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ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY
AND SUSTAINABILITY
Physical, Chemical and Biological Technologies
for Environmental Protection
ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY
AND SUSTAINABILITY
Physical, Chemical and Biological Technologies
for Environmental Protection

Edited by
Tamara Tatrishvili, PhD
Ann Rose Abraham, PhD
A. K. Haghi, PhD
First edition published 2024
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Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Title: Environmental technology and sustainability : physical, chemical and biological technologies for environmental
protection / edited by Tamara Tatrishvili, PhD, Ann Rose Abraham, PhD, A. K. Haghi, PhD.
Names: Tatrishvili, Tamara, editor. | Abraham, Ann Rose, editor. | Haghi, A. K., editor.
Description: First edition. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: C anadiana ( print) 2 0230568165 | C anadiana ( ebook) 2 0230568181 | I SBN 9 781774914342 ( hardcover) |
ISBN 9781774914359 (softcover) | ISBN 9781003397960 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Green technology. | LCSH: Environmental protection.
Classification: LCC TD145 .E65 2024 | DDC 628—dc23

ISBN: 978-1-77491-434-2 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-77491-435-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-00339-796-0 (ebk)
About the Editors

Tamara Tatrishvili, PhD

Assistant Professor; Main Specialist, Office of the Academic Process
Management, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University (TSU);
Director of the Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry and Polymeric
Materials at TSU, Tbilisi, Georgia

Tamara Tatrishvili, PhD, Assistant Professor, is the main specialist in the

Office of Academic Process Management (Faculty of Exact and Natural
Sciences) at Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, as well as Director
of the Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry and Polymeric Materials at
TSU, Tbilisi, Georgia. Dr. Tatrishvili is a DAAD alumnus, and a member
of Georgian Chemical Society. Her research interests included polymer
chemistry, polymeric materials, and chemistry of silicon-organic compounds.
She is the Executive Editor of the Journal of the Georgian Chemical Society.
Dr. Tatrishvili is the author of more than 190 scientific publications, 12
books, and monographs.

Ann Rose Abraham, PhD

Assistant Professor, Sacred Heart College (Autonomous), Thevara, Kochi,
Kerala, India

Ann Rose Abraham, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor at the

Department of Physics, Sacred Heart College (Autonomous), Thevara,
Kochi, Kerala, India. She has expertise in the field of condensed matter
physics, nanomagnetism, multiferroics, and polymeric nanocomposites, etc.
She has research experience at various reputed national institutes, including
Bose Institute, Kolkata, India; SAHA Institute of Nuclear Physics, Kolkata,
India; UGC-DAE CSR Centre, Kolkata, India; and she has collaborated with
various international laboratories. She is a recipient of a Young Researcher
Award in physics and Best Paper Awards 2020–2021. She served as assistant
professor and examiner at the Department of Basic Sciences, Amal Jyothi
College of Engineering, under APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University,
Kerala, India. Dr. Abraham is a frequent speaker at national and international
conferences. She has a good number of publications to her credit in many
vi About the Editors

peer-reviewed high impact journals of international repute. She has authored

many book chapters and edited more than 10 books with Taylor and Francis,
Elsevier, etc. Dr. Abraham received her MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees in
Physics from the School of Pure and Applied Physics, Mahatma Gandhi
University, Kerala, India. Her PhD thesis was on the title “Development of
Hybrid Mutliferroic Materials for Tailored Applications.”

A. K. Haghi, PhD
Professor Emeritus of Engineering Sciences, Former Editor-in-Chief,
International Journal of Chemoinformatics and Chemical Engineering;
Member, Canadian Research and Development Center of Sciences and
Culture

A. K. Haghi, PhD, has published over 250 academic research-oriented

books as well as over 1000 research papers published in various journals
and conference proceedings. He has received several grants, consulted
for several major corporations, and is a frequent speaker to national and
international audiences. He is founder and former Editor-in-Chief of the
International Journal of Chemoinformatics and Chemical Engineering,
published by IGI Global (USA), as well as Polymers Research Journal,
published by Nova Science Publishers (USA). Professor Haghi has acted as
an editorial board member of many international journals. He has served as a
member of the Canadian Research and Development Center of Sciences and
Cultures (CRDCSC) and the Research Chemistry Centre, Coimbra, Portugal.
Dr. Haghi holds a BSc in urban and environmental engineering from the
University of North Carolina (USA), an MSc in mechanical engineering
from North Carolina A&T State University (USA) and an MSc in applied
mechanics, acoustics, and materials from the Université de Technologie de
Compiègne (France), and a PhD in engineering sciences from the Université
de Franche-Comté (France).
Contents

Contributors.............................................................................................................xi
Abbreviations ........................................................................................................ xvii
Preface ................................................................................................................... xxi

PART I: Materials and Modern Processes for Environmental Remediation ....1

1. A Study on the Thermal Behavior of Polymer Composites
Based on Polystyrene for Environmental Protection...................................3
Olga V. Alekseeva, Andrew V. Noskov, and Sabir S. Guseynov

2. Spiropyran-Doped Liquid Crystal Film for the Monitoring of

Human Ecology upon Exposure to UV Radiation:
An Environmentally Friendly Approach ....................................................37
G. Petriahsvili, L. Devadze, Ts. Zurabishvili, N. Sepashvili, K. Chubinidze,
T. Tatrishvili, T. Bukia, E. Kalandia, M. Areshidze, L. Sharashidze, Sh. Akhobadze,
A. Petriashvili, M. Chubinidze, V. Kinkladze, and N. Imnaishvili

3. High-Performance Polymer Composites Based on the Residual

Polyethylene and Modified Minerals for Ecological Protection of
the Environment............................................................................................51
Lana Shamanauri and Natia Shengelia

4. Removal of Some Frequently Used Antibiotics from Wastewaters

Using the Natural Zeolite Adsorption Method Combined with
Analytical HPLC Procedures: Pollutant Removal from Wastewater ......61
Imeda Rubashvili, Luba Eprikashvili, Marine Zautashvili, Teimuraz Kordzakhia,
Nino Pirtskhalava, and Maia Dzagania

5. Investigation of the Impact of Epoxy Compounds Based on

Environmentally Friendly and Renewable Raw Materials in
Bitumen Modification Processes ..................................................................97
Volodymyr Gunka, Yurii Hrynchuk, Yuriy Prysiazhnyi, Yuriy Demchuk,
Iurii Sidun, Volodymyr Reutskyy, and Michael Bratychak

6. Assessment of the Durability of Geopolymer Materials Based on

Thermally Modified Polymineral Clay Rocks..........................................127
Elena Shapakidze, Marina Avaliani, Marine Nadirashvili, Vera Maisuradze,
Ioseb Gejadze, Tamar Petriashvili, and Evgeni Khuchua
viii Contents

7. Synthesis Process Research of Urea–Formaldehyde Linear

Oligomers when Carrying Out Polycondensation in a
Solution to Obtain Biodegradable Nitrogen Fertilizers...........................139
G. Papava, M. Gurgenishvili, I. Chitrekashvili, N. Dokhturishvili,
E. Gavashelidze, N. Gelashvili, and K. Archvadze

8. Calculation of the Stability Constant of Copper Fulvate,

Using an Average Molecular Weight of Active Associate of
Fulvic Acids at pH = 8 with Particular Application for
Evaluation of the Ecological Condition of Water Reservoirs .................145
Tamar Makharadze, Nazi Goliadze, Teona Makharadze, and Sesili Rogava

9. Newfangled Dimension of Scientists’ Responsibility: Solutions in

the Context of Sustainable Development and Evolution of
Chemical Processes for Clean Environmental Management ..................157
Marina Avaliani, Elena Shapakidze, and Vaja Chagelishvili

10. Synthesis and Quantum-Chemical Investigation of

Some New Types of 1,2-Trans-Glycosides.................................................181
Neli Sidamonidze, Ramaz Gakhokidze, Rusudan Vardiashvili, and Levan Samarguliani

11. Preparation and Properties of Paper Containing Bactericidal

Zeolite Adsorbents ......................................................................................191
Vladimer Tsitsishvili, Nanuli Dolaberidze, Nato Mirdzveli, Manana Nijaradze,
Zurab Amiridze, and Bela Khutsishvili

12. Investigation of Complex Formation Process of Lead (II) with

Fulvic Acids at pH = 7: An Ecosystem Approach.....................................217
Tamar Makharadze

PART II: Case Studies and Analysis .................................................................229

13. Conditioned Feasibility of the Application of Georgian Natural
Zeolite–Laumontite for Sustainable Development of Agriculture .........231
Osipova N., Kvernadze T., and Burkiashvili N.

14. Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Pumice from

Some Regions of Georgia and the Prospects for its Use in
Lightweight Concrete with Environmental Advantages .........................247
Giorgi Tsintskaladze, Teimuraz Kordzakhia, Rajden Skhvitaridze,
Tinatin Sharashenidze, Marine Zautashvili, and Giorgi Beridze
Contents ix

PART III: Advanced Functional Materials ......................................................257

15. Smart Nanomaterials for Sustainable Green Energy Applications:
Environmental Technology and Sustainability ........................................259
Koduvarathodi Vadakkethil Arundhathi, Neenamol John, Thomas Abraham,
K. G. Ambady, and Beena Mathew

16. Green Technologies and Sustainable Energy Materials ..........................283

Aiswarya T. Soman, Muhammed Shah S., Arya Uthaman,
Hiran Mayookh Lal, and Sabu Thomas

17. Removal of Heavy Metal Ions and Magnetic Materials from Water .....321
Aruna Joseph, Mariyam Thomas, and Anju K. Nair

Index .....................................................................................................................339
Contributors

Sh. Akhobadze
Institute of Cybernetics of Georgian Technical University, Tbilisi, Georgia
Department of Polymer Materials, Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Olga V. Alekseeva
G. A. Krestov Institute of Solution Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Ivanovo, Russia

K. G. Ambady
Department of Special Education, National Institute for the Empowerment of Persons with Intellectual
Disabilities, Telengana, India

Thomas Abraham
Catholicate College, Pathanamthitta, Kerala, India

Zurab Amiridze
Petre Melikishvili Institute of Physical & Organic Chemistry, Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

K. Archvadze
Petre Melikishvili Institute of Physical and Organic Chemistry of Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State
University, Tbilisi, Georgia

M. Areshidze
Institute of Cybernetics of Georgian Technical University, Tbilisi, Georgia
Department of Polymer Materials, Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia
Koduvarathodi Vadakkethil Arundhathi
School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India

Marina Avaliani
R. Agladze Institute of Inorganic Chemistry and Electrochemistry, I. Javakhishvili Tbilisi State
University, Georgia

Giorgi Beridze
Al. Janelidze Geological Institute, Department of Petrology, Mineralogy and Lithology,
IvaneJavakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Michael Bratychak
Institute of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Lviv Polytechnic National University, Ukraine

T. Bukia
Institute of Cybernetics of Georgian Technical University, Tbilisi, Georgia
Department of Polymer Materials, Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Vaja Chagelishvili
R. Agladze Institute of Inorganic Chemistry and Electrochemistry, I. Javakhishvili Tbilisi State
University, Georgia

I. Chitrekashvili
Petre Melikishvili Institute of Physical and Organic Chemistry of Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State
University, Tbilisi, Georgia
xii Contributors

K. Chubinidze
Institute of Cybernetics of Georgian Technical University, Tbilisi, Georgia
Department of Polymer Materials, Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

M. Chubinidze
Institute of Cybernetics of Georgian Technical University, Tbilisi, Georgia
Department of Polymer Materials, Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Yuriy Demchuk
Institute of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Lviv Polytechnic National University, Ukraine

L. Devadze
Institute of Cybernetics of Georgian Technical University, Tbilisi, Georgia
Department of Polymer Materials, Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia
N. Dokhturishvili
Petre Melikishvili Institute of Physical and Organic Chemistry of Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State
University, Tbilisi, Georgia
Nanuli Dolaberidze
Petre Melikishvili Institute of Physical & Organic Chemistry, Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Maia Dzagania
Petre Melikishvili Institute of Physical and Organic Chemistry, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State
Univeristy, Tbilisi, Georgia
Luba Eprikashvili
Petre Melikishvili Institute of Physical and Organic Chemistry, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State
Univeristy, Tbilisi, Georgia
Ramaz Gakhokidze
Department of Chemistry, Iv. Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

E. Gavashelidze
Petre Melikishvili Institute of Physical and Organic Chemistry of Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State
University, Tbilisi, Georgia
Ioseb Gejadze
Iv. Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Al. Tvalchrelidze Caucasian Institute of Mineral Resources;
Tbilisi, Georgia

N. Gelashvili
Petre Melikishvili Institute of Physical and Organic Chemistry of Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State
University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Nazi Goliadze
Petre Melikishvili Institute of Physical and Organic Chemistry of Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State
University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Volodymyr Gunka
Institute of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Lviv Polytechnic National University, Ukraine

M. Gurgenishvili
Petre Melikishvili Institute of Physical and Organic Chemistry of Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State
University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Sabir S. Guseynov
G. A. Krestov Institute of Solution Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Ivanovo, Russia
Contributors xiii

Yurii Hrynchuk
Institute of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Lviv Polytechnic National University, Ukraine

N. Imnaishvili
Institute of Cybernetics of Georgian Technical University, Tbilisi, Georgia
Department of Polymer Materials, Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia
Neenamol John
School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India

Aruna Joseph
Department of Physics and Centre for Research, St. Teresa’s College (Autonomous) Ernakulam,
Kerala, India

E. Kalandia
Institute of Cybernetics of Georgian Technical University, Tbilisi, Georgia
Department of Polymer Materials, Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Evgeni Khuchua
Iv. Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Al. Tvalchrelidze Caucasian Institute of Mineral Resources;
Tbilisi, Georgia

Bela Khutsishvili
Petre Melikishvili Institute of Physical & Organic Chemistry, Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

V. Kinkladze
Institute of Cybernetics of Georgian Technical University, Tbilisi, Georgia
Department of Polymer Materials, Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Teimuraz Kordzakhia
Petre Melikishvili Institute of Physical and Organic Chemistry, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State
Univeristy, Tbilisi, Georgia

Beena Mathew
School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India

Hiran Mayookh Lal

School of Energy Materials, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India

Vera Maisuradze
Iv. Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Al. Tvalchrelidze Caucasian Institute of Mineral Resources;
Tbilisi, Georgia

Tamar Makharadze
R. Agladze Institute of Inorganic Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State
University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Teona Makharadze
The State Laboratory of Agriculture, Tbilisi, Georgia

Nato Mirdzveli
Petre Melikishvili Institute of Physical & Organic Chemistry, Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Burkiashvili N.
P. Melikishvili Institute of Physical and Organic Chemistry, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State Univeristy,
Tbilisi, Georgia

Osipova N.
P. Melikishvili Institute of Physical and Organic Chemistry, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State Univeristy,
Tbilisi, Georgia
xiv Contributors

Marine Nadirashvili
Iv. Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Al. Tvalchrelidze Caucasian Institute of Mineral Resources;
Tbilisi, Georgia

Anju K. Nair
Department of Physics and Centre for Research, St. Teresa’s College (Autonomous) Ernakulam

Manana Nijaradze
Petre Melikishvili Institute of Physical & Organic Chemistry, Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Andrew V. Noskov
G. A. Krestov Institute of Solution Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Ivanovo, Russia

G. Papava
Petre Melikishvili Institute of Physical and Organic Chemistry of Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State
University, Tbilisi, Georgia
A. Petriashvili
Institute of Cybernetics of Georgian Technical University, Tbilisi, Georgia
Department of Polymer Materials, Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia
G. Petriahsvili
Institute of Cybernetics of Georgian Technical University, Tbilisi, Georgia
Department of Polymer Materials, Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Tamar Petriashvili
Iv. Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Al. Tvalchrelidze Caucasian Institute of Mineral Resources;
Tbilisi, Georgia

Nino Pirtskhalava
Petre Melikishvili Institute of Physical and Organic Chemistry, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State
Univeristy, Tbilisi, Georgia

Yuriy Prysiazhnyi
Institute of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Lviv Polytechnic National University, Ukraine

Volodymyr Reutskyy
Institute of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Lviv Polytechnic National University, Ukraine

Sesili Rogava
Petre Melikishvili Institute of Physical and Organic Chemistry of Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State
University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Imeda Rubashvili
Petre Melikishvili Institute of Physical and Organic Chemistry, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State
Univeristy, Tbilisi, Georgia

Muhammed Shah S.
School of Energy Materials, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India

Levan Samarguliani
Department of Chemistry, Iv. Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

N. Sepashvili
Institute of Cybernetics of Georgian Technical University, Tbilisi, Georgia
Department of Polymer Materials, Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Lana Shamanauri
R. Dvali Institute of Machine Mechanics, Tbilisi, Georgia
Contributors xv

Elena Shapakidze
Iv. Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Al. Tvalchrelidze Caucasian Institute of Mineral Resources;
Tbilisi, Georgia
A. Tvalchrelidze Caucasian Institute of Mineral Resources, Tbilisi, Georgia

L. Sharashidze
Institute of Cybernetics of Georgian Technical University, Tbilisi, Georgia
Department of Polymer Materials, Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Tinatin Sharashenidze
Petre Melikishvili Institute of Physical and Organic Chemistry, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State
University, Tbilisi, Georgia
Natia Shengelia
Sokhumi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Neli Sidamonidze
Department of Chemistry, Iv. Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Iurii Sidun
Institute of Building and Environmental Engineering, Lviv Polytechnic National University, Ukraine

Rajden Skhvitaridze
Scientific Center “Nano Dugabi,” Georgian Technical University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Aiswarya T. Soman
School of Energy Materials, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India

Kvernadze T.
P. Melikishvili Institute of Physical and Organic Chemistry, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State Univeristy,
Tbilisi, Georgia
T. Tatrishvili
Institute of Cybernetics of Georgian Technical University, Tbilisi, Georgia
Department of Polymer Materials, Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Mariyam Thomas
Department of Physics and Centre for Research, St. Teresa’s College (Autonomous) Ernakulam

Sabu Thomas
School of Energy Materials, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India

Giorgi Tsintskaladze
Petre Melikishvili Institute of Physical and Organic Chemistry, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State
University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Vladimer Tsitsishvili
Petre Melikishvili Institute of Physical & Organic Chemistry, Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Arya Uthaman
School of Energy Materials, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India

Rusudan Vardiashvili
Department of Chemistry, Iv. Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Marine Zautashvili
Petre Melikishvili Institute of Physical and Organic Chemistry, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State
Univeristy, Tbilisi, Georgia
xvi Contributors

Ts. Zurabishvili
Institute of Cybernetics of Georgian Technical University, Tbilisi, Georgia
Department of Polymer Materials, Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia
Abbreviations

AA adipic acid
AAC alkali-activated types of cement
BJH Barrett–Joyner–Halenda
BOD biological oxygen demand
CA cellulose acetate
CaCO3 calcium carbonate
CD cross direction
CFU colony-forming unit
CMC carboxymethylcellulose
CNT carbon nanotubes
COD chemical oxygen demand
CSTD Commission for Science and Technology for Development
CuO copper oxide
CZTS copper zinc tin sulfide
DAF dissolved air flotation
DEC diethyl carbonate
DEGDME diethyl ethylene glycol dimethyl ether
DFT density functional theory
DMF dimethylformamide
DoE design of experiments
DSC differential scanning calorimetry
DSSCs dye-sensitized solar cells
EA epoxy asphalt concrete
EC ethylene carbonate
EEA European Environmental Agency
ERO rapeseed oil epoxy
ERO-АА bitumen modifier—a mixture of epoxidized rapeseed oil with AA
ERO-FA bitumen modifier—a mixture of epoxidized rapeseed oil with FA
ERO-In bitumen modifier—a mixture of epoxidized rapeseed oil with
initiator (AA, MA or PEPA)
ERO-MА bitumen modifier—a mixture of epoxidized rapeseed oil with MA
ERO-PEPA bitumen modifier—a mixture of epoxidized rapeseed oil with PEPA
FA formic acid
FA fulvic acids
FTIR Fourier transform infrared
GPM geopolymer materials
HESs hydrophobic eutectic solvents
xviii Abbreviations

HMA hot-mix asphalt concrete

HPC hierarchical porous carbon
IR infrared
LIB lithium-ion battery
LiOH lithium hydroxide
LiPF6 lithium hexafluorophosphate
LiTf lithium triflate
LiTFSI lithium bis-trifluoromethanesulfonimide
LOB lithium-oxygen battery
LOD limits of detection
LOQ limits of quantitation
LSD least significant difference
LTO lithium titanium oxide
MA maleic anhydride
MCL maximum contaminated level
MD machine direction
MM molecular mechanics
MP mobile phase
Mw molecular weight
NCAP nanostructured coated absorber plates
NiMH nickel-metal-hydride
NF nano-filtration
NMP n-methyl-2-pyrrolidone
NMs nanomaterials
OB1 oxidized bitumen
OER oxygen evolution reaction
OPC ordinary Portland cement
OPVs organic photovoltaics
ORR oxygen reduction reaction
PC propylene carbonate
PEG polyethylene glycol
PEO polyethylene oxide
PEPA polyethylene polyamine
PP peak purity
PS polystyrene
PVA polyvinyl alcohol
PVDF polyvinylidene fluoride
PVP polyvinyl pyrrolidone
QDs quantum dots
RO reverse osmosis
RO rapeseed oil
ROS reactive oxygen species
RSD relative standard deviation
Abbreviations xix

RT relaxation transition
SEM Society of Mechanical Engineering
SIB sodium-ion battery
SLMP stabilized lithium metal powered
SP spiropyran
SPLCP spiropyran-doped liquid crystal polymer
SST system suitability test
TEGDME tetra ethylene glycol dimethyl ether
TENG triboelectric nanogenerators
TEOS tetraethoxysilane
TG thermogravimetry
TGA thermos-gravimetric analysis
TS tensile strength
TSS total suspended solids
USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
UV ultraviolet
XRD X-ray diffraction
XRED X-ray energy-dispersive
Preface

Our society today is facing grave challenges regarding improvement in

the quality of soil, water, air, and the environment to maintain ecological
balance. The abnormal growth in industrialization for the generation of new
products and advances in chemical processes plays an important role in the
deterioration of the ecological balance and the rise of new pollutants.
Sustainable development proposes utilization of natural resources in
a sustainable manner without causing changes in our natural world. As a
result, modern environmental technologies aim at reducing pollution and
have gained widespread interest in the recent years with a broad range of
science and engineering sectors.
This new title covers the most recent theoretical and practical advance­
ments in clean and healthy environment, and provides an improved under­
standing of the research and development of green technologies, which are
becoming increasingly important for ensuring sustainability. This research-
oriented book provides vital information on advanced materials and green
composites from the works of experts in the subject.
It also expounds environmental chemistry for a sustainable world by
providing information on different characterization methods as well as new
techniques. It provides case studies to make the book more interesting and
provide a general idea of the central themes. The volume also considers the
most recent developments and applications of clean energy materials.
The book is written for a broad readership, including postgraduate engi­
neering students, scientists, research scholars, and faculty members who are
engaged in the area of green technologies and development of sustainable
materials used in different sectors.
To summarize, this unique reference book comprehensively reports on
the most recent research ideas in green technologies and achievements in
various aspects of sustainable materials from a chemistry and engineering
point of view.
 PART I
Materials and Modern Processes for
Environmental Remediation
CHAPTER 1

A Study on the Thermal Behavior

of Polymer Composites Based on
Polystyrene for Environmental
Protection
OLGA V. ALEKSEEVA, ANDREW V. NOSKOV, and SABIR S. GUSEYNOV
G.A. Krestov Institute of Solution Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences,
Ivanovo, Russia

ABSTRACT

The development of the polymer composites with controllable properties is

one of priority areas in the modern chemistry and materials science. A prom­
ising method for modifying polymers is in fact associated with inorganic
particles along with polymer matrix. The produced composites can acquire
novel physical and chemical properties: thermal, electrical, strength, etc.
In the present chapter, we describe the study results of the thermal
behavior of polymer composites based on polystyrene (PS). Inorganic
particles such as fullerenes, silica, bentonite, and bentonite-magnetite were
chosen as fillers. As a matter of fact, a solvent casting of main elements from
targeted solutions was considered for the preparation of the PS/filler film
composites containing 0–7 wt.% of filler. Pure PS films and PS granules
were also researched.
By applying the DSC (differential scanning calorimetry), we can easily
inspect the polymeric materials (i.e., the phase transitions from the glassy
state to the elastic state). New data connected to the impact of filler (in low
weight fraction) on the glass transition temperature, Tg, of composites were
found.

Environmental Technology and Sustainability: Physical, Chemical, and Biological Technologies for
Environmental Protection. Tamara Tatrishvili, Ann Rose Abraham, & A. K. Haghi (Eds.)
© 2024 Apple Academic Press, Inc. Co-published with CRC Press (Taylor & Francis)
4 Environmental Technology and Sustainability

To be able to study the (TS) thermal stability of PS/filler composites at

high temperatures, we have applied the reliable Thermogravimetry (TG)
method. We have also investigated dependency of the typical thermal destruc­
tion temperatures on nature and concentration of the filler in the composite
studied. Applying the Van Krevelen method carried out the kinetic analysis of
the recorded thermo-gravimetric curves. The main parameters determining
the rate constant of the process (activation energy, pre-exponential factor)
were found, and their dependences on the composition of the composites
were analyzed.
These studies are of great importance for environmental protection, since
a substantial amount of dangerous elements can be discharged in the course
of thermal degradation of polymers.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

During the last decade there has been steadily increasing interest in the
creation of multifunctional hybrid polymer composites, containing the inor­
ganic micro- and nanoparticles. Modification of the polymer with inorganic
particles increases its rigidity, impact strength, thermal stability, changes
electrical and gas barrier properties, as well as can lead to the appearance
of absorption properties and of biological activity.1–3 Such composites may
have applications in many sectors and industries such as:
• Medicine;
• Food;
• Building;
• Electronics.
A lot of publications deal with various methods of composites production
and various types of fillers for polymers such as silica,4,5 fullerene and carbon
nanotubes,6–8 layered silicates,9–11 and metals.12
Among the most commonly used polymers, polystyrene (PS) can be
distinguished as matrices for the production of organic–inorganic compos­
ites. Polystyrene is a thermoplastic mass marketable polymer with low cost,
good film-forming properties, high electrical resistance, ease of machining,
and resistance to environmental influences.13–15 Polystyrene has attracted
extensive interest in polymer science due to its use in a range of applica­
tions including packaging, appliances, consumer electronics, construction,
medical, and various other uses.4,16
A Study on the Thermal Behavior of Polymer Composites 5

The expansion of the application fields of such polymers depends on the

requirements for their operational and technical characteristics, the possibili­
ties of processing by modern industrial methods. An important problem is
the study of ways of stabilizing polymers and inhibiting thermal destruction
processes.
The data on thermal stability are extremely necessary for practical
purposes; they open up the possibility of obtaining polymer composite mate­
rials with the required set of properties. Changes in polymer composites that
occur when exposed to high temperatures or oxygen contained in the air lead
to a change in the physicochemical characteristics of materials.
One of the most important factor influences in the practical applications
of polymer composites is the degradability and durability under various
environmental conditions. As being acknowledged, thermogravimetry (TG)
is a common method to study the kinetics of polymer degradation. Also,
differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is employed to elucidate the decom­
position steps observed in the TG data. Thermal analysis techniques have
been widely used to study thermal properties of polymer nanocomposites to
evaluate the response of material after being heated or cooled.17
An important benchmark used to compare the thermal behavior of
composites is the glass transition temperature (Tg), which is associated with
RT (relaxation transition). It should be noted that this relaxation transition
ranges from a glassy state or crystalline to a very high elastic domain. To be
able to detect the glass transition temperature, we should consider the effects
of the following parameters:
• Kinetic flexibility of macromolecules and
• Fluctuation network formation.
And it is desired to note that for the 2nd parameter mentioned above, we
need to keep in mind the chemical composition and structure of the polymer
chain as well. The Tg value can also depend on the sample thickness.
The incorporation of inorganic of filler into a polymer matrix can bring
about changes in the thermal characteristics of the resulting composite.
Changes in the Tg as a function of filler content have been reported for
polymer composites containing a wide variety of filler and polymer mate­
rials. Many researchers reported an increase in the Tg as a function of filler
content.18,19 Other authors5,20 noted that the glass transition temperature
of polymer composites decreases or passes through a maximum with the
increase in the inorganic fillers content.
6 Environmental Technology and Sustainability

Thus, the study of the effect of the filler concentration on the thermal
characteristics of composites based on polystyrene is an urgent task. Many
aspects of the role of the filler remain unclear. One can hope that the data
presented in the current chapter will be of great scientific and practical
importance.

1.2 PHASE TRANSITIONS IN THE PS/FILLER COMPOSITES

1.2.1 METHOD AND APPARATUS

To study the relaxation phase transitions in the pure polystyrene and poly­
styrene/filler composites, we have used a German Differential Scanning
Calorimeter (DSC) made by Netzsch company with a typical model of DSC
204 F1. For the preparation of samples (films), the vacuumed samples were
dried first for about 4 h using a temperature of 313 K. We have then stacked
the films (samples) with a diameter of 4 mm and a weight of 4–10 mg in a
special aluminum container. Using two-stage argon flow for the measure­
ments process we have operated Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC).
The above-mentioned two stages are carried out as follows:
• In the first stage our aim was to remove volatiles from the polymer.
• Heating process carried out from room temperature to 423 K.
• Cooling process carried out to 283 K at a rate of 10 K/min.
• In the second stage, the heating process carried out to 293 K.
• We have considered an isothermal regime at 293 K (for 5 min), and
the heating process up to 423 K. The rate was 10 (K/min).
• As a reference sample, an empty aluminum vessel was considered.
• We have then performed the measurements relative to the measure­
ments carried out relative to the standards defined for two empty
vessels considering an identical heating program.
• For each sample (film) we have performed three Differential Scan­
ning Calorimeter (DSC).
• For 11 standard samples, the DSC was calibrated. The measurement
of the temperatures and heat effects of the phase transitions was
carried out in the range of 187–749 K.21
For the samples we have done the studies in this book chapter, the content
of volatiles obtained on a German TG 209 F1 thermal microbalance identical
to heating rate in an argon media. We have expected to achieve a decrease in
the weight of the samples by 1 × 10–3 mg (as an error factor).
A Study on the Thermal Behavior of Polymer Composites 7

The study of the data obtained by thermo-gravimetric allows us to deter­

mine the weight of substances (minus volatiles weight).
From the glassy to highly elastic state, the phase transition was character­
ized using the following factors:
• The extrapolated temperature in the phase of transition onset, which
was determined by the tangent intersection method. This is shown
by T1.
• The extrapolated temperature in the phase of transition onset, which
was determined by the tangent intersection method. This is shown
by T2.
Temperature of the phase transition (considered as average temperature):
T̅
Temperature of inflection in the DSC curves (considered as the glass
transition temperature): Tg
Temperature range of the phase transition: ΔT = T2 – T1
It should be noted that the values of the “characteristic temperatures” are
attained on the base of the second heating data.
In the following sections, we describe the results of our studies of phase
transitions in PS-based composites containing inorganic fillers of various
natures.

1.2.2 PS/FULLERENE COMPOSITE FILMS

In Figure 1.1 we can see Differential Scanning Calorimeter curves for the
sample of polystyrene and composite filled with fullerene. According to this
figure, for all tested polymeric samples, a reversible phase transition from
the glassy state to the elastic state revealed. This displays heat flow in the
endothermic direction.
The average characteristics of the glass transition obtained from tree
experiments for each polymer films are presented in Table 1.1. It was found
that the C60 + C70 addition affects all characteristic temperatures and tempera­
ture range of phase transition, ΔT, for the composite materials.
From Figure 1.2 we observe the ratio of Tg(comp) or the glass transition
temperatures for composite films to Tg(PS), for original polystyrene film
versus fullerene content. As can be seen, small additions of fullerene stinkly
reduce the Tg of the composite compared to original polymer sample (film).
The minimum value of Tg is equal to 0.01 wt.% as observed at the concentra­
tion level. Evidently, in such a condition, the plasticization of polystyrene
8 Environmental Technology and Sustainability

FIGURE 1.1 DSC curves for composite films. This is based on polystyrene at various
fullerene contents, wt. %: 0 (1), 0.01 (2), and 0.1 (3).

TABLE 1.1 Parameters of Phase Transition from Glassy State to Elastic for Fullerene–
Polystyrene Composites with Varying Weight Fractions of C60 + C70.a
Fullerene content, wt.% T1, K T̅ , K Tg, K T2, K ΔT, K
0.0 357.0 361.5 363.8 365.8 8.8
0.010 328.1 343.8 335.8 355.1 27.0
0.020 341.6 348.6 345.0 359.3 17.7
0.035 347.0 358.4 357.4 366.5 19.5
0.100 365.3 369.1 371.6 373.5 8.2

Given values were obtained by averaging the data of three repeated experiments.
a

with the fullerene is expected.22,23 Therefore, molecules of C60 + C70 set

among the chains and weaken interchain interactions in the polystyrene.
This will cause increment of mobility of polymer chain segments and low
value of Tg. The apparent augmentation of ∆T (i.e., the temperature range for
phase transition) or the value of ∆T = T2 − T1 at low concentration of fullerene
(please refre to Table 1.1) shows an evident plasticization effect of these
A Study on the Thermal Behavior of Polymer Composites 9

additives on thermal properties of the composite. The value of Tg apparently

increases with further augmentation in the (C60 + C70) content. Any time that
the fraction of fullerene is identical to 0.1 wt.%, then it is expected that
the glass transition temperature for the composite overpasses that for the
original polystyrene.

FIGURE 1.2 Ratio of glass transition temperatures for composite films, Tg(comp), to one
for original polystyrene film, Tg(PS), versus fullerene content.

It should be noted that fullerene molecules are likely with strong intermo­
lecular interaction. In essence this is due to the large number of conjugated
double bonds.23 Intermolecular interactions of polystyrene and fullerene are
appeared on the values of glass transition temperature in the samples (films)
with additions of more than 0.01 wt.%. Whenevre fullerenes concentration
is equal to 0.1 wt.% or more, the effect of intermolecular interactions is the
controlling factor. It is worth mentioning that the probability of interaction
between fullerene molecules in the composite is expected to increase as
well; this signifies the increasing glass transition temperature (as corre­
lates with the original polystyrene). On the other hand, this can lead to the
physical cross-linking of polystyrene chains. Conversely, at exceptionally
10 Environmental Technology and Sustainability

low concentration (that means for less than 0.01 wt.%), the probability of
interaction among fullerene and polystyrene molecules is quite small. This is
as a consequence that there is one fullerene molecule per 55–60 polystyrene
macromolecules (or one fullerene molecule per 70,000–80,000 monomeric
unit) in the composite material. In this mechanism, weakening of interchain
interactions in polystyrene is controlling.
In our previous reports,7 we applied an electron microscopy and the X-ray
diffraction to study the influence of the fullerene additives on the structure of
the polystyrene films which has been formed by evaporation of the solvent.
In this study, we have reported that in general, in films without fullerenes,
packing of aligned chains parallel to each other dominated. From this, we
have in fact come to a conclusion that a polystyrene molecule, which had the
shape of a coil in solution, aligned and stretched itself along the surface of
an aggregate when attached to it. Nevertheless, within composite with 0.035
wt.% of fullerene (one fullerene per 7–10 polystyrene macromolecules),
fitment to aggregates occurred in the quite similar manner. Meanwhile, at
such concentrations the intermolecular interactions between polystyrene
and fullerene are substantial. However, under the influence of fullerene
molecules, polystyrene molecules aligned with the formation of ordering
elements in the arrangement of chains.7
According to the results of differential scanning calorimeter studies, we
observed specific heat capacities (CP) for the (samples) films of original poly­
styrene and polystyrene-doped additive mixture C60 + C70 (0.01–0.1 wt.%), in
the range of 290–420 K. The values of (CP) for original polystyrene are equal
to 1.23 ± 0.03 and 1.95 ± 0.03 J/g/K at 298 and 398 K, respectively. These
results are in accordance with our reference data which amount to 1.224 and
1.924 J/g/K, respectively.21 As we have observed from Figure 1.3, the depen­
dence of (CP) of the composite on the fullerene content is nonmonotone. The
value of (CP) at 298 K slightly decreases from 1.23 to 1.12 J g−1 K−1 when the
content of C60 + C70 increases up to 0.02 wt.%. Further increment of fullerene
content leads to the significant increase in heat capacity to 1.40 J/g/K (please
refer to curve 1).
Now in curve 2, the reliance of the heat capacity on the content of (C60 +
C70 ) for filled polymer materials in the elastic state at (398 K) passes through
a minimum (meanwhile at a concentration of fullerenes equal to 0.01 wt.%).
The changes observed in (CP) affirm the conclusion indicated above. This
is more or less about the plasticization of polystyrene by small additions
of fullerene. According to the results reported in Ref. [22], the increase in
heat capacity at the content of fullerene (with more than 0.02 wt.%) can be
A Study on the Thermal Behavior of Polymer Composites 11

FIGURE 1.3 Dependence of (CP) or specific heat capacity of composite films on fullerene
content: 1—glassy state at 298 K; 2—elastic state at 398 K.

correlated with the manifestation of the (polystyrene-fullerene) interactions.

And this is in fact consistent with the regularities in change of the glass
transition temperatures.22
Figure 1.4 indicates the temperature dependence of (CP) for polystyrene
(sample) films for different content of fullerene. As seen, the value of specific
heat capacity increases evenly with temperature and increases unexpectedly
at the transition phase. The dependence “measured values of specific heat
capacity versus temperature” is described by the following linear equation:
Cp = a + bT (1.1)

In Figure 1.5, we can see the temperature-dependent coefficients of the

(CP), (i.e., b), for the composites at different contents of fullerenes. It can be
observed that the value of (b) for samples in the glassy state in the tempera­
ture range of 298 K–328 K escalates strongly (while fullerene content in
12 Environmental Technology and Sustainability

curve 1 increases up to 0.02 wt.% and decreases with additional increase in

the additives concentration). It should be noted that the observed dependence
values of (Cp) and (b) follow the competing effects of 2 factors (i.e., the
plasticizing effect of fullerenes reveals itself with small additions).
In Figure 1.3, we can observe that (Cp) decreases while in Figure 1.5, (b)
increases. The interactions effect among fullerene and polymer molecules
leads to concentrations more than (0.02 wt.%). At this stage, the values of
specific heat capacity increased (please refer to Fig. 1.3) and b decreased
(please refer to Fig. 1.5). In Figure 1.5 (curve 2), it is observed that the
concentration dependence of the (b) values for the samples in the elastic state
for the range of 368–423 K is weak.

1.2.3 PS/SILICA COMPOSITE FILMS

The observed DSC curves for the pure polystyrene and silica-containing
polystyrene films are shown in Figure 1.6. It is noted that the reversible
phase transition from the glassy to highly elastic state appears as a break in
the thermo-gram. This is in fact observed for all studied polymer materials
when the temperature is augmented.

FIGURE 1.4 Temperature dependence of specific heat capacity (CP) for polystyrene films
with various content of fullerene: 1—0.0, 2—0.010, 3—0.020, 4—0.035 wt.%.
A Study on the Thermal Behavior of Polymer Composites 13

FIGURE 1.5 Coefficient of temperature dependence of specific heat capacity (CP) for
polystyrene films. This is for different content of fullerene: 1—glassy state in temperature
range of 298–328 K; 2—elastic state in range of 368–423 K.

FIGURE 1.6 DSC curves for the polystyrene-based composite films at silica concentrations,
wt. %: 0 (1) and 0.5 (2).
14 Environmental Technology and Sustainability

TABLE 1.2 Parameters of the Phase Transition from the Glassy to Highly Elastic State for
PS Composites with Various Silica Concentrations.a
SiO2 content, wt.% T1, K T̅ , K Tg, K T2, K ΔT, K
0.0 341.3 346.4 347.9 353.7 12.4
0.03 339.6 347.5 347.8 355.5 15.9
0.1 338.0 344.9 344.4 352.3 14.3
0.5 334.6 339.8 342.3 345.9 11.3
1 332.9 341.3 338.0 349.4 16.5
3 334.8 347.1 341.8 360.2 15.4
5 350.6 362.9 366.6 373.1 22.5
Given values were obtained by averaging the data of three repeated experiments.
a

According to the work presented in Ref. [24], reliance of this type is

characteristic of flexible-chain polymers. Meanwhile in Table 1.2 we can
see the characteristic parameters of the glass transition for the polystyrene
film and silica-containing composites provided by the analysis of the
thermo-grams.
Now let us analyze the data in Table 1.2. We simply observe that the
SiO2 concentration in the film (sample) influences the characteristic tempera­
tures of the phase transition. In Figure 1.7, we notice that by the application
of insignificant amount of silica, the glass transition temperature of the
composite decreases compared to the original polymer film.

FIGURE 1.7 Ratio of the glass transition temperatures of the composite Tg(comp) to
polystyrene Tg(PS) at different silica concentrations.
A Study on the Thermal Behavior of Polymer Composites 15

The minimum value of glass transition temperatures can be reached

at the SiO2 concentration in the composite with (1 wt.%). This of course
shows the plasticizing effect for small additives of silica. Most likely we can
conclude that SiO2 particles are incorporated among the polymer chains and
then weaken the inter-chain interaction, causing an increase in the segmental
mobility of the macromolecular chains and a decrease in glass transition
temperatures (Tg).
In Figure 1.7 we can clearly observe that further increase in the silica
concentration in the composite increases the (Tg). This might be due to a
higher probability of the formation of (polymer–filler) bonds maintained by
a decrease in the mobility of the polystyrene chains segments and an increase
in glass transition temperatures.
According to Table 1.2, and based on our studies in this chapter, we
can easily make a discussion on different characteristic parameters of the
phase transition such as (T1, T2, T̅ , and ΔT), as well as the glass transition
temperature (Tg).
In this chapter, we have demonstrated that a complicated pathway of
changing the (Tg) of the polystyrene/silica composite material occurs with an
increase in the SiO2 content. In general, this is due to nonuniform distribu­
tion of the filling agent molecules in the polymer matrix.

1.2.4 PS/BENTONITE COMPOSITE FILMS

Relaxation transitions were studied for the PS/bentonite composites

containing 0–5 wt.% of filler. The DSC curves for the unmodified and
bentonite containing polystyrene films recorded upon a second heating are
shown in Figure 1.8.
From our studies, we observed that, for all the sample (film) materials,
an increase in temperature leads to a transition from the glassy state to a
highly elastic state (please see the kink in the thermogram). Such reliance
is correlated with a change in the heat capacity of the samples during the
relaxation transition.
From Table 1.3 we can observe the following:

• the values of the characteristic temperatures of the relaxation transi­

tion for a polystyrene film (sample).
• the bentonite-containing composites (found by processing
thermograms).
• the clay concentration in the film which affects the above parameters.
16 Environmental Technology and Sustainability

It should be noted (from Table 1.3) that for unmodified polystyrene, Tg is

70.9°C, whereas higher values of glass transition temperature are observed
in composites. It is worth mentioning that by the introduction of bentonite
(5 wt.%) into polystyrene we do expect an increase in the Tg around 15°C.
This effect is somehow related with a decrease in the mobility of segments
of polymer chains as a result of their interaction with clay. We can observe
that such a decrease in the mobility of the segments might be local in nature
and takes place near clay particles.

FIGURE 1.8 DSC curves of polystyrene/bentonite film composites with various filler
concentrations, wt %: 0 (1), 1 (2), and 5 (3).

TABLE 1.3 Parameters of the Relaxation Transition from a Glassy to Highly Elastic State
for PS/Bentonite Composites with Various Filler Concentrations.a
Bentonite content, wt.% T1, °С T̅ , °С Tg, °С T2, °С
0.0 64.9 69.8 70.9 74.6
0.1 68.3 77.3 73.9 87.0
0.5 71.1 76.1 77.7 81.0
1.0 72.5 79.9 79.1 87.5
3.0 79.5 84.4 84.8 89.2
5.0 80.2 87.0 85.7 93.5
Given values were obtained by averaging the data of three repeated experiments.
a
A Study on the Thermal Behavior of Polymer Composites 17

In Figure 1.9 we can see the experimental results. The dependence of the
(Tg) of composite on its composition can be observed clearly in this Figure
1.9. It can be seen the difference in the glass transition temperature values
between the composite and the starting polymer. This means: Tg(comp)–
Tg(PS), equally increased with increasing in the filler concentration. Our
analysis of results showed that this dependence can be well described by an
equation in the form of:
x
y= (1.2)
a + bx
It should be pointed out that for parametric values a = 0.055 ± 0.010
and b = 0.053 ± 0.004, coefficient of determination R2 is 0.981. It should
be pointed out that a similar analytical expression was reported in Ref. [4]
while studying the glass transition processes of polystyrene/silica compos­
ites in the range of filler concentrations up to 30 wt.%.

FIGURE 1.9 The effect of the concentration of the filler on the glass transition temperature
of the PS/bentonite composite: ♦ experimental data; – fitting curve.

Therefore, our studies show that:

• The introduction of bentonite into polystyrene leads to an increase in
the (Tg) of the composite compared to unmodified polymer.
• These characteristics of thermal behavior must be considered
while developing and improving technologies for the production of
polymer materials with controlled properties.
18 Environmental Technology and Sustainability

1.2.5 PS/BENTONITE/MAGNETITE COMPOSITE FILMS

In this paragraph, we describe the research results of relaxation transitions

in PS-based composites containing two-component filler such as bentonite/
magnetite. Figure 1.10 shows the DSC curves for pure PS films recorded
upon the first and second heating. As can be seen, in case of the first heating,
an endothermic peak is observed on the thermogram in the temperature range
of 65–90°C (trace 1), apparently associated with the removal of o-xylene
residues from the film. This peak is absent upon repeated heating (trace 2),
which indicates the complete removal of the solvent from the film during the
first heating. The revealed difference in thermograms for the first and second
heating takes place for all studied samples of the PS/bentonite/magnetite
composite films, regardless of their composition.
The DSC curves for the PS/bentonite/magnetite composites with various
filler concentrations recorded upon the second heating are presented in
Figure 1.11. It can be seen, in this case, for all the materials studied, a kink
is observed in the thermogram, which can be associated with a relaxation
transition from the glassy state to a highly elastic state and is accompanied
by a change in the heat capacity of the material during such a transition.
DSC

Temperature, °C
FIGURE 1.10 DSC curves for PS films recorded upon the first (1) and second (2) heating.
A Study on the Thermal Behavior of Polymer Composites 19

FIGURE 1.11 DSC curves of polystyrene/bentonite/magnetite film composites with various

filler concentrations, wt %: 0.1 (1); 1 (2); 5 (3).

The values of the characteristic temperatures found for composites under

study are given in Table 1.4 which demonstrates that the concentration of
magnetized clay in the film affects the listed parameters. For unmodified
polystyrene, the glass transition temperature is 70.4°C. With the introduction
of the filler in an amount of 0.1 wt.%, the Tg value decreases to 57.0°C,
which indicates the dominant effect of plasticization of polystyrene with
small additions of magnetized clay. However, with a further increase in the
concentration of bentonite/magnetite in the composite, the glass transition
temperature increases, which is apparently associated with a decrease in the
mobility of polymer chain segments as a result of their interaction with the
filler. It should be noted that the revealed nonmonotonic dependence on the
composition of the composite is retained for other characteristic temperatures
of the relaxation transition (Table 1.4).

TABLE 1.4 Parameters of the Relaxation Transition from a Glassy to Highly Elastic State
for PS/Bentonite/Magnetite Composites with Various Filler Concentrations.a
Filler concentration, wt.% T1, °С T̅ , °С Tg, °С T2, °С ΔT, °С
0.0 66.0 72.0 70.4 77.7 11.7
0.1 51.3 56.7 57.0 61.8 10.5
1.0 55.4 59.9 60.3 63.9 12.5
5.0 64.3 70.3 69.8 76.0 12.7
Given values were obtained by averaging the data of three repeated experiments.
a
20 Environmental Technology and Sustainability

To explain the results obtained, the thermodynamic model developed

in Refs. [25,26] based on the configurational entropy model and the Flory-
Huggins theory can be used. The proposed model assumes that the change in
the glass transition temperature of the composite (Tgcomp) in comparison with
the glass transition temperature of the matrix polymer (TgPS ) is determined
by the change in entropy:
[ Tgcomp 1
ln  S (< ) - S (0)
TgPS (1.3)

where φ is the volume fraction of filler particles in composite; S(φ) and S(0)
are the entropy of the composite and entropy of the polymer in the absence
of filler, respectively.
As follows from eq 1.3, with the introduction of filler nanoparticles into
the polymer matrix, the glass transition temperature can either increase or
decrease depending on the sign of the change in the total entropy of the
system, which, in turn, depends on the contributions of the total entropy
components. In particular, a decrease in Tg can take place when the contri­
bution of the entropy of the specific polymer-nanoparticle interaction is
small compared to the contributions of the mixing entropy and entropy of
nanoparticles under conditions of spatial confinement.
The model developed in Refs. [25,26] predicts that this condition
can most likely be met at low concentrations of nanoparticles and ceases
to be met with an increase in the volume fraction of filler. This means
that the theoretical dependence of the glass transition temperature of the
composite on its composition has a minimum. As seen from the experi­
mental results presented in Figure 1.12, this minimum predicted by the
model is observed for the PS/bentonite/magnetite composites researched
in the current study.
It should be noted that we found similar non-monotonic dependences of
the glass transition temperature on the filler concentration for the polystyrene/
fullerene composite films (Section 1.2.2 in the current chapter), polystyrene/
silica (Section 1.2.3 in the current chapter), as well as for polymethyl meth­
acrylate/fullerene composite.27

1.3 THERMAL STABILITY OF THE PS/FILLER COMPOSITES

1.3.1 METHOD AND APPARATUS
Thermogravimetric analysis for the pure polystyrene and polystyrene/filler
composites was performed on a TG 209 F1 thermo-microbalance (Netzsch
A Study on the Thermal Behavior of Polymer Composites 21

FIGURE 1.12 Effect of the filler concentration on the glass transition temperature for the
PS/bentonite/magnetite composites.

Gerätebau GmbH, Germany) using platinum crucibles in an argon flow (30

mL/min). The samples of PS/filler composites with a mass of 3–5 mg were
heated at a heating rate of 10 K/min, and the weight loss was measured.
The accuracy of the sample mass measurement was 1 × 10−7 g, and the
accuracy in temperature measurement was 0.1 K. TG measurements for
the PS granule were also performed. For all data reported, three samples
were tested.

1.3.2 MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE THERMAL DEGRADATION

KINETICS

To better analyze the kinetics of thermal degradation of PS/filler composite

films, data of TG measurements were used: for instance,
• The values of the main parameters determining the rate constant of
the process (such as the activation energy and the pre-exponential
factor) were found and
22 Environmental Technology and Sustainability

• Analyses of their dependences on the composition of the composite

were considered.
To analyze thermogravimetric data, kinetic eq 1.4 is usually used:
da
= k (T ) f (a ), (1.4)
dt
whereas
α = the mass fraction of the substance that decayed during the process,
t = time,
f(α) = the reaction model, and
k(T) = the rate constant of the destruction depending on temperature
according to the Arrhenius law:
( E )
k (T ) = A exp - a , (1.5)
RT

whereas
A = the pre-exponential factor, Ea is the activation energy of thermal
destruction, and;
R = the gas constant.
However, the reaction model f(α) in the case of “Thermal Degradation”
of polymers is power function of the order n
(1.6)
f(α) = (1 − α)n
After coupling eq 1.4–1.6, we obtain the following equation:
do ( E J
= Aexp - a (1- o ) ,
n

dt RT (1.7)

This can be integrated with the initial conditions

α = 0 at T = T0. (1.8)

And the final expression can appear in the following form28:

a T
da A ( E )
F (a ) = f = f exp - a dT , (1.9)
(1- a )
n
0
f T0 RT

where f = dT is the heating rate of the sample.

dt
Another random document with
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some degree of corruption was inevitable in all political
organisations, he held that they should be regarded by the voter in
exactly the same light as bidders for a contract. Government should
simply be handed over to the organisation making, all things
considered, the lowest bid, which in New York city, Mr. Thompson
thought, would usually be Tammany Hall. The argument is so
thoroughly feudal in its conception of politics that one finds it difficult
to believe in the author’s entire sincerity, although this is flatly
asseverated throughout the book. Moral objections similar to those
employed against the doctrine of the inviolability of a “ten per cent
rake-off” thoroughly dispose of any rational claim it may make to
attention. Political experience is also against it. Reform movements
particularly in municipalities may be laughed at as “spasms,” but
these movements, which are usually based largely on charges of
corruption, occur so frequently as to discredit the belief that purely
prudential considerations on the part of corruptionists will restrain
effectively the excesses of their demands. Supine acceptance by the
electorate of the “lowest bidder” theory would speedily result in the
submission of none but extortionately high bids. In the long run
“millions for defence but not one cent for tribute” is a sentiment quite
as justifiable economically as ethically.
To recapitulate the preceding argument,—the structure of society,
no matter how completely evolved and generally beneficial to the
highest human interests, is nevertheless such that when brought into
contact with natural human egoism it offers access at many points to
the onslaughts of corruption. The evil consequences may be
extreme, or only severe, or in time they may be completely
overcome. History furnishes examples of all three eventualities. It
also bears witness to the fact that many gross and threatening forms
of corruption that were once prevalent have been eliminated from the
life of civilised nations. Those which remain to afflict us are the
object of vigorous corrective measures which are constantly being
extended and strengthened. Corrupt practices are found to be limited
in some cases to certain branches or spheres of government with
consequences of varying degrees of danger to the national life. Or
they may be limited in amount or percentage by various prudential
considerations on the part of political leaders who, however, are far
from being sufficiently restrained in this way as social welfare
requires. While corruption thus appears to be a persistent problem of
social and political life it is far from being a hopeless one. In the
words of Professor Henry C. Adams,[39] its solution “is a continuous
task, like the cleansing of the streets of a great city, or the renewing
of a right purpose within the human heart.”

FOOTNOTES:
[24] It would, of course, be absurd to assume that every victor
in such contests is free from all taint of corruption. A very large
and powerful state may, although extremely corrupt, succeed in
overcoming a small and weak state which is relatively free from
corruption. Something akin to this occurred when Finnish
autonomy was suppressed by Russia in 1902. On the other hand
it is evident that in such a struggle the honesty of the small state
would be in its favour while the corruption of the great state would
be a source of weakness.
[25] Although most of the references to historic forms of
corruption presented in the following pages are taken from the
comparatively recent annals of nations which are still living, it is
worth noting that the subject could also be illustrated abundantly
from ancient history. Even prior to the Christian era Rome
suffered from various kinds of political corruption that exist in very
similar forms at the present day. Readers of the Old Testament
find, particularly in the books of Isaiah and Micah, denunciations
of social evils not unlike those published in contemporary
magazines.
[26] Herbert Spencer shows “that from propitiatory presents,
voluntary and exceptional to begin with but becoming as political
power strengthens less voluntary and more general, there
eventually grow up universal and involuntary contributions—
established tribute; and that with the rise of a currency this
passes into taxation” (“Principles of Sociology,” vol. ii, pt. iv, ch. iv,
p. 371), and further that “In our own history the case of Bacon
exemplifies not a special and late practice, but an old and usual
one” (p. 372). Bribe giving may, therefore, be regarded as a lineal
descendant of an old practice once regarded as legitimate, but
now fallen under the ban. Given a social state in which public
dues are open, regular, and fixed in amount, and in which bribery
is distinctly reprobated, as contrasted with a social state in which
present giving is common and tolerated or defended by public
opinion, the higher moral standard of the former would seem
beyond question.
[27] Op. cit., pp. 44-45.
[28] “The Diary of Samuel Pepys,” edited by Henry B. Wheatley,
vol. i, p. 207, entry of date of August 16, 1660.
[29] Op. cit., vol. vii, p. 49, entry dated July 30, 1667.
[30] “Samuel Pepys and the World He Lived In,” by Henry B.
Wheatley, p. 62.
[31] Op. cit., pp. 161-162, note.
[32] Ibid., p. 15.
[33] Ibid., p. 42.
[34] Ibid., p. 16.
[35] “The Shame of the Cities,” p. 152.
[36] “Japan, Its History, Arts, and Literature,” by Captain F.
Brinkley, vol. iv, p. 250 et seq.
[37] New York Times, March 9, 1900.
[38] “Politics in a Democracy,” New York, 1893.
[39] “Public Debts,” p. 358
 CORRUPTION IN THE PROFESSIONS,
JOURNALISM, AND THE HIGHER EDUCATION
 IV
CORRUPTION IN THE PROFESSIONS, JOURNALISM, AND

THE HIGHER EDUCATION

The wisdom of some quasi-philosophic counsellors of ambitious

youth expresses itself in the aphorism that in this world there are as
many doors labelled “pull” as there are labelled “push.” Without
admitting the equality in ratio of the two kinds of avenues to material
well being, it is undeniable that a great many of our social
relationships are very commonly exploited by interests of a more or
less directly personal character. Church membership, for example,
may be maintained chiefly as a stepping stone to business,
professional, or social success. Business men are overrun with
solicitations for aid to church and charitable purposes under
circumstances which suggest the discrete advertisement of their
delinquency in case they do not contribute “according to their
means,” and the probable loss of custom in consequence. The
charitable organisations themselves are imposed upon by unworthy
applicants for relief who display a pertinacity and ingenuity
calculated to destroy all faith in any trait of human nature except
universal parasitism. Of course one should not look a gift horse in
the mouth, but in the case of many presentations from inferiors to
superiors or from favour-seekers to men of influence the motives of
the givers, and also at times of the recipients, are certainly not
beyond suspicion. The ethics of the petty tipping system are dubious
at best. Labourers “soldier on their jobs”; clerks appropriate office
supplies as “perquisites”; there are “tricks in all trades.” To avoid
conflicts in the kitchen good housewives frequently send bad
servants away with excellent “characters.” During hard time winters
newspapers maintain free soup stations and publish the harrowing
details of the poverty which they are relieving in such a sensational
fashion that even the most guileless reader finds himself wondering
whether any motive connected with self-advertisement or circulation
reinforces the charitable sentiments of the journalist. On the other
hand many a queer and clever scheme is devised to secure
newspaper notoriety for some presumably deserving person or
cause. The ways of authors with critics, and of critics with authors for
that matter, are said at times to stand in need of criticism
themselves. “Dead easy” professors and “snap” courses (of which,
be it said with grief and contrition, every institution seems to have a
few samples) are exploited by college students whose mental efforts
in other directions are hopelessly inhibited by chronic brain fag. In
short every person charged with administrative duties in connection
with any social organisation, be it a business house, a club, a
church, a school, a charity, or what not, is familiar ad nauseam with
the fact that tacit or overt efforts are constantly being made both by
outsiders and insiders to procure suspensions of the rules or other
unwarranted privileges and favours.
It would, however, be an unnecessarily harsh judgment to
condemn all actions of the foregoing character as corrupt. If criticism
is to be attempted it must be based on a full knowledge of motives in
given cases, and these are not always apparent. Then, too, customs
have grown up under the influence of which men act without
analyzing the real nature of their conduct. Reflection would show,
however, that, with the exception of conscious evil intent, the
elements of corruption are present not only in the cases cited above,
but in many others which are constantly being encountered in the
course of the day’s experiences. It is certainly an error to assume
that all the grafters are engaged in “big” business or “big” politics. Let
us not excuse in the slightest degree the misdeeds of great
corporations, but, on the other hand, let us not forget that conduct of
a precisely similar ethical colour is sometimes indulged in by
labourers, clerks, small retailers, farmers, and others. The fact that
corrupt or “near” corrupt practices are more common than people are
ordinarily inclined to believe is significant in another way. There is
always a direct relationship between the characteristic petty offences
of a people and its characteristic major crimes. Thus in a country
given over to brawling, crimes of violence will be numerous. Chicane
largely prevalent in every day affairs will certainly breed an
atmosphere favourable to the perpetration of gigantic frauds. For this
reason the minor forms of corruption which occur in the daily life of a
people are worthy of much more attention than they ordinarily
receive.
Let us turn now from the petty and dubious manifestations of a
corrupt spirit to those larger and more directly threatening practices
which have become subject to public criticism and in some cases to
repressive legislation. The field thus ventured upon is so extensive
and its features are so involved that no progress can be made in its
discussion without classification. Yet any scheme of classification
that may be attempted must encounter great difficulties. Individual
judgments vary widely regarding the importance or degree of danger
to the public interest of various anti-social developments. Along
certain lines corrupt practices have been exploited by journalistic
enterprise with great pertinacity, while other suspicious areas are still
largely neglected. As a consequence of the very difficulties which
embarrass it, however, there is a certain justification even for a
confessedly imperfect classification. A service of considerable
importance may be rendered merely by bringing together in the form
of an outline all or nearly all the more threatening forms of corruption
in such a way that some of their salient characteristics and
interrelations are more clearly developed. Without therefore claiming
finality for the following arrangement it would seem desirable to
distinguish roughly two great fields of corrupt practices: first,
corruption in professional life generally; and second, corruption in
business and politics. The divisions and subdivisions of these two
groups will be indicated later. Corruption in professional life will be
discussed with some detail in the present study.[40] Business and
political corruption, the interrelations of which are very numerous and
close, will form the subject of the following paper.
Corruption in professional life may be held to involve virtually all of
our social leadership outside of business and politics. Apart from the
specific services rendered by the various professions their principal
practitioners are instinctively looked up to by the community for
guidance. In a broad sense all professional men are teachers.
Corruption in the professions is thus equivalent to the defilement of
the sources of public instruction. Yet precisely on this ground very
sweeping and bitter accusations are made. Law, journalism, and the
higher education are more frequently attacked, but medicine,
philanthropy, and theology also come in for criticism. To cite specific
instances:—editors are accused of wholesale misrepresentation and
suppression of news in behalf of sinister interests; college
professors, assumed to be subtly bribed by munificent endowments,
are reproached as the crafty inventors of philosophic excuses for
menacing public evils; lawyers are denounced as servile hirelings
who “justify the wicked for reward” and who accept crooked
corporation or political work without demur; ministers, philanthropic
workers, and other leaders of thought are said to be purchased by
large contributions, gifts of parks, playgrounds, hospitals, and so on.
[41] There are many modern Micahs who go about saying of our
people that “the heads thereof judge for reward, and the priests
thereof teach for hire, and the prophets thereof divine for money.”
Corruption of the sources of public instruction is manifestly replete
with the potency of evil. If a nation’s “men of light and leading” fail in
their function the case is hopeless indeed. Moreover the regulation
of the various sources of public instruction is a task the complexity of
which far excels that of any problem presented by the other forms of
corruption. No insuperable technical difficulty is involved, for
example, in prescribing the standard of pure milk, the proper safety
devices for theatres, the best method of fencing dangerous
machinery in mills, the adequate safeguarding of the interests of
policy holders in life insurance companies. But who will tell us with
authority exactly what is news and what isn’t; who will define
explicitly the standard of orthodoxy for university instruction in
economics and political science; who will provide ministers of the
gospel with a social creed drawn up with the precision and free from
the dogmatic differences of their theological creeds? It is not strange,
therefore, that although there has been much vague talk of “tainted
money,” proposals for the legal definition and regulation of its alleged
pernicious consequences have been wanting. We already have
extended and complicated legal systems of inspection and regulation
of many of the material goods of life, while but little has been done or
even concretely outlined in the direction of state supervision of ideal
goods and services.
Great as are the technical difficulties in the way of the latter policy,
the real reason for its lack of advocates would seem to lie in the
partial efficiency of the various ancient and highly socialised codes of
professional ethics. Competition in the economic world has not been
similarly safeguarded from within. With the breakdown of the guild
system and the sudden changes introduced by the industrial
revolution business found itself upon an uncharted sea. Laisser faire,
laisser aller seemed perfectly obvious in this spacious time of
untouched world markets, but latterly distances have dwindled,
density has increased, and collisions with social norms have become
increasingly frequent. Too often and too easily competition has been
pushed beyond the limits of social safety. In the economic struggle
the “twentieth mean man” has been able to wield compulsory power
over his nineteen decent competitors and to force them on pain of
bankruptcy to adopt his own lower standards. The professional
“mean men,” on the other hand, knew from the start that they were
derogating from the ethics of their fellow practitioners, and in many
cases were brought quickly to book for it. Here rather than in any
differences of personal integrity must be found the reason for the
higher moral reputation enjoyed by professional as compared with
business men. It is impossible to believe that of the brothers of the
family the black sheep always went into business and the good boys
into medicine or the ministry. Finally we may expect the general
immunity of the professions from state regulation to continue just so
long as they develop progressively their own police systems. In this
connection it is significant that that one of them which has been most
frequently and severely accused of abetting corruption in economic
and political fields, namely the law, is precisely the one which has
shown the most concern recently in the reformation of its code of
ethics.[42] Obviously such sanitary processes may be materially
hastened by the pressure from without of a forceful and honest
popular feeling in opposition to abuses which have grown up in
professional practice.
 The greatest immediate influence upon public opinion is exerted,
of course, by journalism. The question of its corruption or
corruptibility is, therefore, one of prime importance. Accusations
against the press on this score are common enough, but few of them
are so sweeping as the following attributed to the late John Swinton,
formerly of the New York Sun and Tribune.[43] At a banquet of the
New York Press Association in 1895, in response to a toast on “The
Independent Press” he is reported to have said:
“There is no such thing in America as an independent press unless
it is in the country towns. You know it, and I know it. There is not one
of you who dare express an honest opinion. If you express it, you
know beforehand that it would never appear in print. I am paid $150
per week for keeping my honest opinions out of the paper I am
connected with. Others of you are paid similar salaries for doing
similar things. If I should permit honest opinions to be printed in one
issue of my paper, like Othello, before twenty-four hours my
occupation would be gone. The man who would be so foolish as to
write honest opinions would be out on the street hunting for another
job. The business of the New York journalist is to distort the truth, to lie
outright, to pervert, to vilify, to fawn at the feet of Mammon, and to sell
his country and race for his daily bread; or for what is about the same
thing, his salary. You know this, and I know it; and what foolery to be
toasting an ‘independent press.’ We are tools, and the vassals of rich
men behind the scenes. We are jumping jacks. They pull the string
and we dance. Our time, our talents, our lives, our possibilities, all are
the property of other men. We are intellectual prostitutes.”
It is hardly probable that any one not himself accustomed to
drafting headlines could have so far exaggerated a situation, even
under post-prandial influences, as did the author of the above
paragraph. Whatever may be the measure of the sinning of any
newspaper, certainly no single sheet has ever been the corrupt
apologist for all anti-social interests. A paper which at any one time
should attempt to stand for unsanitary tenement houses, for child
labour, for quack medicines, for “embalmed” beef, for “tainted
money” colleges, for monopoly tactics in beating down small
competitors, for life insurance frauds, for the spoils system, the
stealing of elections, and franchise grabbing,—or for any
considerable number of these,—would certainly lose its influence
with extreme suddenness. Newspapers are of all kinds, of course.
They differ even more in character than do individuals. As the focal
points of every interest in a community the interests of a newspaper
are much more diverse than those of the individual, and, as in the
case of the individual, these interests are shot through and through
with the noble and the base. Few people who are unfamiliar with the
practical making of newspapers realise what a constant and bitter
struggle is being waged in many cases to keep them free from
selfish and dishonest influences. In other instances, of course, the
partial triumph of the counting-room is palpable. Advertising columns
still carry, although with much less frequency than formerly, the
insertions of get-rich-quick schemes, of bucket-shops, of salary-loan
sharks, of quack doctors, quack medicines, and clairvoyants. Of
course these are frankly presented as paid matter, and every reader
of intelligence understands that they are inspired by the directly
selfish motives of the advertiser. When one thinks of the poor, the
ignorant, and the sick, who are exploited through such agencies,
however, the despicable character of the abuse is manifest. In some
papers, also, the reader finds abundant evidence of the activities of
press and publicity bureaus working in the interest of certain forms of
business. Morally this abuse is much worse than the foregoing, for it
throws off the form of advertising and clothes itself as news or
editorial opinion.
Large advertisers, particularly since the development of daily full
page announcements by department stores, also insist at times, and
not always ineffectually, upon exerting influence over news and
editorial columns. A pitch of absurdity seldom realised in this
connection was exemplified by the silence or approval with which the
press of one of our largest cities, a single paper honourably
excepted, treated the clearly mistaken philanthropy of a certain
wealthy merchant who had established many distributing stations for
sterilised, rather than Pasteurised milk. The paralysing effect of box
office influence upon sincere and vigorous dramatic criticism is
another deplorable instance of the same sort.
Finally there are papers which, however free they may keep
themselves from outside interests, nevertheless represent the
immediate political or economic ambitions of their owners. It is easy
to exaggerate this abuse not only with regard to its present extent
absolutely considered, but also with reference to its contemporary
development as compared with the press of the past. In its earlier
periods journalism was almost universally the tool of party. During
the civil war,—the epoch of great editorial personalities,—political
ambitions constantly invaded the sanctum with the result that the
gross unfairness and bitter partisanship engendered by the times
were doubly and trebly emphasised in the columns of the press. The
new journalism which began its career about 1875 not only prints
more news but prints it more fairly than the old school. Of course
most of our papers are still the recognised organs of some party, but
they are far from being servile and characterless advocates of every
party policy. Moreover there is a considerable number of politically
independent papers, some of which are avowedly so, while others
are really so although they may still wear lightly some party emblem.
Fearless, continued criticism of public abuses is more and more
coming to be recognised as good policy both for a paper and for the
commonweal.
Unfortunately there is another side to this record of improvement
and achievement. Perhaps the most important single difference
between the old personal journalism and the journalism of to-day is
the large capitalistic character of the latter. When the mechanical
outfit of a city paper could be supplied with a comparatively small
sum of money, the personality of the editor was all important,
although, as we have seen, even this favouring economic condition
did not by any means produce uncorrupted journalism. At the
present time large capital is necessary not only to provide the
equipment, but also to meet the heavy losses of the few inevitable
lean years at the outset. In most cases the money is contributed by
one man or by a comparatively small number of men whose other
business interests are likely to be very harmonious if not already
consolidated. In consequence there is a common, and withal very
human, tendency on the part of the paper thus established and
owned to deal favourably under all circumstances with the financial
interest or group of interests back of it. This is the typical journalistic
danger of the present period, just as the political bee in the editor’s
bonnet was the typical evil of the old personal journalism. Legislation
requiring newspapers to print the names of their principal owners,
and to deposit full lists of stockholders in some state office of record
where they could be made available to all comers, ought to limit
considerably the possibility of capitalistic manipulation of the press.
By revealing facts regarding financial control which at best can only
be suspected at the present time, publicity of this character would
enable readers to make the necessary allowances for any undue
form of counting-room control which might manifest itself in the
editorial or news columns of a given paper. In spite of this and other
shortcomings, however, most observers agree that the American
press as a whole is more independent to-day than ever before.
In considering abuses which affect our journalism one should not
forget certain conditions which set a limit to the corrupt manipulation
of the greatest single agency of public instruction. A modern
newspaper is a large capitalistic enterprise, of course, but its
business is peculiar in that it must sell its product to tens of
thousands of people every day at the price of a cent or two per copy.
However plutocratic a paper may be at one end it always represents
the extreme of democracy at the other. Our press is occasionally
prostituted by large moneyed interests, but it is in much more
constant danger of that directly opposite form of corruption, namely
demagogy. Reform of the press depends ultimately upon the reform
of its readers. Even on the latter side, however, we have to note an
increasing and very gratifying readiness on the part of our papers to
tell the American people the truth about themselves and about
foreign peoples regardless of all our old time prejudices and
antipathies.[44]
Reverting to the plutocratic influences affecting the press,
however, we have seen that in the nature of things no single
newspaper can become the tool of all the anti-social interests. It can
defend effectively only the few which for one reason or another are
approved by the managers of its policy. Usually a newspaper which
is thus silent or mildly unctuous on certain abuses endeavours to
rehabilitate itself by the condemnation, sometimes in a sensational
and even hysterical fashion, of other abuses, thus conducting, so to
speak, a vigorous department of moral foreign affairs. As a result the
position taken by the press as a whole on most points is strongly
favourable to the public interest. On this ground one may find a
philosophic justification for the sentiment so compactly phrased by
Mr. George William Curtis to the effect that “no abuse of a free press
can be so great as the evil of its suppression.”[45]
Even in dealing with those subjects concerning which a given
paper is not honest with its readers great care must be exercised. So
far as possible it must conceal the evidences of selfish interest and
present its case on grounds of public policy. Now arguments based
on such grounds are always worthy at least of consideration. A very
large part of political discussion, not only journalistic but of other
kinds, is “inspired” in this fashion, and it not infrequently happens
that what may be in accord with the self interest of individuals and
groups is also in accord with public interest. If this is not the case a
competing paper ought to be able to expose pretty effectively the
false assertions of its wily contemporary. In dealing with national
questions which are discussed by newspapers in every part of the
country this function of mutual criticism is in general well performed.
Cases occur, however, especially in connection with municipal
issues, where practically every paper of wide local circulation is
either silenced or actively engaged in the support of a crooked deal.
Under such circumstances a fight in defence of public interest is
almost hopeless. The more nearly the press of a given district
approaches this condition of corrupt paralysis, however, the brighter
are the opportunities for an opposition paper. In journalism as
everywhere in the world of social phenomena the inviolable law
prevails that a function cannot be abused without corresponding
harm to the agency which allows itself to be perverted. If it should
ever happen,—although at the present time the prospect seems
remote enough,—that a thoroughgoing control embracing the daily
papers of the whole country should be established in defence of
consolidated interests, it is certain that some new agency of publicity
would spring up in the interest of the people as a whole. In the end
the daily papers themselves would be the worst sufferers from a
general perversion of their activities. As a matter of fact a new and
powerful journalistic organ has already developed an influence not
incomparable with that of the daily press. The wonderful growth of
the low priced monthly and weekly magazines during the decade just
past has been explained on various grounds:—the cheapening of
paper and of illustrations, the second-class mailing privilege, the
effectiveness of such media for advertisement, and so on. No doubt
these factors go far toward explaining the great expansion of
magazine circulation, but in spite of much journalistic prejudice to the
contrary circulation and influence are not necessarily correlative. And
the influence, as distinct from the circulation, of the magazines has
been due very largely to the boldness and effectiveness with which
they assailed many public abuses with regard to which for one
reason or another the daily press was silent or even favourable. Of
course the detached situation of the magazines made it easy and
even profitable for them to pursue policies which might have cost the
newspapers dear. In any event a new way was found for the
effective journalistic presentation of the public interest.
In discussing the alleged corruption of the learned professions as
a whole reference was made to the powerful influence of
professional codes of ethics. One must recognise the journalistic
instinct and journalistic traditions as strong factors of similar
character. Even where editorial and reportorial staffs have given way,
for purely bread and butter reasons, to what they knew were the
selfish suggestions of controlling financial interests these same
interests must sometimes have wondered at the lukewarmness of
their paper’s support, and also, perhaps, at the enthusiasm which it
manifested for some good cause indifferent to them. Moreover
professional standards are rising in this field as well as elsewhere.
No one has given clearer or more forcible expression to the highest
of these newer ideals of journalism than Mr. George Harvey of the
North American Review, whose words, by the way, present the
extreme of contrast to those quoted earlier from Mr. Swinton. After
pointing out that the great editorial leaders of the past generation,—
Greeley, Raymond, Dana, Bennett,—were shackled by their own
political ambitions, Mr. Harvey asks:
 “What, then, shall we conclude? That an editor shall bar acceptance
of public position under any circumstances? Yes, absolutely, and any
thought or hope of such preferment, else his avowed purpose is not
his true one, his policy is one of deceit in pursuance of an
unannounced end; his guidance is untrustworthy, his calling that of a
teacher false to his disciples for personal advantage, his conduct a
gross betrayal not only of public confidence, but also of the faith of
every true journalist jealous of a profession which should be of the
noblest and the farthest removed from base uses in the interests of
selfish men.” ...
“He [the journalist] is, above all, a teacher who, through daily
appeals to the reason and moral sense of his constituency, should
become a real leader.... Above capital, above labour, above wealth,
above poverty, above class, and above people, subservient to none,
quick to perceive and relentless in resisting encroachments by any,
the master journalist should stand as the guardian of all, the vigilant
watchman on the tower ever ready to sound the alarm of danger, from
whatever source, to the liberties and the laws of this great union of
free individuals.”[46]

Discussion of the “tainted money” charge so far as it affects our

universities and colleges can not, of course, be presented with
complete objectivity by the present writer. Nothing can be promised
beyond an earnest effort to attain detachment and impartiality. On
the other hand, a decade spent in the active teaching of the principal
debatable subjects in three institutions of widely different character
may furnish a basis of experience of some value.[47]
First of all there must be no blinking of the importance of the
subject. “It is manifest,” wrote the acute Hobbes, “that the Instruction
of the people, dependeth wholly, on the right teaching of Youth in the
Universities.” Quaint as is the language in which he defends this
proposition the argument which it contains is applicable with few
changes to modern conditions.
“They whom necessity, or couvetousnesse keepeth attent on their
trades, and labour; and they, on the other side, whom superfluity, or
sloth carrieth after their sensuall pleasures, (which two sorts of men
take up the greatest part of Man-kind,) being diverted from the deep
meditation, which the learning of truth, not onely in the matter of
Natural Justice, but also of all other Sciences necessarily requireth,
receive the Notions of their duty, chiefly from Divines in the Pulpit, and
 partly from such of their Neighbours, or familiar acquaintance, as
having the Faculty of discoursing readily, and plausibly, seem wiser
and better learned in cases of Law, and Conscience, than themselves.
And the Divines, and such others as make shew of Learning, derive
their knowledge from the Universities, and from the Schooles of Law,
or from the Books, which by men eminent in those Schooles, and
Universities have been published.”[48]
In spite of the development of other intermediate agencies of
public instruction since the seventeenth century, and particularly of
the press and our elementary school system, the influence of
universities and colleges was never greater than it is at present, and
it is an influence which is constantly increasing in strength. The
number of universities and colleges is larger, their work is more
efficient, their curricula are broader, the number of college bred men
in the community is greater, and their leadership therein more
perceptible than ever before. Professors are enlisting in industrial,
scientific, and social activities outside academic walls in a way
undreamed of so long as the old monastic ideals held sway. By
extension lectures and still more by books and articles they are
reaching larger and larger masses of the people. Newspapers
formulate current public opinion, but to the writer, at least, it seems
plainly apparent that the best thought of the universities and colleges
to-day is the thought that in all likelihood will profoundly influence
both press and public opinion in the near future. Academic observers
of the sound money struggle of 1896, for example, must have smiled
frequently to themselves at the arguments employed during the
campaign. There was not one of them which had not been the
commonplace of economic seminars for years. The newspapers and
the abler political leaders on both sides simply filled their quivers with
arrows drawn from academic arsenals. Extreme cleverness was
shown by many journalists and campaign orators in popularising this
material, in adapting it to local conditions, and in placing it broadcast
before the people, but of original argumentation on their part there
was scarcely a scintilla. It is significant also that the battle of the
ballots was decided in favour of the contention which commanded
the majority of scientific supporters. Subsequent political issues,
great and small, have developed very similar phenomena, although
of course it would be absurd to assert that in all cases the dominant
opinion of the literati prevailed at the ballot. There are also certain
academic ideals of the day with which practical politics and business
are demonstrably and crassly at variance. Not until the fate of many
future battles is decided can we estimate the full strength of the
university influence on such pending questions. Victory would seem
assured in a sufficient number of cases, however, to make it clear
that just as the wholesomeness of the public opinion of to-day is
conditioned by the independence of the press, so the
wholesomeness of the public opinion of to-morrow will be
determined largely by the independence of our colleges and
universities.
As compared with the press, universities possess certain great
advantages which justify the public in demanding from them higher
standards of accuracy and impartiality. The professor enjoys some
measure of leisure; the editor is always under the lash of production
on the stroke of the event. It is also a very considerable advantage
that the editorial “we” and the anonymity of the newspaper are
foreign to college practice. There is, of course, a pretty well
recognised body of opinion on methods and ideals common to the
faculties of our learned institutions, but in the separate fields of
departmental work any opinion that may be expressed is primarily
the opinion of the professor expressing it. His connection with a
given institution is, indeed, a guaranty of greater or less weight as to
his general scholarly ability, and he will, of course, be mindful of this
in all that he says or writes. But beyond this his personal reputation
is directly involved. Those who make a newspaper suffer collectively
and more or less anonymously for any truckling to corrupt interests.
The college president or teacher guilty of an offence of the same sort
must suffer in his own person the contempt of his colleagues, his
students, and the public generally.
Newspapers, moreover, are usually managed by private
corporations frankly seeking profit as one of their ends. Universities
and colleges, on the other hand, are much more free from the
directly economic motive. There are, however, certain large
qualifications to the advantages which institutions of learning thus
enjoy. Every university and college is constantly perceiving new
means of increasing its usefulness and persistently seeking to
secure them. The demands made in behalf of such purposes may
seem excessive at times, but it is clear that an educational institution
which does not appreciate the vital importance of the work it is doing,
and consequently the importance of expanding that work, is simply
not worth its salt. In a great many cases the readiest means of
securing the necessary funds is by appeal to rich men for large gifts
and endowments. As the number of munificent Mæcenases is
always limited and the number of needy institutions always very
considerable, a competitive struggle ensues, different in most of its
incidents from the directly profit seeking struggles of the business
world, but essentially competitive none the less. In the campaign of a
university or college for expansion a large body of students makes a
good showing; hence too often low entrance requirements weakly
enforced and low standards of promotion. At times even the springs
of discipline are relaxed lest numbers should be reduced by a
salutary expulsion or two. Courses are divided and subdivided
beyond the real needs of an institution and salaries are reduced in
order to secure a sufficient number of teachers to give the large
number of courses advertised with great fulness in the catalogue. A
large part of crooked collegiate athletics is due to an indurated belief
in the advertising efficacy of gridiron victories as a means of
attracting first, students, and then endowments. So far as charges of
corruption against our higher educational institutions are at all
justified they are justified chiefly by the practices just described.
Fairness requires the statement, however, that a marked change of
heart is now taking place. Public criticism has placed athletic graft in
the pillory to such an extent that enlightened self-interest, if no better
motive, should bring about its speedy abolition by responsible
college managements. Many sincere efforts have been made by
members of faculties singly and through organisations covering
certain fields of study to raise and properly enforce entrance and
promotion standards. Finally in the Carnegie Foundation for the
Advancement of Teaching there has been developed an agency of
unparalleled efficiency for detecting and exposing low standards. A
college may continue to publish fake requirements, to crowd its class
rooms with students who belong to high schools, to pad its courses,
to underpay and overwork its instructing staff, but if it does these
things it cannot, even if otherwise qualified, secure pensions for its
professors, and in any event its derelictions will be advertised
broadcast in the reports of the Foundation with a precision and a
conviction beyond all hope of rebuttal. Let cynics smile at a process
which they may describe as bribing the colleges to be good by
pensioning their superannuates, but unquestionably the work of the
Foundation has resulted in a new uprightness, a new firmness of
standards, a higher efficiency that bodes well for the future of
American education. Parents may give material encouragement to
this movement by reading the publications of the Carnegie
Foundation, as well as college catalogues and advertisements,
before they determine upon an institution for the education of their
children.
Although the conditions just described are the principal evil results
of the competitive struggle for college and university expansion, the
accusations of corruption against institutions of learning have usually
dealt with their teaching of the doctrines of economics, sociology,
and political science. Endowments must be secured; as a rule they
can be had only from the very rich; among the very rich are
numbered most of the “malefactors of great wealth”;—ergo university
and college teaching on such subjects must be made pleasing or at
least void of all offence to plutocratic interests.
There is a certain disproportion between the means and the ends
considered by the foregoing argument which is worth notice. To
found or endow a college or university requires a great deal of
money. Any institution worthy of either name is made up of
numerous departments,—languages, literature, the natural sciences,
history, and the social sciences,—of which only the last named are
concerned with the moot questions of the day. If one cherished the
Machiavellian notion of corrupting academic opinion to his economic
interest he would be obliged, therefore, to support an excessively
large number of departments the work of which would be absolutely
indifferent to him. Endowment of the social sciences alone would be
rather too patent. That they are not over-endowed at the present