
Due to geyser boiling can occur before continuous flow is formed in the condenser
section under forced convection cooling, the start-up capacity and heat transfer capacity of
a Na-K alloy heat pipe under forced convection cooling were experimentally studied at
different heating power (800 W, 1000 W, 1200 W and 1400 W). The Na-K alloy heat pipe
can work in geyser boiling mode, and transfer a lot of heat quantity at lower temperature
than natural convection cooling. The main conclusions were as follows:
(1) Geyser boiling can reduce the minimum operating temperature of Na-K alloy heat
pipe, and can have higher heat transfer capacity than natural convection cooling at
lower temperature.
(2) In the geyser boiling process, the increase in the average temperature of the condens-
ing section is caused by the increase in the mass flow of the Na-K alloy working fluid.
And the small change in the average temperature of the evaporation section is caused
by the small change in the boiling temperature.
(3) The increase of heating power leads to the increase of Na-K alloy working fluid mass
flow during single boiling, which further leads to a linear increase of heat transfer
capacity. But because of the cooling capacity, the boiling frequency does not increase
linearly.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.Z. and H.G.; Data curation, H.Z.; Formal analysis, H.Z.;
Funding acquisition, F.Y. and X.Y.; Investigation, H.Z.; Methodology, H.Z.; Project administration, F.Y.
and X.Y.; Resources, F.Y. and X.Y.; Supervision, H.G. and F.Y.; Visualization, H.Z.; Writing-original
draft, H.Z.; Writing-review and editing, H.G. and F.Y. All authors listed have made a substantial,
direct, and intellectual contribution to the work. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
13
Energies 2021, 14, 7582
Funding: This work was funded by the National Key R&D Program of China [grant number
2017YFF0205901].
Data Availability Statement: The supporting data will be made available on request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Nomenclature
A Surface area, m2
Ahp Heat pipe axial section area, m2
cp Specific heat of cooling water, J/(kg·K)
D Height of vapor space, m
G Mass flow of cooling water, kg/s
h Heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2 ·K)
hja Convective heat transfer coefficient between outer wall of cooling water jacket and air,
W/(m2 ·K)
K Equivalent heat transfer coefficient of the heat pipe, W/(m2 ·K)
M Molar mass, g/mol;
P Measuring point
Q Heat transfer quantity of heat pipe, W
R Thermal resistance, ◦ C/W
Rg Universal gas constant, J/(K·mol)
T Time-averaged temperature, ◦ C
Ttr Vapor transition temperature, K
Greek symbols
ρ Density, kg/m3
μ Viscosity, Pa·s
λ Length of mean free path of vapor, m
Subscripts
1–15 Measuring point 1 to 15
a Adiabatic section
c Condenser section
e Evaporation section
j Water jacket
v Vapor
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15
electronics
Article
Magnetic Field Saturation of Non-Insulation High-Temperature
Superconducting Coils during Overcurrent
Wei Wu *, Yusong Gao and Zhijian Jin
School of Electronic Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University,
Shanghai 200240, China; yusongao@sjtu.edu.cn (Y.G.); zjjin@sjtu.edu.cn (Z.J.)
* Correspondence: wei.wu@sjtu.edu.cn
Abstract: Non-insulation high-temperature superconducting coils provide a much lower risk of

burnout in fault/abnormal conditions, such as hot-spot quench and overcurrent. This study employs
an equivalent circuit grid model, coupled with magnetic field calculation and the E–J power law
of superconductors, to deeply and systematically investigate the overcurrent charging process in
a double-pancake non-insulation coil. An evident saturation of the magnetic field in the axial
direction of the coil was observed and verified by experiments. Experimentally, the entire process,
including the behavior of the magnetic field, was consistent with the numerical results. Based on
the verified model, two main points were addressed: (1) Transient current distribution inside the
coil during overcurrent charging was studied. Potential quenching risks were found to be at the
innermost and outermost turn near the electrodes, as well as the pancake-to-pancake connection part.
(2) Magnetic field saturation, which is a unique phenomenon in non-insulation superconducting coils
during overcurrent charging, was studied in detail and first quantitatively defined by a new concept
“converged load factor”. Its relationship with turn-to-turn resistivity was revealed.
Citation: Wu, W.; Gao, Y.; Jin, Z.
Magnetic Field Saturation of Keywords: high-temperature superconductor; non-insulation coil; overcurrent; numerical modeling;
Non-Insulation High-Temperature magnetic field saturation
Superconducting Coils during
Overcurrent. Electronics 2021, 10, 2789.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
electronics10222789 1. Introduction
One of the advantages of non-insulation (NI) high-temperature superconducting
Academic Editors: Alon Kuperman
(HTS) coils is the capability to operate under the fault (typically overcurrent and hot-spot
and Alessandro Lampasi
quench) conditions with a much lower risk of burnout [1]. The high stability against fault
conditions [2,3] puts NI coils forward as a promising option for the large-scale application of
Received: 14 October 2021
Accepted: 12 November 2021
DC high-temperature superconducting magnets, such as in maglev trains [4], motors [5,6],
Published: 14 November 2021
TOKAMAK systems [7], and high-field NMR [8]. Overcurrent conditions with an operating
current higher than the critical current sometimes occur and play an important role in
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
achieving a maximum field and in the elimination of screening currents [7].
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
Several studies have focused on the performance of NI–HTS coils operating under
published maps and institutional affil- overcurrent conditions. Experimentally, a saturation of the magnetic field was observed in
iations. various overcurrent tests [7,9–11], and burnout [11] of both the innermost and outermost
turns close to the electrodes occurred [12]. Similar phenomena were also observed during
overcurrent tests of HTS coils with turn-to-turn metal insulation [13,14]. Numerically, the
partial element equivalent circuit (PEEC) [15] or equivalent circuit grid (ECG) [16], coupled
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
with a thermal model, which was proposed to numerically analyze the behaviors of NI
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
coils during overcurrent conditions, suggested that a considerable amount of Joule heat
This article is an open access article
is generated near the outer electrode, initiating the quench propagation and ascribing the
distributed under the terms and magnetic field saturation to a local decrease in critical current [17]. Overcurrent test results
conditions of the Creative Commons in [18,19] also demonstrate the capability of NI coils to operate steadily in the saturated
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// phase without leading to thermally induced degradation.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ To further investigate the evolution of current distributions, understand the more
4.0/). quantitative characteristics during the transition to the magnetic-field saturation phase,
Electronics 2021, 10, 2789. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics10222789 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

17
Electronics 2021, 10, 2789
and clarify the potential risks of NI coils during overcurrent excitation, this study adopted
an equivalent circuit grid model [15–17] coupled with a magnetic field the E–J power law
of superconductors, calculated by the method mentioned in [20], to realize a real-time
circuit-field simulation. In addition, a double pancake NI test coil was wound and charged
with exquisite excitation procedures to validate the model. The responses of both the
magnetic field and coil voltage were recorded and compared with the numerical results.
The main contributions of this paper are as follows: (1) Detailed current distributions inside
the coil during overcurrent charging are presented and discussed. Potential quenching
risks were found to be at the innermost and outermost turn near the electrodes, as well as
at the pancake-to-pancake connection part. (2) Magnetic field saturation, which is a unique
phenomenon in non-insulation superconducting coils during overcurrent charging, was
studied in detail and first quantitatively defined by a new concept “converged load factor”.
Its relationship with turn-to-turn resistivity was revealed.
2. Model Description
2.1. Double-Pancake ECG Model
The ECG model [16] in Figure 1 was adopted to calculate the distributions of both the
spiral and radial currents of a NI–DP coil. The number of total turns in one pancake was de-
fined as Nt . Each turn was equally divided into Ne arc elements. The total number of spiral
and radial elements for one pancake was defined as Ni = Nt × Ne and Nj = (Nt − 1) × Ne ,
respectively. Each spiral element consists of its own inductance, its mutual inductance
with the other elements, and spiral resistance. The k-th spiral resistance Ri,k is composed of
the resistance of the HTS layer Rsc and that of the other metal layers Rmt , as illustrated in
Figure 2. Rj,k represents the k-th radial resistance.
Figure 1. ECG model of a NI–DP coil.
Figure 2. Circuit of a spiral element.
Considering that a DP coil is wound spirally with a single tape, the upper pancake is
reflectional rather than translationally symmetric [21] with respect to the lower pancake,
18
which should be considered when numbering spiral elements and calculating the mutual
inductance between an arc element of the upper pancake and one of the lower pancakes.
The relationship between the spiral and radial currents of the DP ECG model can be
obtained according to Kirchhoff’s law at each circuit node. The governing equations are
the following Equation (1):
⎧
⎪
⎪ Ik − Ik+1 − Jk = 0 ; k ∈ [1, Ne ]
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ Ik − Ik+1 + Jk−Ne − Jk = 0 ; k ∈ [Ne + 1, Nj ]
⎪
⎪
⎪ Ik − Ik+1 + Jk−Ne = 0
⎨ ; k ∈ [Nj + 1, Ni − 1]
Ik + Jk−Ne = Iop ; k ∈ [Ni , Ni + 1] (1)
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ Ik − Ik−1 + Jk−Ne = 0 ; k ∈ [Ni + 2, Ni + Ne ]
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ Ik − Ik−1 + Jk−Ne − Jk−2Ne = 0 ; k ∈ [Ni + Ne + 1, Ni + Nj − 1]
⎪
⎩ I −I
k k−1 − Jk−2Ne = 0 ; k ∈ [Ni + Nj , 2Ni ]
where Ik , Jk , and Iop denote the current in the k-th spiral element, radial element, and power
supply, respectively.
The governing equations of each circuit loop derived from Kirchhoff’s voltage law are
the following Equation (2):
⎧
⎪ Ne +1
⎪
⎪ ∑ U p − Jk R j,k = 0 ;k = 1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ p =2
Uk − Uk+ Ne − Jk−1 R j,k−1 + Jk R j,k = 0 ; k ∈ 2, 2Nj − 1 (2)
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
2Ni
⎪
⎪ ∑ U p − Jk R j,k = 0 ; k = 2Nj
⎩ p=2Ni − Ne
where Uk denotes the voltage drop along the k-th spiral element, consisting of both the
inductive and resistive voltages, as shown by the following Equation (3):
2Ni
Uk = ∑ Mk,m dIdtm + Ik Ri,k (3)
m =1
where Mk,m represents the self-inductance of the k-th spiral element if k = m and the mutual
inductance between the k-th and m-th spiral elements if k = m. The self-inductance and
mutual inductance are calculated by integrating Neumann’s formula [22,23].
Equations (1)–(3) can be expressed in a matrix form (Equation (4)):
A1 I + A2 J = b
(4)
dt + B2 I + B3 J = 0
B1 dI
where I = [I1 I2 . . . I2Ni ]T and J = [J1 J2 . . . J2Nj ]T .

For the aforementioned ECG model [16], A1 is always a non-singular square matrix,
and consequently, unlike the previously proposed method [16], the radial current vector J
is selected as the state variable, and the spiral current vector I can be derived, as shown by
Equation (5).
I = A1−1 (b − A2 J ) (5)
To solve the system of ordinary differential Equation (4), iterative methods includ-
ing the Runge–Kutta fourth-order method were adopted, and the calculation and post-
processing were conducted in MATLAB R2021b. The geometry of the coil in profiles of
current distribution [24,25] in the radial direction was enlarged for better illustration.
19
2.2. Coupling of Magnetic Fields and the DP ECG Model

To calculate the field-dependent critical current effectively, a two-dimensional axisym-
metric model mentioned in [20] was used as Equation (6).
∂A(r,φ,z)
B(r, φ, z) = −μ0 Iφ ∂z r̂ + μ0 Iφ 1r ∂(rA(∂rr,φ,z)) ẑ
(6)
= Bper r̂ + Bpar ẑ
The magnetic vector potentials A(r, φ, z) can be calculated by integrating the current
density multiplied by an integral kernel [20]. Numerically, only two linear transformations
are needed to obtain the parallel component Bpar and perpendicular component Bper of the
magnetic field by multiplying the current density with two pre-calculated constant matrices.
Therefore, the coupling of the magnetic field and the DP ECG model can be performed
within several milliseconds. The calculated parallel and perpendicular components of the
magnetic field Bpar and Bper are used to calculate the field-dependent critical current by
Equation (7) [26,27]:
−α
2
(kBpar ) + Bper
2
Ic (B) = Ic0 × 1 + B c
(7)
where Ic0 = 167 A, k = 0.518, α = 0.74, and Bc = 106 mT. The parameters are obtained by
fitting the above elliptical function [26,27] with the measured data of a short sample under
an external parallel and perpendicular magnetic field.
The high nonlinearity of the E–J power law causes the resistance of spiral elements
to change drastically with respect to the ratio of I/Ic . The following model [28] shown by
Figure 2 and Equation (8), consisting of two parallel resistances, is used to calculate the
overall resistance of spiral elements based on the rule of mixtures [29]. The n-value was set
to be 21. n
E0 l Isc
Rmt Ic + Isc = I (8)
where l denotes the length of a spiral element. Once the field-dependent critical current
Ic is obtained from Equation (7), the nonlinear Equation (8) can be solved by iterative
methods such as Newton’s method to obtain Isc (the current in the HTS layer), and the
overall resistance Ri can be calculated by Equation (9).
⎧ n −1
⎨ Rsc = E0 l Isc
Ic Ic
(9)
⎩ Rsc Rmt
Ri = Rsc + Rmt
In terms of overcurrent excitation, the presented model focused on the field–circuit

coupling and real-time update of the spiral resistance with time-varying conditions of
currents and magnetic fields.
The high nonlinearity of the E–J power law also makes the system of the odes in
Equation (4) difficult to converge, particularly when local I/Ic is approximately 1. It is
recommended that the larger the I/Ic ratio, the smaller the time step that should be used to
obtain converged solutions.
3. Experimental Setup and Procedure

3.1. Experimental Setup
The experimental DP coil was wound with a single piece of GdBCO tape, and the
specifications of the tape and coil are listed in Table 1.
20
Table 1. Details of the tape and coil.
Tape Parameters Value

Shanghai Superconductor Technology Co.,
Manufacturer
Ltd., Shanghai, China
Tape width/thickness 6 [mm]/185 [μm]
HTS layer width/thickness 4.75 [mm]/1 [μm]
Copper stabilizer thickness 40 [μm]
Hastelloy substrate thickness 50 [μm]
Coil Parameters Value
Total turns 35 × 2
Coil inner radius 5 [mm]
Distance between the upper pancake and the
3 [mm]
lower pancake
Total tape length 23.46 [m]
HTS leads length 0.38 [m] × 2
Self-inductance 815.45 [μH]
Characteristic resistance 27.725 [μΩ]
Calculated turn-to-turn contact resistivity (ρct ) 6.47 [μΩ cm2 ]
Magnet constant 0.7 [mT/A]
The measured critical current of the coil was 114.6 A at 77 K according to the 1 μV/cm
criterion. A Hall sensor was fixed at 1.8 cm above the center of the DP coil along the z-axis,
as illustrated in Figure 3.
Figure 3. (a) Photography and (b) schematic diagram of the sample NI–DP coil.
21
Notably, there was a 0.38 m long tape extending from the outermost turn of each
pancake to attach to the DC source, preventing the heat generated in the copper terminals
from affecting the coil, and the voltage drop along the HTS leads should be considered,
particularly in overcurrent situations.
3.2. Experimental Procedure

The step-rising excitation method was adopted to measure the stabilized magnetic
flux density and voltage signal of the DP coil operating at currents of different amplitudes.
First, the DP coil was excited to 10 A, and when the voltage and magnetic field signals
were stabilized, the power supply current increased by 10 A at a rate of 0.278 A/s. When
the voltage was no longer stabilized at approximately 0 V, which indicated a clear index
loss occurring along the spiral HTS layer, the power supply current increased by 5 A
instead until it reached 150 A. Thereafter, the power supply current started to decrease
at 5705 s from 150 to 0 A at a rate of 1 A/s. When the coil was completely demagnetized,
normal charge (50.1 A) and sudden discharge tests (from 6400 to 7200 s) were conducted
to confirm whether the coil was degraded under the previous overcurrent test. Finally,
after confirming that the coil was normal, overcurrent excitation (120.3 A) and sudden
discharge tests (from 7200 to 8000 s) were performed to cross-validate the performance of
the coil under overcurrent conditions, with the test performed from 0 to 6400 s. The key
time points and corresponding power supply currents are listed in Table 2.
Table 2. Time points and power supply current.
Time [s] Iop [A] Time [s] Iop [A]

56 10 3504 110.2
380 20.2 3665 115
689 30.3 3904 120.3
968 40.2 4564 125.1
1226 50.1 4908 130.2
1494 60.2 5161 135
1730 70.1 5343 140.1
2020 75.2 5493 145.1
2283 80 5624 150
2515 85.1 5705 150
2751 90.1 6222 0
2978 95.2 6657 50.1
3153 100 7239 0
3346 105.1 7450 120.3
4. Results and Verification of Numerical Model

The experimental data and the numerical results are shown and compared in Figure 4,
where Bexp , Bsim , Iop , Uexp , and Usim denote the experimental magnetic field flux density,
simulated magnetic field flux density, current of power supply, experimental coil voltage,
and simulated coil voltage, respectively. Usim denotes the sum of the voltage drops of each
spiral element in the DP–ECG model as defined in Equation (10).

2Ni 2Ni
Usim = ∑ ∑ Mk,m dtm + Ik Ri,k
dI
(10)
k =1 m =1
22
Figure 4. Experimental and numerical results of center magnetic field and terminal voltage (a,b)
from 0 to 8000 s and (c,d) from 0 to 1600 s.
4.1. Behavior of Magnetic Flux Density during the Overcurrent Charging Process
In terms of the magnetic field, the calculated results are consistent with the experi-
mental results, as shown in Figure 4.
From 0 to 2000 s, the NI–DP coil was charged to 10.0, 20.2, 30.3, 40.2, 50.1, 60.2, and
70.1 A, and at every stage, the DC source was maintained for a few seconds to record
the stabilized magnetic field flux density and voltage signals. The ratio of the stabilized
center magnetic field flux density to the power supply current remained at approximately
0.7 mT/A, which can be described as the linear increase process [17,19]. The voltage’s
responses to the increase in the operating current by 10 A at a rate of 0.278 A/s were almost
identical, and the terminal voltage dropped to nearly zero when the operating current
stabilized at each stage. It is clear that the current only flowed along the spiral HTS layer
path and the resistance of the HTS layer was almost null when the steady operating current
was far below the critical current.
As shown in Figure 4, starting from 2000 s, the power supply current increased from
70.1 A, with an amplitude of 5 A each time at a rate of 0.278 A/s. The magnetic field flux
density no longer corresponded linearly to the stabilized operating current but reached
a plateau. The maximum center magnetic field flux density that the NI–DP coil could
generate was approximately 55 mT, and the average current flowing along the spiral path
was 78.6 A, which was estimated by the magnet constant 0.7 mT/A. The overloaded input
23
current flowed along the radial path [30], which provided no significant contribution to the
magnetic field but resulted in a terminal voltage rise and Joule heat.
It was observed that the Joule heat led to no irreversible quenching during the entire
test, mainly attributed to the equivalent contact resistivity, which was found to be as low
as 6.47 μΩ·cm2 , and the small amount of generated heat could be dissipated quickly in an
LN2 bath.
The NI–DP coil exhibited great stability during the overcurrent test from 0 to 6400 s.
The subsequent normal charge and sudden discharge test from 6400 to 7200 s indicated that
the coil was not degraded during the previous overcurrent test, as the DP coil maintained
the same capability of generating a saturated magnetic field and the coil voltage dropped
to nearly zero with the power supply current stabilized at 50.1 A, which was much lower
than the critical current of the coil.
The final test from 7200 to 8000 s exhibited similar performance to the NI–DP coil
in an overcurrent state, and the maximum center magnetic field flux density stabilized
at approximately 55 mT, which was consistent with the previous test from 0 to 6400 s.
The overloaded current caused the terminal voltage to stabilize at 3.3 mV, as the power
supply current remained at 120.3 A.
4.2. Voltage Drop in HTS Leads

As shown in Figure 4, the simulated magnetic field exhibited acceptable consistency
with experimental results throughout the entire test process, whereas the calculated coil
voltage exhibited a clear inconsistency from 4564 to 5800 s, during which the magnetic field
remained saturated and relatively stable even as the power supply current increased further,
but the coil voltage increased more dramatically, compared with the calculated results.
The main discrepancy in the terminal voltage from 4564 to 5800 s occurred when the
power supply current exceeds 120.3 A, while there were no marked fluctuations in the
magnetic field. The extra voltage drop could be attributed to the HTS leads extending from
the outermost turn of each pancake, as depicted in Figure 3, because the operating current
flowing in the HTS leads was as large as the power supply current and had no significant
contribution to the magnetic field but was capable of generating a considerable voltage
drop along the voltage measuring path.
The model depicted in Figure 2 was used to numerically verify the presented ratioci-
nation. The extra voltage drop along the HTS leads Ul can be estimated using the following
Equation (11):
l I (t) n I (t) n
Ul (t) = 2 0 ds E0 ( Isc(l ) ) dl ≈ 2E0 × lds × ( scIceq ) (11)
c
where lds denotes the length of a single HTS lead, which is 0.38 m, and E0 is the critical
electric field (1 μV/cm and n = 21).
As the magnetic field remained almost stable from 4564 to 5800 s, it is reasonable
to adopt a time-independent and approximated critical current of the entire HTS leads,
denoted as Iceq . Isc (t) is the current flowing along the HTS layer of the leads with respect to
Iop (t), which can be calculated by solving the non-linear Equation (8). Figure 5 shows that
with Iceq equal to 107.5 A, the extra voltage can be explained.
24
Figure 5. Extra voltage drop Ul along HTS leads with Iceq of (a) 105.5 A, (b) 107.5 A, and (c) 109.5 A.
5. Transient Behavior during Overcurrent Charging

Both the magnetic field and coil voltage results exhibited good consistency with the
experimental results from our analysis. Thus, this model can be used to investigate the
mechanism of the transition from the normal charging condition to the overcurrent charging
condition of the magnetic field and the detailed current distributions inside the coil.
5.1. Analysis of the Transition Process to Saturation of Magnetic Field

The experimental and computed results in Figure 6a from 6400 to 8000 s were selected
to compare the difference in the performance of the NI–DP coil between normal excitation
and overcurrent excitation. The term Usim is decomposed into the resistive component Ur
and inductive component Um , which are calculated using Equations (12) and (13), respectively.
2Ni
Ur = ∑ Ik Ri,k (12)
k =1

2Ni 2Ni
Um = ∑ ∑ Mk,m dIdtm (13)
k =1 m =1
25
Figure 6. Experimental and numerical results (a,b) from 6400 to 7600 s and (c,d) from 7200 to 7600 s.
As shown in Figure 6a, the resistive voltage Ur was nearly zero before the power
supply current exceeded 86.14 A at 7390 s for the first time and during the sudden discharge
process. At 7390 s, as shown in Figure 6b, Ur started increasing rapidly, and the magnetic
field began to saturate, whereas Um decreased gradually to zero at 7420 s, even with a
ramped-up power supply.
Thus, from the perspective of voltage signals, the simulated results suggested that
as the spiral current increased, the increased index resistance of the spiral path, in turn,
drove the ascending rate of the spiral current down, which was reflected in the decreasing
inductive voltage and, consequently, the saturation of the magnetic field (from 7390 to 7420 s).
5.2. Current Distributions Inside the Coil

The profiles of the spiral current, load factor I/Ic , and radial current density at 6800,
7390, and 7600 s are illustrated in Figure 7.
26
Figure 7. Profiles of current distribution and load factor of the upper pancake at 6800, 7390, and 7600 s. (a1–c1) Distribution
of spiral current at 6800 s, 7200 s and 7600 s, respectively; (a2–c2) Distribution of load factor at 6800 s, 7200 s and 7600 s,
respectively; (a3–c3) Distribution of radial current density at 6800 s, 7200 s and 7600 s, respectively.
It was observed that the spiral current was almost evenly distributed along the spi-
ral HTS layer path and was close to the power supply current maintained at 50.1 A at
6800 s, while the radial current density was rather small. In contrast, the radial current
density was much larger when Iop was maintained at 120.3 A at 7600 s, as depicted in
Figure 7(a1,a3,c1,c3).
At 7390 s, when the power supply current reached 86.15 A and the magnetic field
started to saturate, the overall index resistance was sufficiently large to initiate saturation
even when none of the local load factors I/Ic exceeded 0.85, as shown in Figure 7(b2).
As shown in Figure 7(c1,c3), the highest spiral current and radial current density were
both distributed in the outermost turn near the electrodes and innermost turn near the
27
port where the spiral current flowed to the other pancake during the overcurrent state.
A similar phenomenon was observed in [15] during charging without overcurrent.
The largest local load factors (>1) were located near the current input and output parts
of the innermost and outermost turns, as depicted in Figure 7(c2). This caused considerable
spiral resistance, impeding the operating current flowing along the spiral path but making
it flow along the radial path to the middle turns. This implied that both the innermost
and outermost turns of each pancake near the ports where the power supply current
was input and output were the most vulnerable areas when NI–DP coils operated under
overcurrent conditions with bad cooling conditions or when the power supply current
increased further.
This deduction may provide a reasonable explanation for the overcurrent tests of NI
coils [11], and even coils with turn-to-turn metal insulation [13], which reported burnout
of the innermost and outermost turns near the electrodes—that is, irreversible quench-
ing was initiated at both the innermost and outermost turns close to current terminals,
owing to excessive overcurrent excitation, and thereafter propagated to the middle turns.
The ratiocination was different from the analysis in [18], which indicates that quench-
ing occurs from the exterior to the interior turns. Therefore, more emphasis should be
placed on the protection of turns close to electrodes and joints between pancakes in the
application of HTS magnets consisting of multiple DP coils, especially for the magnets in
conduction-cooled conditions.
In addition, the critical current of the coil, 114.6 A, determined by the 1 μV/cm criteria,
seriously overestimated the maximum spiral operating current because the main voltage
drop was located along small pieces of HTS tape in the boundary turns, while most of the
middle turns remained in a subcritical state according to the 1 μV/cm criteria. Therefore, it
is more reasonable to evaluate the spiral current-carrying capacity from the perspective of
the magnetic field [15,19].
5.3. Converged Load Factor for NI Coils

The non-uniform distribution of the magnetic field resulted in a non-uniform local
critical current. Therefore, a non-uniform spiral current distribution was observed when the
NI–DP coil operated under overcurrent conditions, as depicted in Figure 7(c1). However,
most of the local load factors I/Ic inside the coil converged at approximately 0.97, as depicted
in Figure 7(c2) The convergence of load factors during overcurrent indicated that most of
the spiral elements inside the coil reached their own maximum current-carrying capacity.
Thus, a concept defined as the converged load factor (CLF), which is the maximum
load factor in the coil at the saturation state, was proposed to reflect an overall quasi-
equilibrium mechanism between the index loss and contact resistivity existing in NI
coils when operating at a reasonable overcurrent state, at which the NI coil reached its
maximum potential to generate a stable magnetic field without heat accumulation and
thermal degradation in an LN2 bath.
Figure 8 shows the simulated CLFs and saturated magnetic flux density of the NI–DP
coils with respect to the contact resistivity. The simulated results demonstrate that for a
given NI coil, the CLF can be lower than 1 with low contact resistivity. The high thermal
stability of NI coils with low contact resistivity was at the expense of the time-consuming
charging delay and also generated a lower saturated magnetic field, which underuses the
full potential of HTS tapes [15].
28
Figure 8. Converged load factors and saturated center magnetic fields vs. contact resistivity.
6. Conclusions
An ECG model coupled with magnetic field calculation and E–J power law of su-
perconductors was adopted to further investigate the behavior of NI–DP coils during
overcurrent charging. Experimentally, the entire process of magnetic-field saturation was
consistent with the simulated results both in the magnetic flux density and voltage. The
analysis of coil voltage signals and current distributions revealed the evolution of an overall
quasi-equilibrium between the index loss and contact resistivity inside the coil, which drove
the NI coil into a saturated state of the magnetic flux density in the coil’s axial direction.
The potential risk of irreversible quenching at both the innermost and outermost
turns was also found to provide a possible explanation for the near-electrode burnout
reports of NI coils during overcurrent excitations. Therefore, it is essential to strengthen
the protection of the boundary turns of NI pancakes in HTS magnets, particularly under
conduction cooling conditions.
A concept defined as the converged load factor (CLF), which is the maximum load
factor in the coil at the saturation state, was proposed to quantitatively characterize the
spiral-current-carrying capacity of NI coils during overcurrent conditions. The typical CLF
values of NI coils with a turn-to-turn resistivity ranging from 6.47 to 6470 μΩ·cm2 , which
covers the range of typical NI coils, were calculated to be from 0.95 to 1.30. Although the
CLF value was limited to around 1, the thermal stability of NI coils allowed the operation at
a load factor evidently higher than insulated coils, which were unstable with the operation
current close to their critical current in a real application system. From the viewpoint of
achieving a higher magnetic field, turn-to-turn resistivity of NI coils as large as several
thousands of μΩ·cm2 of was recommended, however, with compromised thermal stability
and suggested to be applied in static conditions with lower risk of quenching.
In the future, the long-term operation of NI coils in overcurrent conditions and the
detailed mechanism/transient behavior of the overcurrent during the elimination process
of screening current should be studied.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, W.W.; methodology, Y.G. and W.W.; software, Y.G.; vali-
dation, W.W. and Y.G.; formal analysis, W.W. and Y.G.; investigation, W.W. and Y.G.; resources, W.W.
and Z.J.; data curation, Y.G.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.G. and W.W.; writing—review
and editing, W.W. and Y.G.; visualization, Y.G.; supervision, Z.J.; project administration, W.W.
29
and Z.J.; funding acquisition, W.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by National Natural Science Foundation of China [51977130]
and the APC was funded by the authors.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to unfinished study on the data in
future work.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank Longbiao Wang from Shanghai Jiao Tong
University for his help in the short sample test, and Xin Yu and Chao Zhang from Shanghai Super-
conductor Technology Co., Ltd. for their help in winding the test NI–DP coil.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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31
Another random document with
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visit, was destroyed by fire, and the debonair ladies, prancing steeds
and all went up in one great holocaust.
The new house that rose over the ashes was aptly called
Whitehall. It was all white, inside and out, broad, dead white walls,
grand balconies all around the mansion dead white; white steps led
to the lawn, and the trees surrounding had their trunks whitewashed
as high as could be reached by a long pole and a brush. All the old
portraits and some awful prints (it was long before the chromo era)
were fished out of closets and other hiding places and hung about on
the white walls. One old man with a tremendously long neck and a
stiff black stock to help hold up his head, and a fierce look, had a
pair of eyes that looked like great daubs of ink. His portrait decorated
the parlor. I was warned not to handle the gilt-edged books and little
trinkets on the marble-top center-table, “for your Cousin Christopher
will see you; notice, whichever way you turn his eyes will follow you.”
I was mortally afraid of that old spook till little black Comfort told me,
“Laws! if dem eyes could hurt we’d all be’n daid in dis house.”
At “The Oaks,” Dr. Patrick’s plantation, the wall paper illustrated
scenes from China, in colors not gorgeous, like the last mentioned,
neither was the house so pretentious. There was no broad, high
ceilinged hall to ornament with startling figures that seemed to jump
at you. The orderly processions of pigtailed Chinamen in sepia tints
could not by any possibility get on one’s nerves. Whole processions
wended their way to impossible temples, wedding processions,
palanquins, and all that; funeral processions dwindled away to a
mere point in the distance, all becomingly solemn, until some of the
irrepressible Patrick children, with black pencil, or charcoal, or ink,
put pipes into all the mouths and clouds of smoke therefrom spotted
the landscape. Moral suasion was the discipline of the Patrick
children, so that freak was not probably followed by after-claps, but
the Chinese were promptly marched off, and the inevitable white
walls were the result.
Family portraits came forth to brighten the room. One notable one
that superseded the Chinese wall paper was a full-length portrait of
Gov. Poindexter’s (everybody knows “Old Poins” was the first
Governor of the State of Mississippi) first wife, who was a sister of
Mrs. Patrick. She was a vision of beauty, in full evening dress.
Facing her was the glum, “sandy complected” Governor, not one bit
fascinated by the sight of his wife’s smiling face.
The fashionable portrait painter of the time was Moïse; it was he
who painted the author’s portrait shortly after her marriage. He was a
dashing, improvident genius, and many of his portraits were
executed to cancel debts. At one time he designed and had made for
my husband, in settlement for a loan, a handsome silver lidded bowl
with alcohol lamp beneath. It was known as a pousse café and was
used to serve hot punch to after-dinner parties. I am glad to say it
has survived all the family vicissitudes, and is an honored heirloom,
in company with a repoussé silver pitcher, which we won as a prize
for cattle at the Louisiana State Fair, described in a later chapter.
At John C. Miller’s place the house was only one story, but it
spread over what seemed to be a half acre of land. A square hall,
which was a favorite lounging place for everybody, had wall paper
delineating scenes from India. Women walked toward the Ganges
river, smilingly tripping along with huge water jars on their shoulders,
in full view of another woman descending the steps of a temple, with
a naked baby, poised aloft, to be thrown into the sacred Ganges. A
crocodile ruffled the blue (very blue) waters, with jaws distended,
ready to complete the sacrifice. That sacred river seemed to course
all around the hall, for on another side were a number of bathers,
who appeared to be utterly oblivious of their vicinity to the mother
and babe, not to mention the awful crocodile.
The culmination of landscape wall paper must have been reached
in the Minor plantation dwelling in Ascension parish. Mrs. Minor had
received this plantation as a legacy, and she was so loyal to the
donor that the entreaties of her children to “cover that wall” did not
prevail. It was after that style of mural decoration was of the past,
that I visited the Minors. The hall was broad and long, adorned with
real jungle scenes from India. A great tiger jumped out of dense
thickets toward savages, who were fleeing in terror. Tall trees
reached to the ceiling, with gaudily striped boa constrictors wound
around their trunks; hissing snakes peered out of jungles; birds of
gay plumage, paroquets, parrots, peacocks everywhere, some way
up, almost out of sight in the greenery; monkeys swung from limb to
limb; ourang-outangs, and lots of almost naked, dark-skinned natives
wandered about. To cap the climax, right close to the steps one had
to mount to the story above was a lair of ferocious lions!
I spent hours studying that astonishing wall paper, and I
applauded Mrs. Minor’s decision, “The old man put it there; it shall
stay; he liked it, so do I.” It was in 1849 I made that never-to-be-
forgotten trip to jungle land. The house may still be there; I don’t
know; but I warrant that decorated hall has been “done over,”
especially if little children ever came to invade the premises. Upon
the departure of landscape wall paper, the pendulum swung to
depressing simplicity of dead white walls or else “pillared and
paneled,” which is scarcely one degree better.
Old portraits and any kind of inartistic picture or print were brought
forth to gratify the eye unaccustomed to such monotony. Only a few
years ago I asked: “What became of that military epauletted portrait
of old Major Messiah that always hung in your mother’s hall when we
were children?” “Oh, it was hanging twenty or more years ago in the
office of a hardware concern down town. Don’t know where it is
now.”
After the war, inquiring for a lot of portraits of various degrees of
merit and demerit that disappeared when the Yankees left, we heard
that some were in negro cabins in West Feliciana. So they come and
are appreciated, those images of loved ones. So they often go, and
are despised by those who follow us, and who, perchance, never
knew the original. Now the questions arise, will landscape wall
papers really return? And in their pristine splendor? Surely the scope
in brilliancy and variety could not be excelled. The limit was reached
almost seventy years ago, and naturally (I was a child then) comes
as vividly to my mind as the counterfeit face of my ancestor with
eyes following me all around the room. The tigers and ourang-
outangs, even the den of lions and the crocodile of the Ganges,
never made my little soul quake like the searching eyes of “my
Cousin Christopher.”
XI
THOUGHTS OF OLD
I shall begin to think I am in my second childhood by and by. I

have just been reading of a fashionable wedding where the bride
and her attendants carried flat bouquets with lace paper frills. I don’t
doubt the revival of the porte bouquet will come next, the slender
bouquet holders made of filigree silver with a dagger like a short
hatpin to stick clear through and secure the bouquet—a chain and
ring attached to the holder and all could be hung from the finger. I
used to think, a childish looker-on, that it was pretty to see the ladies
in a quadrille “balancing to your partners,” “ladies changing,” etc.,
each with a tight little bouquet in a trim little holder swinging and
banging about from the chain.
Later the porte bouquets were abandoned, but the stiff little
posies, in their lacy frills, remained. They were symmetrical, a
camellia japonica, surrounded by a tiny row of heliotrope, then a row
of Grand Duke jasmine, one of violets, finally a soupçon of greenery,
and the paper bed. James Pollock had a fund of such rare flowers to
draw from, for though the Pollock home down on Royal street was
the simplest of old Creole houses, flush on the street, only two steps
from the banquette leading into a modest parlor, there was a tiny
parterre in the rear, a vision of the most choice collection of plants.
How it was managed and cultivated I don’t know, for it was hemmed
in on all sides by buildings that intercepted much of the air and
almost all of the sun’s rays. Still those camellias, Grand Dukes and
violets thrived and bloomed, and delighted the heart of any girl to
whom James, the best dancer in society, sent them in one of those
tight little bouquets on the eve of a dance.
A Creole Parterre.
I have to-day a much larger parterre in my backyard, open to sun

and rain and wind, but no amount of coddling brings anything better
than dock-weed and tie-grass. I leave it to the climate of my own
sunny Southland to explain the problem. The porte bouquet will no
doubt come in time. I for one will hail an old friend, if I am “on deck”
when it arrives.
Last Christmas what should my granddaughter receive but a mob
cap of gold lace! almost exactly like one my mother wore before I
can remember. Caps! Every woman when she arrived at middle age,
and some who found them becoming at an earlier age, wore caps.
My mother was considered very tasty and expert at cap-trimming.
She had a papier mâché, or soft wood dummy head—I know she
stuck pins into it—on which she fashioned her caps.
Mechlin lace (one rarely sees it now) was considered the
fashionable cap lace. Remember cotton laces and Italian laces and
machine-made laces were not in existence in those days, neither
were Hamburg embroideries and Nottingham curtains, two awful
products of to-day; and a thousand other make-believes, cheap and
tawdry now. When mother’s fine Mechlin edgings became soiled she
“did them up” herself, clapping the damp lace in her hands, pulling
out and straightening the delicate edges—drying them without heat;
and she had a deft way, too, of what she called “pinching” with her
dainty fingers; she knife pleated it. The net foundation was fitted to
the wooden head, the lace was attached in folds and frills, and little
pink rosebuds or some other tiny flower scattered tastefully here and
there. Behold a dress cap! One can imagine the care and taste and
time and thought consumed in its manufacture. And how the old lady
must have appeared when in full dress!
Many of those dames wore little bunches of black curls to enhance
the effect, those tight, stiff little curls that looked like they had been
wound on a slate-pencil. Dear Mrs. Leonard Matthews always wore
the black curls. Even a few years after the war I met the sweet old
lady, curls and all, jet black, tight little curls, and she looked scarcely
older than in my earliest recollection of her.
Well, I must return to cap trimmings to tell of a bride. She must
have been in the neighborhood of seventy, for she made what her
friends called a suitable match with a widower long past that age.
They came to the St. Charles Hotel on a kind of honeymoon trip. She
decorated her head, oh, ye cherubim and seraphim! with a fussy cap
sprinkled with sprays of orange flowers!
I, who revel in a towering white pompadour, have just had the
present of a soft silk cap, with frills and bows. I presume it will be
useful on the breezy piazzas of the mountains a week hence; but it
looks to me now that the caps of our mothers and grandmothers are
on the march hitherward. I possess a few “Moniteurs des Dames,”
dated in the late forties, that contain pictures and patterns for
“bonnets,” as they were called. Who knows but they may be useful
yet?
Now, “in regard to” (as a lady we all know prefaces every remark)
—“in regard to” frills, in my young days we had to make our own
frills. Nobody had dreamed even of machine-made ruchings any
more than of vehicles that run all over the streets without the aid of
horses. We made our frills of lawn, neatly gathered on to a band,
and what is more, they had to be fluted with hot irons. The making
was not beyond everybody’s skill, but the “doing up” and fluting was
way beyond me, as beyond many others. How queer it is, when we
recall to mind the images of people so long absent that they are
almost forgotten, the image presents itself, emphasized by some
peculiarity of dress or speech. When I think of Dr. Bein’s daughter
Susanna, whom I knew and loved so well, it is with the beautifully
fluted frill she always wore and so excited my envy. Now, every
Biddy in the kitchen and every little darky one sees wandering
around wears handsomer frills than Susanna and I ever dreamed of.
Parasols had heavy fringes; so, to show to advantage, they were
carried upside down, the ferule end fitted with a ring to be, like the
bouquet holders, hung from the finger. My sister had a blue parasol,
with pink fringe, that I thought too beautiful for words. How I should
laugh at it now!
Best frocks, such as could be utilized for dinners and parties, were
made with short sleeves, “caps,” they were called, and tapes sewed
in the armholes; long sleeves similarly equipped were tied in under
the “caps.” I used to see even party guests take off their sleeves as
they put on their gloves to descend to the dancing room. Black,
heelless slippers, with narrow black ribbons, wound over the instep,
and crossed and recrossed from ankle, way up, over white
stockings, were the style; it was a pretty fashion.
I recall the autumn of 1849, when I, a young girl, was at the Astor
House, in New York. Coming downstairs one morning to breakfast,
how surprised I was at glaring notices posted on walls and doors,
“Hop to-night.” You may well believe I was at the hop, though I had
no suitable dress. I was only a looker-on.
When I mentioned slippers I recalled that hotel hop, for Mme. Le
Vert wore a pink silk dress and pink satin slippers, all laced up and
tied up with broad pink ribbons. Nobody had ever seen the like
before. Mme. Walton, her mother, was on hand, and hopped, too,
just as spry a hop as any young girl. I contrived to sidle along and
keep near to Mme. Le Vert, for I was as fascinated as any one of her
numerous beaux. Dr. Le Vert, by the way, had just started on a trip to
Europe for his health. Going to Europe then was like taking a trip to
Mars now.
I heard Mme. Le Vert talking to four different swains in four
different languages. I believe she considered her linguistic versatility
her strong point. She surely was a most remarkable woman. She
was as tender and sweet to me, a very plain, simple, unattractive
girl, as to her swellest friends. One does not easily forget such an
episode of early life. I never met Mme. Le Vert after that autumn. We
all returned South together on the Crescent City, the pioneer
steamer between New York and New Orleans.
I will not moralize or sermonize over these reminiscences. They
are all of the dead past. Both fashions and people are gone.
XII
WEDDING CUSTOMS THEN AND NOW
We were lingering about the breakfast table having such a

comfortable, chatty review of the last night’s party, when a familiar
voice was heard. “Oh! congratulate me; we have captured him; they
are engaged.” That was the first time I had ever heard an
“announcement” from headquarters. It was made to Mrs. Slocomb, in
her library. There followed many amusing particulars, audible to us,
in the adjoining room, but we were discreet young girls; perhaps that
was one reason we were among the very few invited to the wedding,
which so quickly followed the engagement that it was a complete
surprise to the whole community.
Sixty years ago only Catholics went to the sanctuary for a wedding
ceremony. Protestant weddings were home affairs, necessarily
confined to family and nearest friends. Houses being limited in
space, company was limited in number. No city house could boast of
a ballroom; few had “double parlors.”
At the wedding whose “announcement” was such a surprise to us,
I think our family and the Slocombs were the only guests, except the
families of the groom’s business associates. The idea of having a
grand reception to announce a marriage engagement, to which
everybody who is anybody is invited, was unheard of. The anxiety,
too, of the parties interested to get the news in a suitable form in the
daily papers, for the butcher boy and the sewing girl, out of the social
swim, to read, accompanied by the genealogies of the engaged
people, the wealth of the girl and how she came by it, and the
numbers of clubs of which the young man is a member, as though
the money and the clubs were “the chief end of man”, was unheard
of, too. We did things on a very different scale sixty years ago!
I recall my astonishment when Elèna Longer told me her sister
Héda was married the night before, for Elèna and I (we were ten
years old at the time) had played together all that day of the
wedding, and not a hint was imparted to me of the impending event.
I had not even heard the name of Mr. Charles Kock, the fiancé,
mentioned. There were already six married daughters, with hosts of
children, at that time in the Longer family, so there could have been
little room on such an occasion for outsiders, even if their presence
had been desired.
Wedding presents were not made, either. The first time we saw a
display of wedding gifts, how surprised we were, and how we
wondered as to how it happened! There were not many, nor were
they expensive, so for ever so long I could have given the list and
the names of the donors. Dear Maria Shute, who, as I remember,
was the bridesmaid, presented a pearl-handled paper cutter! That
article might have escaped my memory, along with the others, but
years after that wedding I met Maria, then Mrs. Babcock, and we
talked of it all, and had a merry laugh over the paper cutter.
Fifty-eight years ago, when I married, I was surprised by a solitary
wedding present, a napkin ring! From the most unexpected source it
came. The giver is long since dead and gone; dead and gone also is
the napkin ring.
At the wedding of Caroline Hennen to Mr. Muir, the first I ever
attended, there were not a dozen guests, but the rooms were filled,
indeed the Hennen family easily filled one of them. At this wedding
we met Mr. William Babcock from New York, a forty-niner en route to
California (this was in 1849). The following day I went with him to call
on and introduce him to his young cousin, an intimate friend of mine
he was desirous of meeting. She was of that handsome family of
Smiths, a niece of Mrs. Labouisse. I never saw either him or her
afterwards, for within the following fortnight they quietly married and
started “round the Horn” to San Francisco. More than fifty years after
I saw their children and grandchildren in California.
Some of us must remember genial, gossipy Mrs. Garnet Duncant,
the bon vivant, so bright, so fat and so entertaining? She it was who
called one day (sixty years ago) to tell us Amelia Zacharie had
married her invalid cousin, and sailed away with him. Those two are
the only cases I recall of wedding trips, and both were permanent
trips, for there was no intention of a return to New Orleans of either
couple. It was the fashion for the newly-mated to remain quietly in
the home nest, until one of their very own be made ready for their
reception.
James Pollock, I recall to mind, made a late appearance (in 1850)
at a dance given by the Lanfears, on Julia street, that old “13
Buildings.” The Lanfears were the last to leave that once fashionable
row. Pollock swept in late, full of apologies. His sister Mana had
married that evening and he was detained.
The only other wedding trip I can chronicle was one where the
bridegroom went alone. Do you remember what an excitement there
was, years ago, when a wealthy young man disappeared from the
side of his bride the morning after the wedding? There were no wires
or wireless then to facilitate the hunt, undertaken with frantic haste,
and continuing two mortally anxious weeks. He was eventually
discovered, in a semi-conscious, dazed condition, on a wharfboat at
Baton Rouge, or some such river town. He recovered from that
attack, to be blown away by another “brain storm” a few years later.
It was twenty years after this second disappearance that the courts
pronounced him dead, and the widow permitted to administer on the
estate.
In those days old maids were rare. Every girl, so to say, married.
The few exceptions served to emphasize the rarity of an unmated
female.
Divorces were so rare when I was young that they were practically
unknown in polite circles. I know of cases, and you would know of
them, too, if I mentioned names, where men sent their erring or cast-
off wives, not to Coventry, but to Paris, and made them stay there.
One such died in Paris lately at the age of ninety-five, who was
packed off, under a cloud of suspicion. There was no divorce, no
open scandal. She simply went and stayed! He simply stayed!
Last winter I was invited to a view (sounds like a picture exhibit!) of
the trousseau and wedding gifts of a fashionable young lady. I was
stunned with amazement! A large room filled to overflowing with
glass, china, silver, mirrors, everything a body could require, and a
vast array of utterly useless articles! and the trousseau which the
tired mother, who has had nervous prostration ever since, spent
months accumulating in Paris. My gracious! the best blanchisseuse
in the land could not cope successfully with all that flimsy finery,
laces and ribbons. I could only look and wonder, “What can all this
lead to?” (I add here, anticipating events: It led to an apartment and
one maid servant.) The young man was a salaried clerk, and the
young girl utterly unfit to care for even the superabundance of china
and silver, so much more than they could possibly find use for in a
three-story house, not to mention a six-room apartment and “light
housekeeping.” I wonder if the whirligig of time won’t bring back
some of the simplicity of my day?
Already it is the style to “fire out of sight” the useless bric-a-brac
ornaments that twenty years ago cluttered up drawing rooms till one
had to pick her way carefully lest she stumble over a blue china cat,
or tilt over a bandy-leg table covered with ivory idols and Chinese
mandarins with bobbing heads. Some of the most fashionable
drawing rooms to-day are already so stripped of furniture one has to
wander around quite a bit to find a chair to sit on; not even a pier
mirror to prink before, nor a parlor clock, flanked by “side pieces,” on
the mantel. All that banished for stunning simplicity. Not so, however,
the costumes and entertainments, which are becoming, so it seems
to a near-sighted old lady, more and more luxurious. Perhaps this
extreme (we all dote on extremes) of simplicity will come to take the
place of many other equally absurd extremes of the present day. Qui
vivra verra.
XIII
A COUNTRY WEDDING IN 1846
We missed the train! and here we were in the old Bayou Sara
Hotel, looking for some kind of locomotion. We had eighteen miles to
make, and if the Belle Creole had made the run we would have been
all right, but the Belle Creole was not a flier; it had no time for arrivals
or departures; it just jogged along at its own good will, answering
every call, running all sorts of antics up and down the river. Dick
started out to see what he could do.
I sat on the dirty porch, looking through November china trees
towards the river. Is there anything more depressing than a view of
china trees in November? The pretty, fragrant, blue flowers long
gone, and the mocking birds (nobody ever heard of English sparrows
then!) that had drunk their fill of intoxicating liquor from the scattering
china berries were gone too. The train we had missed, the dear old
Belle Creole always missed, was a kind of private affair. The whole
outfit, about twenty miles of track, the lumbering cars, the antiquated
engines, and I think, too, the scattering woods that supplied the fuel
were all the private property of the McGehees. The McGehees had a
cotton factory in the neighborhood of Woodville, twenty miles from
the river. They had one train, cheap and dirty, that made one trip a
day, going with freight very early in the morning, returning later, with
freight and one small passenger car for the owner’s use. This
concern stopped for wood and water and nothing else, and was the
only means of transport for “casuals” like ourselves from the river to
Woodville. Ladies going back and forth and gentlemen of leisure
used their own conveyance, a turtle-back affair that was entered by a
row of steps. The dear Belle Creole was too much of a convenience
to have a time table, so it was useless to construct a time table and
plan to “connect” with that equally free and easy train. Some
disgruntled chap chalked on an unused car, left on the rails as a
depot, “We belong to the McGehees, and go when we please.”
Well, to make the matter short, though it was long to me, on that
dirty porch by the china trees, Dick found a man with a turtle-top
coach, and a harness mended by cords and stakes and bits of
rawhide. The man had a mended look, too, but he was sober, and for
a good, round sum agreed to take us to Laurel Hill. Laurel Hill, where
we proposed to go, was a post office station, about ten miles from
Woodville and four miles across country. We meandered along, tired
and out of all patience. At the date of this tramp I was a little girl and
not given to moralizing. When we arrived at Laurel Hill we were told,
“Creek is up; been a big rain somewhere; not even a horseman has
crossed all day.” There was no accommodation for man or beast at
the queer little depot, no place to sit and nothing to sit on. It was long
after dark, and there was no one to tell us the story of the high water
but a negro man, who was shutting up the one door of the building.
There was nothing left us but to go to the nearest plantation house
and ask for lodgings.
I was so tired I felt we had gone ten miles further when we
reached Major Dick Haile’s, though it really was only a few miles.
The tired horses and the sleepy driver made slow work. There was a
gate and an opening, but the house was pitch dark, every door
closed and everybody apparently asleep. The nags were willing to
stand, unhitched, beside the fence; not an automobile or flying
machine could have scared them; they were asleep, too.
After much knocking and calling at what seemed to be the door of
entrance, an old gentleman, candle in hand and very scantily
dressed, demanded to know what was wanted. My brother called
that we were on our way to the General’s, and we could not cross
the creek, so we begged the privilege of a lodging for the night.
“General’s for the wedding? Come right in.” A brighter light was
procured, and before we were seated in the reception room we
heard the hospitable voice, “Put your carriage under the shed, give
those horses a good feed, then come to the kitchen and get a bite for
yourself.” The two young daughters came in, hurriedly dressed
(people did not have bathrobes and wrappers seventy years ago). I
was awfully tired and awfully sleepy, and I began to think our
lodgings were to be parlor chairs, long before the dining room door
was opened, and the genial old gentleman, in night shirt and
trousers, led the way to the table. We had fried chicken, hot
cornbread, coffee, cakes, and I don’t know what else. It would take
me back forty years to see a cook roused at midnight, to prepare
such a meal. I presume she even took herself to the roost and
caught her young chicken by the legs and wrung its neck before she
reached the newly-made fire. Major Haile knew we had not broken
our fast at the town hotel.
It was late the following day when we all assembled to just as fine
a breakfast, and heard the major say, “Your ‘turnout’ is gone. I sent
to see about the condition of the creek; it goes down about as fast as
it rises. When you are rested my carriage is at your disposal. Your
driver was not used to these roads, but mine knows every crossing
in the creek.”
It was a four-mile drive, even after we had crossed the waters. The
wedding house we found in commotion. There were no caterers or
experts even in New Orleans in 1846. The wedding supper was in
process of preparation, under the superintendence of a noted old
cakemaker from Woodville, nine miles off. Everybody was busy; only
General McCausland, the dear old master of the house, was quietly
seated by his parlor window, a very old man, but a soldier withal,
who could rise to emergencies when required. I drew up a chair and
explained our delay, and told him how grandly hospitable his
neighbor was. The two old men were the last remaining ones of their
company of the battle of New Orleans. Their homes were in payment
from the Government for their services. The dear old gentlemen said
they were neither general nor major; they were simple soldiers who
had discharged their services and accepted their pay. Both the men
were Irish, both poor boys. They worked hard, soon exhausted the
old red soil of their neighborhood.
Later the General moved his workmen to the river bottoms, so
that, while living for health’s sake in the old home, the house of
which he originally helped to build, his income came from Bayou
Fordoche, many miles away.
Time flew; neighbors had arrived, the table was spread in the long
back porch. The guests, many of them, lived miles and miles away,
in common country roads, often through dense woods—a long drive
under best circumstances, a perilous one at night, everybody
waiting, everybody in a hurry, everybody getting tired and fretful. It
was long after the appointed time, and the New Orleans preacher
had missed the train! Old Dilsey in the kitchen was mad because her
pig was getting too brown; Elfey in the porch worrying that her ice
cream was waiting too long; ladies in the parlor trying to kill time;
men wandering around the front yard in restless groups. Carriages
had been to the depot; no appearance of Mr. Jahleel Woodbridge,
the New Orleans minister. He was endeared to the family, had been
for years their minister at Woodville. Bride, in all her regal attire,
upstairs in tears; no Presbyterian preacher nearer than ten miles
away. So we waited and waited. At last the General sent for his
especial groom, ordered him to take the buggy and go four miles
through the woods, where there was a Methodist itinerant, and tell
him to come without delay to marry the couple.
The accommodating preacher came, just as he was. He had been
plowing his field, and his wife, off to see a sick child, had carried the
keys with her. He could not even get a clean handkerchief, but he
came in his workaday suit. The company hastily assembled. He
performed the ceremony, gave them his blessings, and
congratulated her on her “escape from the quicksands and shoals of
celibacy.” Recognizing his own condition at the time, he begged to
be excused from refreshments, and took a rapid and hurried
departure. The kindly man was scarce gone when Mr. Jahleel
Woodbridge arrived in a coach, most astonishingly like the one we
had used the previous day. Only a year or two later the hospitable
Major passed away; shortly after the General followed him, and the
dear old homes have passed away also from the face of the earth.
XIV
THE BELLES AND BEAUX OF FORTY
Do not think I mean to imply the belles and beaux of which I am

about to speak were forty years old, but they had their butterfly
existence in the year 1840. Some, no doubt, fluttered around before,
and a few after that date, but they all were of that era of simple life
that, alas! is of the distant past—a host, as Auctioneer Beard used to
say when parading his goods, “too multitudinous to particularize.” In
the first place, the costumes, as well as the customs of society, were
so different from those of the present day that they marshal before
my mind’s eye almost like a fancy dress parade.
Miss Ellen Johnson, who became later the wife of William B.
Walker (of the firm of Woodlief & Walker), and her sister, Malvina,
wife of our celebrated Dr. Warren Stone, wore the most beautiful
curls—wore them long after that style ceased to be haut ton. I have
some “Moniteurs des Dames” of that early date that afford insight
into costumes then worn. The long pointed waist, chuck full of real,
hard, stiff whalebones (all the whalebones must have been used up
then; nobody can find one now), corset also whaleboned to the limit,
laced at the back and with literally a board up the front, at least three
inches wide—a real board, apple tree wood preferred, hard and stiff
and unyielding. Ladies so girded up walked and stood and sat, too,
like drum majors; no round, stooping shoulders; one just had to
stand straight, with an apple tree board as a constant reminder. I
used even to hear that in cases where the poise had a tendency to
lapse it was not unusual for the victim to wear the corset night and
day.
The tournure of 1840 was buried in such oblivion that it requires
one to be almost eighty years old to drag it forth and display its
hideousness, explain its construction. The tournure, called “tchuny”
for short, was long and round, the size and shape of the biggest kind
of a rolling pin, such as your cook uses for pastry. The ends,
however, tapered to points, which met and were secured in front of
the waist. It was stuffed with moss, or cotton, or hair, I don’t know
what, for the monstrosity “came ready-made” from France. Over this
awful precipice the full gathered dress skirt fell in rippling cascades. I
remember a chiné silk, an indistinct, plaided purple and green; it was
ruffled to the waist, and over the tchuny it hung in irregular folds. To
my childhood’s eye it was most graceful and beautiful. Good-by,
tchuny! I am sure you will never resurrect. Your reign was disastrous
to taste. You lived one short decade; without a mourner when you
departed. Good-by, tchuny!
Whatever did become of chiné silks? Can it be possible they are
back on the counters masquerading under another name? I never
see a silk now that bears any resemblance to the pretty chiné of
1840. Nor do I see tarletans of that date. It required a whole piece
(or bolt) of that goods for a dress. It had to have at least three skirts,
one over the other, to give the diaphanous effect. Such sweet,
simple dresses they were, too. Miss Mary Jane Matthews, a belle of
the forties, wore a pink tarletan, trimmed with wreaths of small white
roses, that was an inspiration. One very striking one comes to mind,
gold colored, garnished with red hollyhocks! I think some Western
girl must have sported that; it was scarcely simple enough for Creole
taste.
Emma Shields was a noted beauty. I recall a plaster bust of Queen
Victoria, idealized beyond all reason or recognition, one of my
brothers kept on a shelf in his room. He adored it because he saw a
resemblance to beautiful Emma Shields. She, poor girl, married
unfortunately, and dropped suddenly out of sight. About the same
time an accidental flourish of a feather duster knocked Queen
Victoria off the shelf—and smashed my brother’s idol.
Don’t I recall as though he stood before me this minute, on my
father’s balcony, Mr. Peter Anderson? Tall and thin and angular (he
imagined he looked like Henry Clay, and he was of similar build),
dressed in what was known as moleskin, a tan-colored goods
looking strangely like rough-finished kid, the trousers so skin-tight
and so firmly strapped under the shoe that he had to assume a
sitting posture with considerable deliberation and care.
Here comes Adolphus Hamilton, a quiet eligible, more known in
business than in social circles, but the far-seeing mammas kept an
eye on him, he was such a bon parti. One fine day he surprised
these mammas by arriving with his bride from a trip to Natchez.
Henry Hollister, too, was a business man who made few social calls,
but was in evidence at all the dances. A few years ago I met his
daughter at a summer resort. She was prodigiously amused that
papa, now hobbling about with a gouty foot and stout cane, ever
could have been a dancing beau.
George W. Kendall went off one fine day, to what he proposed
would be a kind of picnic, in the wilds of Western Texas. His Santa
Fe expedition spun out a longer and more varied experience than he
contemplated, of which his graphic account, now unhappily out of
print, is most entertaining. He married in France, and in Texas during
the war we met him, after a lapse of many years. He had founded
the town of New Braunfels, near San Antonio, and retired, full of
years, and full of interest in the rough life around him, so different
from the New Orleans of his earlier days and the Paris of his gayer
ones.
The Miltenberger brothers were never old. They danced and made
themselves admired through several generations of belles. The “sere
and yellow leaf” could never be applied to a Miltenberger.
Evergreens were they, game to the last, for no doubt they are all
gone, and the places that knew them will know them no more.
A. K. Josephs, a lawyer of some note and a very acceptable
visitor, was a replica in the way of flowered waistcoat and dangling
chains of a prominent man of his race in England, Disraeli. Don’t I
see a bird of paradise waistcoat? Indeed I do. And also a waistcoat
of similar style sent to another prominent beau of the period, a black
satin confection, with gorgeous peacocks embroidered on the ample
front. I don’t think the recipient of that garment ever appeared in it.
Flamboyant as were the waistcoats of that day, a peacock with
spread tail was the limit. They are all dead, those belles and beaux
of the forties. The old lady chronicler could expect nothing else of
these folks she loves to remember and talk of to children and
grandchildren, who listen with becoming patience, no doubt often
thinking, “Dear grandma must be nearing her dotage.”

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Energy Storage and Conversion

Systems Alon Kuperman Alessandro

Novel Highly Flexible Modular Power Electronics for

Novel Highly Flexible Modular Power Electronics for

Electrode Materials for Energy Storage and Conversion

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage

Exergy Analysis for Energy Conversion Systems 1st

Renewable energy conversion systems: Technologies,

Energy Storage and Conversion Devices: Supercapacitors,

Energy Storage Devices for Renewable Energy-Based

Energy Storage and

Basel • Beijing • Wuhan • Barcelona • Belgrade • Novi Sad • Cluj • Manchester

ISBN 978-3-0365-9322-7 (Hbk)

About the Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

Hongzhe Zhang, Fang Ye, Hang Guo and Xiaoke Yan

Wei Wu, Yusong Gao and Zhijian Jin

Amirhossein Banaei and Amir Zanj

Watcharakorn Pinthurat and Branislav Hredzak

Miftah Altwieb, Rakesh Mishra, Aliyu M. Aliyu and Krzysztof J. Kubiak

Jorge Olmedo-González, Guadalupe Ramos-Sánchez, Erika Paola Garduño-Ruiz

Vaclav Novotny, Vit Basta, Petr Smola and Jan Spale

Junfang Li, Yue Xing and Donghui Zhang

Bizhong Xia, Bo Ye and Jianwen Cao

Yang Guo and Ziguang Lu

Lawrie Swinfen-Styles, Seamus D. Garvey, Donald Giddings, Bruno Cárdenas

Sandro Hiller, Christian Hartmann, Babette Hebenstreit and Stefan Arzbacher

Chenliang Li, Ruizhi Li and Yingke Zhou

Paolo Maria Congedo, Cristina Baglivo, Simone Panico, Domenico Mazzeo

Wenwen Ye, Dourna Jamshideasli and Jay M. Khodadadi

Alon Kuperman and Alessandro Lampasi

Energies 2021, 14, 7582. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14227582 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Figure 3. Location of temperature measuring points.

Table 1. Thermophysical properties of the Na-K (77.8% by mass of potassium) alloy.

Table 2. Parameters of the Na-K alloy heat pipe.

3.2. Data Processing

Q = Gc p ( Tj,out − Tj,in ) − hja ( Ta − Tj ) Aj (1)

According to the measurement accuracy of temperature and heating power, the

Therefor, the maximum relative thermal resistance uncertainty was ±0.41%.

3.3. Experimental Repeatability

Figure 4. Reproducibility of time-average wall temperature of Na-K alloy heat pipe.

4. Results and Discussions

4.2. Working Process

4.3. Heat Transfer Performance

Abstract: Non-insulation high-temperature superconducting coils provide a much lower risk of

Electronics 2021, 10, 2789. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics10222789 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Figure 1. ECG model of a NI–DP coil.

Figure 2. Circuit of a spiral element.

where I = [I1 I2 . . . I2Ni ]T and J = [J1 J2 . . . J2Nj ]T .

2.2. Coupling of Magnetic Fields and the DP ECG Model

In terms of overcurrent excitation, the presented model focused on the ﬁeld–circuit

3. Experimental Setup and Procedure

Table 1. Details of the tape and coil.

Tape Parameters Value

3.2. Experimental Procedure

Table 2. Time points and power supply current.

Time [s] Iop [A] Time [s] Iop [A]

4. Results and Veriﬁcation of Numerical Model

4.2. Voltage Drop in HTS Leads

5. Transient Behavior during Overcurrent Charging

5.1. Analysis of the Transition Process to Saturation of Magnetic Field

5.2. Current Distributions Inside the Coil

5.3. Converged Load Factor for NI Coils

I shall begin to think I am in my second childhood by and by. I