PROJECT WORK

GLOBAL SCHOOL OF
SCIENCE
Mid-Baneshwor, Kathmandu, Nepal

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER
SCIENCE

Submitted by:

Shusam Koirala
Grade: XI
Section: J1
Roll no.: 34

Submitted to:

Mr. Dhirendra Kumar Yadav

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is my good fortune to get a very cooperative teacher, Mr. Dhirendra Kumar Yadav,

during my study of computer science here at GSS. His support, helpfulness, and

constant encouragement have proven to be very helpful in expanding my knowledge of

computer science and motivating me to research for this report. He provided invaluable

guidance during the course of my studies. I have not only learned about the subject of

computer science but also obtained important suggestions regarding how I can apply

this knowledge in daily life. I am very much grateful to him.

Additionally, I would like to thank all the faculty members who have motivated me up

until this point and helped me achieve academic success so far. I also would like to

express my heartfelt gratitude towards the school administration who have provided me

with all the equipment, facilities, and ideal environment for my studies.

I want to give special thanks to the respected principal, Dr. Amba Datta Joshi, and the

Program Director, Mr. Gokul Dev Badu of GSS, for their support and contribution to

my studies. I am also deeply thankful to the Department of Computer Science for

providing me with this immense opportunity to prepare this report and exhibit what I

have learned so far.

Finally, I wish to send my thanks to my greatest mentors, my parents, for they have

helped me to become who I am today, and have been the greatest contributors to all of

my achievements. Thank you!

Shusam koirala

Grade XI

Section: J1

Roll no.: 34
 CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

This project work entitled, “PROJECT WORK OF COMPUTER” by Shusam koirala ,

section “J”, under the supervision of (Dhirendra Kumar Yadav), is here submitted for the
fulfillment of project work of computer of grade 11 has been accepted.

Supervisor
Dhirendra Kumar Yadav,
Date:
Department of chemistry
Global School of Science
Mid-Baneshwor, Kathmandu
 iii
Table of Contents

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY............................................................................................. 1

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER ...................................................................................
2 APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER .....................................................................................
6 HISTORY AND GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER.........................................................
9 First generation computers............................................................................................................10
Second generation computers ........................................................................................................10
Third generation computers...........................................................................................................11
Fourth generation computers.........................................................................................................11
Fifth generation computers............................................................................................................12
INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENT TYPES OF LOGIC GATES ................................
13 ❖ AND
Gate:................................................................................................................................13 ❖ OR
Gate: ..................................................................................................................................14 ❖
NOT Gate.................................................................................................................................14 ❖
NAND Gate..............................................................................................................................15 ❖
 NOR Gate.................................................................................................................................16 ❖
Exclusive-OR (XOR) gate.......................................................................................................16 ❖
Exclusive-NOR (XNOR) Gate................................................................................................17
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND LAWS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA................................. 18
❖ Compliment law ......................................................................................................................19
❖ Associative law.........................................................................................................................19
❖ Distributive law .......................................................................................................................20
❖ De-Morgan’s law .....................................................................................................................21
❖ Commutative law ....................................................................................................................22

SUMMARY........................................................................................................................... 23
REFERENCES......................................................................................................................
25

iv
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

Through this study, I wish to fulfill the following objectives:

I. To introduce computers thoroughly and mention their characters and fields of

usage of computers.

II. To clarify the history of computers and explain the various generations of

computers, along with their characters and features.

III. To introduce logic gates and mention all the types of logic gates, mentioning

their functions and characteristics.

IV. To explain the different laws of Boolean algebra.

 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

Computers are powerful, versatile devices that have been widely regarded as one of the

greatest inventions in human history. This device has allowed human civilization to

achieve exceptional feats and lead humans towards a smooth development.

Definition

data processing device that is capable of taking input, processing it, and producing

information as output at a high speed.

The word computer is derived from a Latin word,

“computare” which A computer can be defined as a

programmable, electronic means to calculate. In the

early years of invention and experimentation,

computers were large in size and difficult to

program. Over time, the technology being used in

Computers improved gradually. The size of

computers decreased dramatically, and the processing capacity and speed increased.

Their capability is nowadays an essential component for the functioning of businesses,

banks, educational institutions, etc. The development of computers has greatly helped

humans to perform many difficult tasks in a much easier manner.

A computer accepts data from the user through input devices, processes the data

according to the programs stored in the computer, and finally provides useful and

processed data to the user through output devices.

 Versatility Automatic

1. Electronic: A computer is an electronic machine developed to perform calculations

and produce results. It runs with the help of many electronic components and thus runs

only when electricity is supplied.

2. Speed: A computer can perform the given function and extract output at a very

fast speed. Very complex calculations can be done by computers in nanoseconds.

The speed of a computer is measured in terms of fractions of seconds.

Some of the fractions of seconds are:

Units of time Parts of second

Millisecond (ms) One thousandth (1/1000)

Microsecond (μs) One millionth (1/1,000,000)

Nanosecond (ns) One billionth (1/1,000,000,000)

Picosecond (ps) One trillionth (1/1,000,000,000,000)

3
3. Accuracy: A computer is an accurate machine. It can perform millions of

calculations very fast without making any errors at all. If we give wrong data,

the computer also gives the wrong output, which is called GIGO (Garbage In

Garbage Out).
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4. Versatility: A computer is a versatile machine, i.e., it can perform many different

tasks depending on the program being used. Browsing the internet, playing

games, watching videos, etc. are some of the different tasks that a computer can

perform.

5. Diligence: The capacity of a computer to perform repetitive tasks without being

tired or bored is called the diligence of a computer. It can function for several

hours or days and still have the same accuracy and speed during calculations. It

can perform millions of calculations with equal accuracy and speed.

6. Storage: The computer has a feature of mass storage for storing data, information,

and programs for a long period of time. Different forms of data such as music,

videos, photos, etc. can be stored inside a computer for a long period of time.

This storage is available in the form of magnetic memory, optical memory,

semiconductor memory,

etc. The units used to measure storage capacity are mentioned

below:

• 1 KB - 1024 bytes (B)

• 1 MB -1024 KB

• 1 GB - 1024 MB

• 1 TB - 1024 GB

7. Automatic: A computer is an automatic machine that performs tasks

automatically based on the stored program and data. The user is required to give

data and instructions, but the computer can perform processing automatically.
8. Non-intelligent: A computer is non-intelligent as it cannot make its own decisions.

It relies completely on the user to perform any task. It does not have any

feelings, emotions, knowledge, or experience. Thus, it does not have the capacity

to think and lacks common sense.

9. Processing: A computer can process large volumes of data at great speeds. Many

different components work together to complete a given task. Input/output

operation, transfer of data, comparison, etc. are some of the processes that take

place simultaneously to give output to the user.

 APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER

A computer can be used in many different fields for many different purposes. In the

modern world, computers have been used in many different fields such as industry,

education, business, etc. The usage of computers has been very useful and proven to be

very efficient. Some of the areas in which computers have been utilized are mentioned

below.

❖ Computer in education ❖ Computer in business ❖ Computer in

health ❖ Computer in banking ❖ Computer in industry ❖

Computer in military ❖ Computer in engineering ❖ Computer in

entertainment ❖ Computer in robotics ❖ Computer in government

1. Computer in education

Computers are devices that can be utilized for education in many different ways.

Nowadays, many different schools and universities utilize computers to provide

online notes to students, submit academic assignments, take online classes, etc.

Similarly, many different platforms such as Google, YouTube, etc. have also

provided students with excellent education opportunities online.

2. Computers in business

Computers have many different characteristics that can be utilized by a business

organization. Computers are used mainly to store data about transactions,

prepare receipts, manage credit, etc. in many small and large businesses.

E-Commerce is a computer platform related to business that is very popular

nowadays.
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3. Computer in health

Computers can be used in health and medical fields for the diagnosis of diseases

and conditions, getting information about certain diseases, keeping records of

patients, booking, etc. Computers have also allowed for easy and fast

communication between doctors and patients that can further help safeguard

the health of patients. Different devices that utilize computers are also used in

hospitals and other medical facilities.

4. Computer in banking

Banks can utilize computers for general-purpose calculations, to handle

transactions, to maintain ledgers, to issue fixed deposit receipts, to provide online

services to customers, etc. An ATM is a very popular machine that utilizes

computers to help account holders easily withdraw money on demand. Similarly,

other computer-based devices are also utilized in banks for many purposes.

5. Computer in industry

In industries, computers are extensively used for the automatic control of

machines and equipment, measurement, displaying physical quantities, etc.

Computers can efficiently control things like temperature, current, power, etc.

inside an industry. Similarly, they can alarm the workers in the case of any

miscalculations or hazardous situations.

6. Computer in military

Computers are widely used for defense purposes. Many advanced computer
 systems have been built around the world to deflect missiles, detect enemy

aircraft, etc. Many different weapons and equipment used in the military

including aircraft, warships, missiles, and rockets also fully utilize computer

systems for proper functioning.

7
7. Computers in Engineering

Scientific and engineering designs and research require complex calculations and

computations. The designs of bridges, buildings, dams, towers, etc. have been

greatly assisted by computer graphic design and computer simulations. In

today’s world, most engineers utilize computers for many such purposes since

such complex calculations cannot be done by hand or calculators.

8. Computers in Entertainment

The entertainment industry has been using computers for many things.

Consumers generally use computers to gain access to entertainment facilities

such as movies and TV shows. The production of such programs and shows is

also only possible through the use of computers for graphic designing and

animation. Games are also a popular source of entertainment that is primarily

accessed through computers.

9. Computers in robotics

Robotics is a developing field of science that makes extensive use of computers to

program and control machines. Robots are computer-controlled machines that

are made with specific work capabilities. Such robots can be used in many other
 fields such as hospitals and businesses for other tasks as well.

10. Computer in government

Computers are used in most governmental works nowadays. They are primarily

used to store and record data about people and access such data quickly when

required. Many government agencies are encouraged to use e-governing which

further simplifies the various governmental procedures. Budget, census, tax

collection, electronic voting systems, etc. are some government fields that are

supported by computers

8
HISTORY AND GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER

Nowadays, computers can be found in the form of desktop computers, laptops,

smartphones, etc. The modern computers are a result of many decades of gradual

development of computer technologies.

In 1962, scientists decided to classify computers into different classes according to the

device technology, system architecture, processing mode, and languages used.

Computers are classified into five groups called the generations of computers. The

various generations of computers along with their duration and main device are

mentioned in the table below.

Generation Duration Memory device First generation 1942 to 1955 Vacuum

tubes Second generation 1956 to 1965 Transistor Third generation 1966 to

1975 Integrated circuit (IC) Fourth generation 1976 to 1990 Microprocessors

Fifth generation 1991 onwards Biochip

 Every new generation of computers has better capability and higher speed than the

previous generation. There is also a successive decrease in size, power consumption,

and price along with an increase in storage capacity, versatility, and . The fourth

generation of computers are the computers used in the present by the general

population for a wide variety of tasks.

9
First generation computers

The first generation computers used vacuum tubes as the processor or main technology,

magnetic drum for data storage, and machine language as well as assembly language for

giving instructions. These computers were very large in size, and it was difficult to write

programs in this generation of computers.

➢ Some features of first-generation computers are mentioned below:

• The operating speed was in terms of milliseconds.

• It occupied large space, had slow processing, was inefficient, and had low

accuracy. • It generated a lot of heat and consumed a large amount of power.

• They were used only for scientific and research purposes.

Examples: ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC etc.

Second generation computers

The second generation of computers utilized transistors as the main technology. The

transistors developed by John Burdeen, Walter Brattain, and William Schockley were

much more efficient than vacuum tubes. They had a smaller size, lower power

consumption, and were much faster than first generation computers since one

transistor could replace 1000 vacuum tubes.

➢ Some features of second generation computers are mentioned

below: • The operating speed was in terms of microseconds.

• Assembly-level and high-level languages such as COBOL and FORTRAN could be

understood by second generation computers.

• They used magnetic core memory as primary memory and magnetic tape as

secondary memory.

• They consumed less electricity and could handle more complex

calculations. Examples: IBM 1620, IBM 1401, CDC 3600 etc.

Third generation computers

Third generation computers made use of IC (Integrated Circuits), also known as chips.

Integrated circuits were developed by John Kilby and Robert Noyce in 1958. A single IC

has many components placed on a single silicon chip that makes them faster despite

having a small size. Keyboards and mouse were introduced as input devices.

➢ Some of the features of third generation computers are mentioned below

 • The operating speed was in terms of nanoseconds.

• High-level languages could be used which made programming easier. •

Semiconductor memory was used as primary memory and Magnetic disks were used

as secondary memory.

• A multiprogramming facility was developed.

Examples: IBM 360, ICL 1900, IBM 370, VAX 750 etc.

Fourth generation computers

The fourth generation computers use microprocessors as the main technology. The

present day computers are fourth generation computers. These computers utilize VLSI

(Very Large Scale Integration). These computers could be used by the public for

general use or official use. Fourth generation computers are faster, more reliable,

cheaper, and more versatile than others.

11
➢ Some of the features of fourth generation computers are mentioned

below • The operating speed is measured in terms of picoseconds.

• This generation of computers can understand high level language such as

JavaScript, HTML, C++, etc. as well as 4GL.

• Semiconductor memory is used as primary memory, while optical and magnetic

discs (CD, floppy disk, pen drive, etc.) are used as secondary memory.

• Multiprocessing and multiprogramming languages are used.

• The size of computers is reduced to desktops, laptops, and

smartphones. Examples: IBM-PC, Pentium-I, Pentium-II etc.

Fifth generation computers

The fifth generation computers are the upcoming generation of computers. They will

use biochips and AI as the main technology. These computers use ULSI (Ultra Large

Scale Integration) and are much faster than any previous generation of computers.

They are expected to use Knowledge-based Information Processing System (KIPS) and

possess intelligence like humans. Japan and the USA are currently developing this type

of computer.

➢ Some of the features of fifth generation computers are mentioned below • They can

perform a large number of parallel processing and are thus very fast. •

Superconductor technology such as bio-chips and Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) are used

as memory devices.

• They can understand natural language and develop programs based

on it. • PROLOG (Programming Logics) is used as an operating

system.

INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENT TYPES OF LOGIC GATES

Logic gates are electric circuits that operate on one or more input signals to produce an

output signal. Logic gates are the basic component of a digital computer, as they

perform all basic binary operations. Logic gates are embodied in the Integrated

Circuits (IC), and there are many different types of gates with their own specific

function and graphical symbol. The input signal of logic gates accepts the binary signal,

and provides a single output signal within the specified range of values which is also a

binary signal.
The different types of Logic Gates are mentioned below:

BASIC GATE:

● AND gate
● OR gate
● Not gate

UNIVERSAL GATE

● NAND gate
● NOR gate

OTHER GATES

● Exclusive OR gate (XOR gate)

● Exclusive NOR gate (XNOR gate)

❖ AND Gate: AND gate is a gate which produces one output signal with one or more

input signals. If both the input signals are 1, then the output is also 1, otherwise it is 0.

Operation symbol: x or (.) Boolean function: F = A . B

Logic diagram:

BF = A . B

Truth table of AND gate:

 Input 1 Input 2 output

A B F=A.B

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

❖ OR Gate: OR gate is a gate which produces one output signal with one or more input

signals. If any one of the input signals is 1, then the output is also 1, otherwise it is 0.

Operation symbol: + Boolean function: F = A + B

Logic diagram:
A

BF = A + B

Truth table of OR gate:

Input 1 Input 2 output

A B F=A+B

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

❖ NOT Gate: NOT gate is a gate which produces one output signal with one input

signal. If the input signal is 1, then the output is 0, otherwise it is 1.

 Operation symbol: ( ‘ ) Boolean function: F = A’

Logic diagram:

A F = A’

Truth table of AND gate:

Input output

A F = A’

0 1

1 0

❖ NAND Gate: NAND gate is a gate which produces one output signal with one or

more input signals. This gate is a combination of AND gate and NOT gate. If both the

input signals are 1, then the output is also 0, otherwise it is 1.

Operation symbol: (.)‘ Boolean function: F = (A . B)‘

Logic diagram: A

F = (A . B)‘
B

Truth table of NAND gate:

 Input 1

1
15
❖ NOR Gate: NOR gate is a gate which produces one output signal with one or more

input signals. This gate is a combination of OR gate and NOT gate. If both the input

signals are 0, then the output is 1, otherwise it is 0.

Operation symbol: ( + )‘ Boolean function: F = (A + B)‘

Logic diagram:
A

BF = (A + B)‘

Truth table of NOR gate:

Input 1 Input 2 output

A B F = (A + B)‘

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 0

❖ Exclusive-OR (XOR) gate: XOR gate is a gate which produces one output signal

with one or more input signals. If both the input signals are different, then the output
 is 1, otherwise it is 0.

Operation symbol: Boolean function: F = A B

Logic diagram:

BF = (A B) = A‘.B +
A.B‘

16
Truth table of XOR gate:
Input 1 Input 2 output

A B F = (A B)

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

❖ Exclusive-NOR (XNOR) Gate: XNOR gate is a gate which produces one output

signal with one or more input signals. If both the input signals are the same, then the

output is 1, otherwise it is 0.

Operation symbol: Boolean function: F = (A B)

Truth table of XNOR gate:

Logic diagram:
 BF = (A B) = A‘.B‘ +
A A.B

Input 1 Input 2 output

A B F = (A B)

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

17
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND LAWS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Boolean algebra is the algebra of logic, which deals with the study of binary variables and

logical operations. This is a two-valued system of algebra that represents logical relationships

and operations. The values are 1 and 0.

A set of rules or Laws of Boolean Algebra expressions have been invented to help reduce the

number of logic gates needed to perform a particular logic operation resulting in a list of

functions or theorems known commonly as the Laws of Boolean Algebra.

There are many laws of Boolean Algebra, they are mentioned below:
Name of the law Mathematical expression

Identity law A+0 = A A.1= A

Boundedness law A+1 = 1 A.0 = 0

Idempotent law A+A = A A.A = A

 Complement law A+A’ = 1 A.A’ = 0

Double Negation law (A’)’ = A

(Involution law)

Commutative law A+B = B+A A.B = B.A

Associative law (A+B)+C = A+(B+C) (A.B).C = A.(B.C)

Distributive law A+(B.C) = (A+B).(A+C) A.(B+C) = A.B+A.C

De Morgan’s law (A+B)’ = A’.B’ (A.B)’ = A’+B’

Absorption law A+(A.B) = A A.(A+B) = A

Some of the laws have been verified below:

18
❖ Compliment law: It states that, “When an OR operation is performed between a

variable and its complement, the result is 1. Similarly, when an AND operation is

performed between a variable and its complement, the result is 0.”

Mathematically, A + A’ = 1 and A . A’= 0

Proof:
Thus, the complement law is verified.
A + A’ = 1 A . A’= 0
A A’ RESULT 0 1 1 A A’ RESULT 0 1 0
101 100

❖ Associative law: It states that, “Associative law using the OR function states that

ORing more than two Boolean variables will return the same output, irrespective of

the order of the variables in the equation and their grouping. No matter which order

the variables are swapped in, ORing them will always give the same result.”
 And,

“Associative law using the AND function states that ANDing more than two Boolean

variables will return the same output, irrespective of the order of the variables in the

equation and their grouping. No matter which order the variables are swapped in,

ANDing them will always give the same result.”

Mathematically, (A+B)+C = A+(B+C) and, (A.B).C = A.(B.C)

19
Proof of associative law: (A+B)+C = A+(B+C)
Input (B+C) Output 1 (A+B) Output 2

ABC A+(B+C) (A+B)+C

0 0
000 0 0
1 0
001 1 1
1 1
010 1 1
1 1
011 1 1
0 1
100 1 1
1 1
101 1 1
1 1
110 1 1
1 1
111 1 1

Here, output 1 and output 2 are equal. This verifies the associative law. The second
 statement can be proven in a similar manner.

❖ Distributive law: This law states that, “The product of two variables, when added

to a third variable, produces the same result as when we add each variable with the

third variable separately and multiply their sums.”

And,

“The sum of two variables, when multiplied to a third variable, produces the same

result as when we multiply each variable with the third variable separately and add

their products.”

Mathematically, A + ( B . C ) = ( A + B ) . ( A + C ) and, A.(B+C) = (A.B) + (A.C)

20
Proof of distributive law:
Input (B.C) Output 1 (A+B) (A+C) Output 2

ABC A+(B.C) (A+B).(A+

0 0 0
000 0 C) 0
0 0 1
001 0 0
0 1 0
010 0 0
1 1 1
011 1 1
0 1 1
100 1 1
0 1 1
101 1 1
0 1 1
110 1 1
1 1 1
111 1 1
 Since output 1 and output 2 are the same, Distributive law is verified. The second

statement can also be proven in a similar way.

❖ De-Morgan’s law: It states that, “The complement of the union of two sets is the

same as the intersection of their complements.”

And,

“The complement of the intersection of two sets is the same as the union of their

complements.”

Mathematically, (A + B)’ = A’ . B’, and (A . B)’ = A’ + B’

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Proof of De-Morgan’s law: (A . B)’ = A’ + B’
(A + B)’ = A’ . B’
A B A.B (A. B)’ A’ B’ A’ +
A B A+B (A + A’ B’ A’. B’ 0 0 0 1 1 1 B’ 1
0 0 0 B)’ 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0

Thus, De-Morgan’s law is verified in this manner.

❖ Commutative law: This law states that, “ORing more than two Boolean variables

will return the same output, irrespective of the order of the variables in the equation

and their grouping.”

And,
 “ANDing more than two Boolean variables will return the same output, irrespective of

the order of the variables in the equation and their grouping.”

Mathematically, A + B = B + A, and A . B = B . A

Proof for commutative law:

A.B=B.A
A+B=B+A
A B A.B B.A
A B A+B B+A 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1

Thus, the commutative law is verified in this manner.

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SUMMARY

The computer is an electronic, automatic device that makes use of a large variety of

programs and physical components to process data obtained as input and produce an

output. The computer is a device that has many different characteristics that enable it to

perform calculations, namely speed, accuracy, diligence, versatility, storage, processing,

automatic, etc. Similarly, a computer is applicable in many different fields due to its power

of processing and its multi-tasking ability. Some of the fields in which computers are fully

utilized are; business, education, health, industry, communication, entertainment,

governance, defense, engineering, etc. Thus, due to such different uses, computers are very
important for the functioning of the modern world.

Computers have a long history of development. The different stages of development of

computers are divided as “Generations of computer”. There are a total of five generations;

first generation (1942-1955), second generation (1956-1965), third generation (1966-

1975), fourth generation (1976-1991), and fifth generation (1991 onwards). All these

generations have their own different main technologies, and each successive generation has

greater speed, accuracy, and power than the previous generation, while also having smaller

size, price and lower cost.

Logic gates are the electric circuits that carry out the binary operations within the computer.

They are significant components for the proper functioning of the computer. Logic gates

accept one or more input signals and process them to produce an output signal. Some of

the various logic gates are; AND gate, OR gate, NOT gate, NAND gate,

23
NOR gate, XOR gate, XNOR gate. All of these different logic gates have their own

function.

Boolean algebra is the algebra of logic, which deals with the study of binary variables

and logical operations. A set of rules or Laws of Boolean Algebra expressions have been

invented to help reduce the number of logic gates needed to perform a particular logic

operation resulting in a list of functions or theorems known commonly as the Laws of

Boolean Algebra. The laws of Boolean algebra are:

1. Identity law
 2. Boundedness law

3. Idempotent law

4. Complement law

5. Double Negation law

6. Commutative law

7. Associative law

8. Distributive law

9. De Morgan’s law

10. Absorption law

24
REFERENCES

The contents of this report are prepared with reference to the sources mentioned below:

• A textbook of COMPUTER SCIENCE, Heritage publishers and distributors. •

Essentials of computer science, Asmita publications.
• www.byjus.com
• www.studysmarter.co.uk
• www.javatpoint.com
• ecomputernotes.com
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