UNIT 6 also locate theirPosi on.5.

This method gives real

me data on development of cracks and breaking of
Q.1 Compare destruc ve and non-destruc ve
fibres within the structure.6.This method is used in
tes ng.ANS:-Destruc ve Tes ng 1.The component is
bridges, dams and aerospace
destroyed2.All components cannot be tested3.Tests
structures.Advantages: 1) Gives real me data
are more me consuming.4.Tes ng during opera on
during opera on of the structure.2) This method is
is not possible.5.Test results are quan ta ve
highly sensi ve. 3) Leads to early detec on of
.NonDestruc ve Tes ng1.The component Is not
flaws.4) Cost is less. Disadvantages: 1) Requires the
destroyed.2.All components can be tested.3.Tes ng
loading to be sufficiently high to produce a
is rapid.4.Tes ng during opera on is possible.5.Test
significant signal. 2) Requires sensors to be
results are generally qualita ve.
permanently mounted on the structure.
(Q.2) List the objec ves of non-destruc ve
(Q.5)) Describe X-ray radiography method for non-
tes ng.Ans:- The objec ves of non-destruc ve
destruc ve tes ng of engineering components.
tes ng are as follows: 1) To detect flaws during the
State its advantages and disadvantages:- 1.X-ray
manufacturing of components so that defec ve
have high penetra on power. The smaller the
components can be detected at an early stage of
wavelength, larger is the penetra on power.2.When
produc on. This saves me and money.2) To detect
x-rays are passed through metals, the intensity
flaws of finished components which will enhance
decreases due to absorp on.3.Larger the distance
their performance and reliability.3) To detect flaws
travelled by xrays in the metal, larger is the decrease
which may develop during opera on which will
in intensity and smaller is the transmi ed
ensure that there is no reduc on in the rate of
intensity.4.The decrease in intensity also depends on
produc on4) To increase the safety by ensuring that
the density of the material.5.The x-ray film kept
the defec ve components are replaced during
behind the object will become darker in the region
periodic checks.
of the flaw 6 .This method is able to reveal the flaws
(Q.3) List the methods of non-destruc ve tes ng:- hidden in the interior of the component.7.If x-ray
The following methods are used for image is taken for only one posi on of the source,
nondestruc veTes ng:1.Liquid/dye penetrant test the flaw can be detected but its posi on cannot be
2.Radiography methods: a) x-ray radiography and b) located.8.To locate posi on of the flaw, the image is
y-ray radiography. 3.Ultrasonic inspec on taken for two posi ons of the source 9. f Distance
4.Magne c par cle inspec on. 5.Visual inspec on between source and film,10. p = Distance between
6.Eddy current inspec on.7.Thermography two posi ons of source 11.s = Distance between the
two image,12.The depth d of the flaw from the
(Q4)Describe acous c emission tes ng. State its
upper surface is given by d= fs/s+p 13.A similar
advantages and disadvantage:- 1.The stress waves
approach is used in x-ray fluoroscopy except that the
propagate to the surface of the structure and can be
x-ray film is replaced by a fluorescent screen.14.This
detected by sensors. 2. Such acous c emission is
method gives live images of the components.
also observed when iron, n or ceramics are cooled
15.Instead of x-rays, yrays can also be used to form
from high temperatures.3.Acous c emission also
images.•Advantages:1) Hidden flaws can be
takes place due to development of cracks and
detected.2) Inspec on takes very li le me.3) A
breaking of fibres in a stressed material. Hence,
wide variety of materials can be
these canAlso be detected by sensors.4.The sensors
tested.•Disadvantages:1) It is expensive compared
are piezoelectric crystals which are placed in
to other methods.2) Inspec on has to be carried out
arrays.They can defect the presence of defects and
in an isolated place as long exposure to x-rays is
harmful to beings.3) Very small flaws cannot be between atoms.2.Imperfec ons in the crystal
detected. structure and impuri es result in changes in these
proper es.3.As the nanopar cles are highly pure
(Q 6) What are nano-par cles:- Explain. 1. The radii
and free from imperfec ons, they show different
of atoms and most of the molecules are less thana
mechanical proper es than the bulk material. 4.it
nanometer.2. Nanopar cles are generally
has been observed that the Young's modulus
considered to have radius in the range of 1 nm to 100
decreases in metallic nanocrystals with decrease in
nm which can have 25 to 106 atoms.3. The
par cle size.5.The yield stress has been observed to
nanopar cles show unique proper es that change
increase with the decrease in grain size in bulk
with their size.4. Classical mechanics is able to
materials with nanosized grains.6.Hence stronger
explain proper es of bulk materials but is unable to
materials can be produced by making materials with
explain proper es of nanopar cles.5.Quantum
nanosized grains.7. The carbon nanotubes are
mechanical principles have to be used to explain
es mated to be about 20 mes stronger
proper es of the nanopar cles.6.The state of ma er
around the nanosize is known as mesoscopic state. (Q8)Explain applica ons of nanopar cles.1.
Electronics:- Nanosized electronic components
(Q7) Explain op cal, electrical and mechanical
show unique proper es which are different from the
proper es of nanopar cles :- (1) Op cal proper es
larger semiconductor components. The
::1.The colour of nanopar cles is different from the
semiconductor devices are based on the concept of
bulk material. 2.Atomic clusters of different sizes will
charge transport only whereas the nanosized
have different energy level separa ons.3.Hence the
components work on the concept of charge as well
size of the cluster can be altered to change the
as spin transport of electrons. This has been used in
colour of a material.4.For example, gold in bulk form
devices like spin FET, spin LED etc 2.Automobiles:
appears yellow but gold nanopar cles appear bright
Nanotube composites have be er mechanical
red in colour.5.Due to these metal nanopar cles, the
strength compared to steel but are costly at present.
glasses appear coloured.(2)Electrical
Efforts are being made to develop cheaper nanotube
proper es::1.The resis vity in bulk ma er is mainly
composites that can replace steel which is used to
due to sca ering of electrons by ions and crystal
construct the body structure of automobiles. Use of
defects.2. Thus smaller par cle size increases the
nanopar cles in paints provides thin and smooth
resis vity.3. The situa on changes when one or
coa ngs. 3. Tex les: The use of nanotechnology in
more dimensions of the conductor are made very
tex le industry has led to the development of water
small.4.In a quantum well, the electron will be
repellent and wrinkle free clothes.4. Cosme cs: Zinc
confined along one dimension but will move freely
oxide and tanium oxide nanopar cles are used in
along the remaining two dimensions 5. Confinement
sunscreen lo ons which protect the skin from the
of electrons to small dimensions leads to
ultraviolet radia ons. These nanopar cles absorb
quan za on of energy.6.The level of doping in
ultraviolet radia ons. Nanopar cle based dyes and
semiconductors gives rise to another important
colours are harmless to the skin and hence are used
phenomenon.7.In other words, on an average, one
in hair creams, gels and hair dyes.2).Medical:
quantum dot in 10 will have a free electron.8.These
Nanopar cles can be used for detec on and
result in the phenomena of single-electron tunneling
treatment of cancers and tumours. The
and coulomb blockade.9.This phenomenon is called
nanopar cles are injected into the body and guided
coulomb blockade.(3) Mechanical
towards a specific part. Drugs can be encapsulated
proper es::1.Mechanical proper es like hardness,
in nanocapsuleser. 3)Space and defence: Aerogels
elas city and duc lity depend upon the bonds
are porous materials with nanosized pores. They
have very low density and are poor conductors of
heat. They can be used in spacecra s, light weight
suits and jackets.
.Q.(9) Describe the ultrasonic tes ng method of
flow detec on. State advantages and
disadvantages.:- Ultrasonic flaw detec on
technique uses the property of ultrasonic waves that
they get par ally reflected from any boundary
separa ng two media having different densi es.The
me interval between the transmission of an
ultrasonic pulse and the arrival of an echo is
propor onal to the distance of the boundary
separa ng the two media from the transducer. An
ultrasonic pulse is transmi ed into the specimen
from one end by an ultrasonic transducer like quartz
crystal which also performs the func on of a
receiver. In absence of any flaw, the pulse is reflected
from the other end of the specimen and the two
pulses are displayed on a C.R.O.The distance
between the two pulses on the C.R.O. screen can be
calibrated in terms of the distance travelled by the
ultrasonic waves in the specimen If there is a flaw, an
addi onal peak will be seen between the
transmi ed pulse and the pulse reflected from the
other end asFrom the distance between transmi ed
pulse and the pulse corresponding to the flaw on the
CRO screen, the distance of the flaw from the
surface through which ultrasonic wave was
transmi ed can be obtainedThe posi on and
dimensions of the flaw can be obtained by moving
the transducer on the specimen surface and finding
the distance of the flaw from different loca ons on
the specimen surface.The ultrasonic flaw detec on
method is used in automobile, aircra , railway and
shipping industries to test machine parts and rails for
flaws.Three types of visual display units are used in
ultrasonic inspec on. They are known as A-scan
display, B-scan display and C-scan display ..
Advantages: 1) Components with larger thicknesses
can be tested compared to x-ray radiography. 2) This
method is more accurate.3) Low cost 4) High speed
5) Small flaws can also be
detected..Disadvantages:1.Surface of the
component needs to be smooth.2.Very thin
specimens cannot be tasted.3.Specimen must have
homogeneous composi on.4.Defects very close to
the surface are not detected.
(Q10)Explain applica ons of nanopar cles
:2)opening the capsule at a desired rate using
magne c fields or infrared light. This targeted drug
delivery does not affect the healthy organs.
Nanotechnology based tests developed for fast
detec on of viruses and an bodies 2.Polymer
composites using silica fibers and nanopar cles have
larger mechanical strength and low temperature
coefficient of expansion. They can be used in
spacecra s which have to withstand high
temperature and stress condi ons during launching
and re-entry into the earth’s atmosphere.
3.Satellites and spacecra s use solar energy. 4.The
efficiency of solar cells can be increased using
nanopar cles. The use of nanopar cles will also
make the solar cells smaller in size and light weight.
Q.What is echo sounding :-Echo sounding or depth
sounding is the use of sonar for ranging, normally to
determine the depth of water (bathymetry). It
involves transmi ng acous c waves into water and
recording the me interval between emission and
return of a pulse; the resul ng me of flight, along
with knowledge of the speed of sound in water,
allows determining the distance between sonar and
target. This informa on is then typically used for
naviga on purposes or in order to obtain depths for
char ng purposes. Echo sounding can also be used
for ranging to other targets, such as fish schools.
Hydroacous c assessments have tradi onally
employed mobile surveys from boats to evaluate fish
biomass and spa al distribu ons. Conversely, fixed-
loca on techniques use sta onary transducers to
monitor passing fish. The word sounding is used for
all types of depth measurements, including those
that don't use sound, and is unrelated in origin to the
word sound in the sense of noise or tones. Echo
sounding is a more rapid method of measuring depth
than the previous technique of lowering a sounding
line un l it touched bo om. The required precision
and accuracy of the hydrographic echo sounder is
defined by the requirements of the Interna onal
Hydrographic Organiza on (IHO) for surveys that are
to be undertaken to IHO standards.[7] These values
are contained within IHO publica on S44. In order to
meet these standards, the surveyor must consider
not only the ver cal and horizontal accuracy of the
echo sounder and transducer, but the survey system
as a whole. A mo on sensor may be used, specifically
the heave component (in single beam echosounding)
to reduce soundings for the mo on of the vessel
experienced on the water's surface.