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ENGINEERING
MATHEMATICS
VOLUME-I
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ENGINEERING
MATHEMATICS
VOLUME-I
SECOND EDITION
Dr. A GANESH
MSc, MPhil, PhD, PGDCA, MISTE
Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics
Government Arts and Science College (Model College)
Department of Higher Education
Government of Tamil Nadu
Hosur, Tamil Nadu
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS

LONDON • NEW DELHI • NAIROBI
•
Copyright © 2020, 2011, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
All rights reserved.

No part of this ebook may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, xerography,
or any other means, or incorporated into any information by retrieval system, electronic or
mechanical, without the written permission of the publisher. All inquiries should be
emailed to rights@newagepublishers.com
This ebook has been given to EBSCO for hosting on non-exclusive basis.
ISBN: 978-81-224-5802-2
PUBLISHING GLOBALLY
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS
7/30A, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110002
Visit us at www.newagepublishers.com
Dedicated to
My dear parents,
Shiridi Sai Baba,
My dear loving son G Monish Sri Sai,
And my supporting wife Mamatha Ganesh
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PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
This book (Second Edition) has been designed to serve as a textbook for the engineering students of all
Indian and International universities. The book is divided into 5 modules covering Differential Calculus,
Integral Calculus, Differential Equations, Vector Calculus and Linear Algebra.
The book has comprehensive study material. Each topic is treated in systematic and logical manner.
A large number of carefully selected worked out examples and graded exercises with answers form an
integral part of the text.
It is believed that the book will fulfill the needs of students and teachers for whom it is intended.
Constructive criticism, comments and suggestions are most welcome.
Dr. A. Ganesh
VIII ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS—II
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

This textbook has been prepared for Engineering Mathematics syllabi of all Indian and International
universities. The book contains eight chapters covering Differential Calculus, Vector Calculus, Integral
Calculus, Differential Equations and Linear Algebra.
It gives me a great pleasure in presenting this book in as simple manner as possible. This will help
the students to gain confidence in problem-solving.
Each unit is treated in a systematic and logical way with solved examples, and is followed by an
exercise section. It includes latest model question papers with answers.
The book is designed as self-contained, comprehensive and friendly from students’ point of view.
Both theory and problems have been explained by using elegant diagrams wherever necessary.
I am grateful to New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers and the editorial department for their
commitment and encouragement in bringing out this book within a short span of time.
Dr. A. Ganesh
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I thank Almighty for showering his grace for the endeavour possible.
It gives me great pleasure to present this book Engineering Mathematics Volume I. My indebtedness
remains to those who contributed to this first edition.
I am ever indebted, sincere thanks to Dr. G. Balasubramanian, an Associate Professor, Department
of Mathematics, Govt. Arts College (Men), Krishnagiri, for his excellent constructive guidance, continued
interest, utmost motivation throughout the period of my work. I remain forever grateful to him.
I wish to place my heartily and sincere thanks to my respectable Professor Dr. K.S. Basavarajappa,
VTU Chairman, Principal and Head of the Mathematics Department, Bapuji Institute of Engineering
and Technology, Davanagere, Karnataka for his constant encouragement, wealthy advice and administrative
support.
We must acknowledge to my respectable Professor Dr. Nityananda Pradhan, National Institute of
Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS), Bangalore–29, for his constant encouragement, wealthy
advice and administrative support.
I would like to thank The Oxford College of Engineering Chairman Mr. S. Narasaraju Garu, Executive
Director Mr. S.N.L.V. Narasimha Raju Garu, Principal Dr. R. Nagaraj and HOD Dr. Mallikarjun K and
the faculty members of the Mathematics Department for their valuable suggestions and encouragement.
My special thanks to well-wisher friend Prof. Chandran M., Department of Mathematics, The Oxford
College of Engineering, and Dr. Mani Sankar, Prof. and Head, Department of Mathematics, East Point
College of Engineering and Technology, Bangalore.
Thanks to Dr. A.S. Hariprasad, Professor and Head of the Department of Mathematics, Dr. Sri Sri
Sri Sivakumar Mahaswamy, College of Engineering and Technology, Byranayakanahalli, Bangalore, Prof.
Sathish L. Jnanavikas Institute of Technology, Bangalore, Dr. Venkata Reddy and friends Professor,
Department of Mathematics, BNMIT, Bangalore .
My sincere thanks to my family members for their prayers, affection and moral support throughout
the period.
In addition, I would like to thank my undergraduate and postgraduate students and colleagues whose
perceptive comments led to this edition and the staff of New Age International Publishers Pvt. Ltd., for
their patience in dealing with me. Lastly, special thanks are due to my Ph.D. Scholars and other students.
Dr. Ganesh A
(ix )
CONTENTS
Preface to the Second Edition ............................................................................................................ vii

Preface to the First Edition ............................................................................................................... viii
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................... ix
Syllabus .............................................................................................................................................. xiii
Module 1: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS-I ................................................................................... 1–55

1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 nth Derivatives of Some Standard Functions .......................................................................... 1
1.3 Leibnitz’s Theorem ................................................................................................................ 9
1.4 Polar Curves ........................................................................................................................ 16
1.5 Radius of Curvature ............................................................................................................. 27
1.6 Derivatives of Arc Lengths .................................................................................................. 40
Module 2: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS-II ............................................................................. 47–106

2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 47
2.2 Taylor’s Theorem and Maclaurin’s Series............................................................................. 47
2.3 Indeterminate Forms ............................................................................................................ 52
2.4 L’Hospital’s Rule ................................................................................................................. 53
2.5 Partial Differentiation ......................................................................................................... 64
2.6 Function of Two Variables .................................................................................................... 64
2.7 Partial Differential Coefficients .......................................................................................... 64
2.8 Homogeneous Functions ..................................................................................................... 73
2.9 Total Derivative ................................................................................................................... 76
2.10 Differentiation of Composite Functions (or) Chain Rule ..................................................... 79
2.11 Jacobian ............................................................................................................................... 83
2.12 Properties of Jacobians ....................................................................................................... 84
2.13 Taylor’s Expansion of a Function of Two Variables .............................................................. 92
(x )
CONTENTS (xi )
2.14 Maxima and Minima of Functions of Two Variables ............................................................. 96

2.15 Errors and Approximation .................................................................................................. 101
Module 3: VECTOR CALCULUS ............................................................................................ 107–166

3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 107
3.2 Scalar and Vector Point Functions ...................................................................................... 107
3.3 Derivative of a Vector Valued Functions ............................................................................. 108
3.4 Gradient, Divergence and Curl ........................................................................................... 110
3.5 Solenoidal Vector Function ................................................................................................ 114
3.6 Curl of a Vector Function ................................................................................................... 114
3.7 Vector Identities ................................................................................................................ 114
3.8 Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates .................................................................................. 124
3.9 Unit Vectors or Base Vectors and Scalar Vectors ............................................................... 125
3.10 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 136
3.11 Differentiation under the Integral Sign ............................................................................... 137
3.12 Tracing of Curves ............................................................................................................... 143
3.13 Procedure for Tracing Curves in Cartesian Form ............................................................... 143
3.14 Polar Form ........................................................................................................................ 152
3.15 Parametric Form ................................................................................................................ 157
3.16 Applications ...................................................................................................................... 160
Module 4: INTEGRAL CALCULUS ........................................................................................ 167–225

4.1 Reduction Formulae .......................................................................................................... 168
4.2 Differential Equation ......................................................................................................... 178
4.3 Solution of First Order, First Degree Equations ................................................................. 180
4.4 Equations Reducible to Variables Separable Type ............................................................... 183
4.5 Homogeneous Equations ................................................................................................... 187
4.6 Linear Equations ................................................................................................................ 196
4.7 Equations Reducible to Linear Form .................................................................................. 201
4.8 Exact Equations ................................................................................................................. 206
4.9 Equations Reducible to Exact Form with Standard Integrating Factors ............................... 211
4.10 Applications of Differential Equations .............................................................................. 217
Module 5: LINEAR ALGEBRA ............................................................................................... 226–312

5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 226
5.2 Elementary Transformations .............................................................................................. 226
5.3 Uses of Elementary Transformations ................................................................................. 227
5.4 Rank of a Matrix ................................................................................................................ 231
5.5 Solution of a System of Linear Homogeneous Equations ................................................... 239
(xii ) ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS–I
5.6 Solution of a System of Linear Non Homogeneous Equations ........................................... 243

5.7 Linear Transformations ...................................................................................................... 255
5.8 Gauss-Seidel Method ......................................................................................................... 256
5.9 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors ............................................................................................ 263
5.10 Orthogonal Transformation ................................................................................................ 267
5.11 Power Method or Rayleigh’s Power Method ...................................................................... 278
5.12 LU-Decomposition/Factorization ...................................................................................... 285
5.13 Reduction to Diagonal Form .............................................................................................. 292
5.14 Quadratic Forms ................................................................................................................ 296
5.15 Reduction of Quadratic Form to Canonical Form............................................................... 299
5.16 Nature of Quadratic Form .................................................................................................. 303
Model Question Paper-I ................................................................................................... 309
Model Question Paper-II .................................................................................................. 312
SYLLABUS
ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS - I
Subject Code : 14MAT11 IA Marks : 25
Hours/Week : 04 Exam. Hours : 03
Total Hours : 50 Exam. Marks : 100
Module 1
Differential Calculus - 1
Determination of nth order derivatives of Standard functions Problems. Leibnitzs theorem (without
proof) problems.
Polar Curves Angle between the radius vector and tangent, angle between two curves, Pedal equation for
polar curves. Derivative of arc length Cartesian, Parametric and Polar forms (without proof) problems.
Curvature and Radius of Curvature Cartesian, Parametric, Polar and Pedal forms and problems.
10 Hours
Module 2
Differential Calculus - 2
Taylors and Maclaurins theorems for function of one variable (statement only) problems. Evaluation of
Indeterminate forms.
Partial Derivatives Definition and simple problems, Eulers theorem problems, total derivatives,
partial differentiation of composite functions, Jacobians-definition and problems, extreme values of
functions of two variables. 10 Hours
Module 3
Vector Calculus
Derivative of vector valued functions, Velocity, Acceleration and related problems, Scalar and Vector point
functions, Gradient, Divergence, Curl, Solenoidal and Irrotational vector fields. Vector identities div (A),
curl (A), curl (grad), div (curl A).
Differentiation under integral sign using Leibnitz rule with constant and variable limits.
Curve Tracing General rules to trace Cartesian, polar and parametric curves. 10 Hours
(xiii )
(xiv ) ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS–I
Module 4
Integral Calculus
Reduction formulae (m and n are positive integers), evaluation of these integrals with standard limits (0 to
π/2) and problems.
Differential Equations:
Solution of first order and first degree differential equations Exact, reducible to exact and Bernoullis
differential equations.
Applications Orthogonal trajectories, Newtons law of cooling, flow of electricity, laws of decay and
growth. 10 Hours
Module 5
Linear Algebra
Rank of a matrix by elementary transformations, solution of system of linear equations Gauss-elimination
method, Gauss-Seidel method and L-U decomposition method. Linear transformation, diagonalisation of a
square matrix, Quadratic forms, reduction to Canonical form by orthogonal transformation, Rayleighs
power method to find the largest Eigenvalue and the corresponding Eigenvector. 10 Hours
Scheme of examination:
· Two full questions (with a maximum of four sub questions) of twenty marks each to be set
from each module. Each question should cover all contents of the respective module.
· Students have to answer five full questions choosing one full question from each module.
MODULE 1
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS-I
Learning Objectives
In this section, you will learn the following : · Various forms of curves like polar forms,
· The concept of derivative. pedal forms.
· Various interpretations of the derivatives. · Various forms of radius of curvature like
· Using Leibnitz’s theorem. Cartesian, polar, pedal forms.
· The concept of Cartesian and polar form.
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1.2 nth DERIVATIVES OF SOME

STANDARD FUNCTIONS
Calculus is one of the more beautiful intellectual
achievements of human being. The mathematical Below we obtain formulas for the nth order
study of change motion, growth or decay is calculus. derivatives of some standard functions.
One of the most important idea of differential (1) nth derivative of eax
calculus is derivative which measures the rate of Let y = eax. Then by differentiating y successively,
change of given function. Concept of derivative is we obtain
very useful in engineering, science, economics, dy
medicine and computer science. y1 = = aeax ,
dx
dy
The first order derivative of y denoted by , second d2y
dx y2 = = a2 eax
dx 2
d2y
order derivative denoted by , third order d 3y
dx 2 y3 = 3
= a3eax !
dx
d 3y ...... ..........................
derivative by and so on. Thus by differentiating
dx 3 ...... ..........................
a function y = f (x), n times, successively, we get dny
yn = n
= a n e ax
n dx
d y
the nth order derivative of y denoted by n or Thus, we have the formula
dx
n ax
n D n (e ax ) = a e ...(1)
D (y) or yn(x). Thus, the process of finding the
In particular,
differential coefficient of a function again and again
x
is called Successive Differentiation. Dn (e x ) = e ...(2)
2 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS–I
(2) nth derivative of log (ax + b) This formula is true for all m.
Let y = log(ax + b). Then we find, by successive Following are some particular cases.
Case (i):
differentiation
Suppose m = n (a +ve integer)
dy a
y1 = = In equation (5) becomes,
dx ax + b
D n [(ax + b) n ]
d2y a2
y2 = = (−1) = n( n 1)( n 2)"1 a n (ax b) n n
dx 2 (ax + b) 2
= n ! an ...(6)
3 3
d y a In particular,
y3 = = (−1) (−2) ⋅
dx 3 (ax + b) 3 D n (x n ) = n ! ...(7)
Case (ii):
d4y a4 Suppose m is a positive integer and m > n. Then
y4 = = (−1)(−2)(−3)
dx 4 (ax + b)4 formula (5) becomes
... ............................................
... ............................................ D n [(ax + b) m ]
dny (n − 1)! a n m(m 1)! (m n 1)( m n)(m n 1)! 2 1

yn = = (−1) n −1 ⋅
dx n (ax + b) n (m n)( m n 1)! 2 1
Thus, we have the formula ´ a n (ax b)m n
(−1)n −1 ⋅ (n − 1)! a n m!
D n [log(ax + b)] = ...(3) = a n (ax + b) m − n ...(8)
(ax + b) n (m − n)!
In particular, In particular,
m!
n (−1)n −1 ⋅ (n − 1)! Dn (x m ) = xm−n ...(9)
D [logx ] = ...(4) (m − n)!
xn
Case (iii):
(3) nth derivative of (ax + b) m Suppose m is a positive integer and n > m.
From (6) we note that
Let y = (ax + b) m
m
Differentiating successively, we get D n [(ax + b) m ] = m! a
In differentiate further, the right-hand side gives zero.
dy
y1 = = ma (ax + b) m −1 Thus, D n [(ax + b) m ] = 0 if n>m
dx
...(10)
d2y In particular,
y2 = = m(m − 1) ⋅ a 2 (ax + b) m−2
dx 2 Dn (x m ) = 0 for n > m ...(11)
d3y Case (iv): Suppose m = – 1, in this case formula
y3 3
m(m 1)(m 2)a3 (ax b)m 3 (5) becomes,
dx
........................................................ ⎡ 1 ⎤ n −1− n
........................................................ Dn ⎢ ⎥ = (−1) (−2) (−3)! (−n)a (ax + b)
⎣ ax + b ⎦
yn = m(m − 1) (m − 2)" (m − n + 1)a n (ax + b) m − n
(−1)n ⋅ n ! a n
...(5) = ...(12)
(ax + b)n +1
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS-I 3
Case (v): (5) nth derivative of sin(ax + b)

Suppose m is a negative integer. Let us get m Let y = sin(ax + b)
= – p, so that p is a positive integer. Then Differentiating successively, we get
formula (5) becomes,
⎡ ⎤ dy
1 = y1 = a cos(ax + b) = a sin(ax + b + π / 2)
Dn ⎢ P⎥ dx
⎣ (ax + b) ⎦
(−1)n ⋅ p( p + 1)! ( p + n − 1) ⋅ a n d2y

= y2 a2 cos(ax b Q / 2)
(ax + b) p+ n dx 2
1 ⋅ 2! p − 1 p( p + 1)! ( p + n − 1)an d 3y
= (−1)n ⋅ ⋅
1 ⋅ 2! p − 1 (ax + b) p + n a2 sin(ax b 2Q / 2)
dx 3
(−1)n ⋅ ( p + n − 1)! an
= ⋅ ...(13) y3 a3 cos(ax b 2Q/2)
( p − 1)! (ax + b) p+ n
In particular
a3 sin(ax b 3Q/2)
⎛ 1 ⎞ ( p + n − 1)! 1
Dn ⎜ p ⎟ = (−1)n ⋅ ⋅ ............................................................................
⎝x ⎠ ( p − 1)! x p + n ............................................................................
...(14)
(4) nth derivative of cos (ax + b) dny
= yn = a n sin(ax + b + nπ / 2)
Let y = cos(ax + b). dx n
Differentiating this successively, we get Thus, we have the formula,
dy D n [sin(ax + b)] = an sin(ax + b + nπ/2) ...(17)
y1 = = − a sin(ax + b) = a cos(ax + b + π / 2)
dx In particular,
d2y D n (sinx) = sin(x + nπ / 2) ...(18)

y2 = = −a sin(ax + b + π / 2)
2
dx 2 (6) nth derivative of eax sin (bx + c)
= a2 cos(ax + b + 2π / 2) Let y = e ax sin(bx + c)
d 3y dy
y3 = = −a3 sin(ax + b + 2π / 2) y1 = = aeax sin(bx + c) + beax cos(bx + c)
dx 3 dx
For computation of higher-order derivatives it is
= a3 cos(ax + b + 3π / 2) convenient to express the constants a and b in terms
..... ................................ of the constants k and a defined by
..... ................................
a = k cos α, b = k sin α
n
d y
yn = n
= an cos(ax + b + nπ/2)
dx So that k = a2 + b2 , α = tan−1 (b / a)
Thus, we obtain the formula
Thus,
D n [cos(ax + b)] = a n cos(ax + b + nπ / 2)
...(15) dy
y1 =
In particular, dx
D n (cos x) = cos(x + nπ / 2) ...(16) = eax [k(cos α)sin(bx + c) + k(sin α) cos(bx + c)]
Thus, we have the formula

= keax sin(bx + c + α)
Therefore, Dn [eax cos(bx + c)]
d2y = (a2 + b2 )n / 2 eax cos{bx + c + n tan −1 (b/a)} ...(21)

y2 =
dx 2 In particular,
ax ax
= k[ae sin(bx + c + α) + be cos(bx + c + α)] D n (e x cos x ) = 2n / 2 e x cos(x + nπ/4) ...(22)
keax [ k (cos B) sin(bx c B) (8) nth derivative of amx
k (sin B) cos(bx c B)] Let y = a mx
Taking logarithm on both sides,
= k 2 e ax sin(bx + c + 2α)
Proceeding like this, we obtain log y = mx log a
Differentiating w.r.t. ‘x’, we get
dny
yn = n ax
= k e sin(bx + c + nα)
dx n 1 dy
⋅ = m log a ⋅ 1
Thus, we have the formula y dx
D n [e ax sin(bx + c)] dy
y1 = = (m log a) ⋅ y
= (a2 + b2 )n / 2 sin{bx + c + n tan−1 (b/a)} ...(19) dx
In particular,
d2y
n x n/2 x y2 = = m log a ⋅ y1
D [e sin x] = 2 ⋅ e sin(x + nπ / 4) ...(20) dx 2
(7) nth derivative of eax cos(bx + c)
= (m log a)(m log a) ⋅ y
Let y = e ax cos(bx + c)
= (m log a) 2 y
dy
Then y1 = = aeax cos(bx + c) − beax sin(bx + c)
dx d 3y
y3 = = (m log a)2 ⋅ y1
ax
e [ k (cos B) cos(bx c) dx 3
k (sin B) sin(bx c)] = keax cos(bx + c + α) = (m log a) 3 y

Therefore, ..... ...................
d2y ..... ...................
y2 =
dx 2 dny
yn = = (m log a) n ⋅ y
ax ax
= k[ae cos(bx + c + α) − be sin(bx + c + α)] dx n
n mx
ke ax [ k (cos B) cos(bx c B) Dn [amx ] = (m log a) ⋅ a
k (sin B) sin(bx c B)]
= k 2 e ax cos(bx + c + 2α) WORKED EXAMPLES
Proceeding like this, we obtain
Example 1: Find the nth derivative of the
dny following functions:
yn = = k n eax cos(bx + c + nα) (i) sin3x (ii) cos4x.
dx n
Solution: Example 2: Find the nth derivative of the

following:
(i) y = sin3 x
(i) sin h 2xsin4x
1
where sin 3 x = (3 sin x − sin 3x) (ii) e x sin 2 x
4
(iii) e 2x cos 3 x
\ n 3 1
D (sin x) = D n (sin x) − D n (sin 3x)
3
4 4 (iv) e x sinx cos 2x
3 ⎛ nπ ⎞ 3n ⎛ nπ ⎞ (v) e ax cos 2 x sin x

= sin⎜ x + ⎟ − sin⎜ 3x + ⎟
4 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 4 ⎝ 2 ⎠ Solution:
[Using the formula (15)] 1
(i) sin h 2 x sin 4 x = (e 2 x − e −2 x ) ⋅ sin 4 x
(ii) y = cos4x 2
1 1
where cos2 x = (1 + cos 2 x) sin h 2 x sin 4 x = [e 2 x sin 4 x − e −2 x sin 4 x ]
2 2
so that cos 4 x =
1
(1 + cos 2 x) 2 D n (sin h 2 x sin 4 x)
4
1
1 = [ Dn (e2 x sin 4 x) − Dn (e−2 x sin 4 x)]
= [1 + cos2 2 x + 2 cos 2 x ] 2
4
1
1 [20 n / 2 {e2 x sin(4 x n tan 1 2)
where cos 2 x = (1 + cos 4 x)
2 2
2
e 2 x sin(4 x n tan 1 2)}]
\ cos 4 x = 1 ⎡1 + 1 (1 + cos 4 x) + 2 cos 2 x ⎤
4 ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥
⎦ Using the formula (19)
1 1 1 1 1
= + + cos 4 x + cos 2 x (ii) We have sin 2 x = (1 − cos 2 x)
4 8 8 2 2
3 1 1 Therefore,
cos4 x = + cos 2 x + cos 4 x
8 2 8 D n (e − x sin2 x)
\ Dn (cos4 x) 1 n −x 1 n −x
= D (e ) − D (e cos2 x)
2 2
⎛ 3⎞ 1 1
= D n ⎜ ⎟ + D n (cos 2 x) + D n (cos 4 x ) 1 −x 1
⎝8⎠ 2 8 = e (−1)n − [5n / 2 e− x cos(2 x + n tan −1 (−2))]
2 2
2n ⎛ nπ ⎞ 4 n ⎛ nπ ⎞
=0+ cos ⎜ 2 x + ⎟ + cos ⎜ 4 x + 1 −x
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 8 ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ = e [(−1)n − 5n / 2 cos(2 x − n tan −1 (2))]
2
2n ⎛ nπ ⎞ 4 n ⎛ nπ ⎞ (iii) We have cos3 x =
1
(cos 3x + 3 cos x)
= cos ⎜ 2 x + ⎟ + cos ⎜ 4 x +
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 8 ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 4
D n (e2 x cos3 x)
e2 x − e−2 x
sin h 2 x = 1 n 2x 3
2 = D (e cos 3x) + D n (e 2 x cos x)
4 4
1 1 ax 2
= [(22 + 32 )n / 2 e2 x cos{3x + n tan−1 (3/ 2)}] = e [(a + 1)n / 2 sin{x + n tan −1 (1/ a)}
4 4
3
+ [(2 2 + 12 ) n / 2 e 2 x cos{x + n tan −1 (1 / 2)}] + (a2 + 9) n / 2 sin{3x + n tan−1 (3 / a)}]
4
Example 3: Find the nth derivative of the
1 2x n / 2 following:
= e [13 cos{3x + n tan −1 (3 / 2)}
4 x 3
(i)
(x 1) (x 2)
+ 3(5) n / 2 ⋅ cos{x + n tan −1 (1 / 2)}]
1 x2
(iv) We have sin x cos 2 x = (sin 3x − sin x) (ii)
2 (x 2) (2x 3)
Therefore, Solution:
n −x
D (e sin x cos 2 x) x+3
(i) y =
1 n −x 1 ( x − 1)( x + 2)
= D (e sin 3x ) − D n (e − x sin x)
2 2 By partial fractions
1 x+3 A B
= [((−1) 2 + 32 ) n / 2 e − x sin{3x + n tan −1 (−3)}] = + ...(1)
2 ( x − 1)( x + 2) x −1 x + 2
1 Then x + 3 = A( x + 2) + B( x − 1)
− [((−1) 2 + 12 ) n / 2 e − x sin{x + n tan −1 (−1)}]
2 Taking x =1 ⇒ A = 4/3
1 x = −2 ⇒ B = −1/ 3
= e − x [10n /2 sin(3x − n tan −1 3)
2 Equation (1), becomes
n/2
–2 sin( x nQ / 4)]
x+3 4 1 1 1
= ⋅ −
(v) We note that ( x − 1)( x + 2) 3 ( x − 1) 3 ( x + 2)
1
cos2 x sin x = (1 + cos 2 x) ⋅ sin x ⎡ x+3 ⎤
2 Dn ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ( x − 1)( x + 2) ⎦
1 1
= sin x + ⋅ 2 sin x cos 2 x
2 4 4 n⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 n⎛ 1 ⎞
= D ⎜ ⎟− D ⎜ x+2⎟
1 1
3 ⎝ x −1⎠ 3 ⎝ ⎠
= sin x + (sin 3x − sin x)
2 4
4 (−1)n ⋅ n ! 1 (−1)n ⋅ n !
= −
=
1 1
sin x + sin 3x 3 ( x − 1)n +1 3 ( x + 2)n +1
4 4
[Using the formula (12)]
\ D n (e ax cos2 x sin x)
1 ⎡ 4 1 ⎤
1 1 = (−1)n ⋅ n ! ⎢ n +
− n + ⎥
= D n (e ax sin x) + D n (e ax sin 3x) 3 ⎣ ( x − 1)
1
( x + 2) ⎦ 1
4 4
(ii) We note that Therefore,

Dn (tan−1 x) D ( y1 )
n 1
x2 x2
= 2
( x + 2)(2 x + 3) 2 x + 7x + 6 1 ⎧ n −1 ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤⎫
= ⎨D ⋅ ⎢ ⎥ − Dn −1 ⎢ ⎥⎬
1 1
(2 x 2 + 7 x + 6) − (7x + 6)
2i ⎩ ⎣x −i⎦ ⎣ x + i ⎦⎭
= 2 2
(2 x + 7 x + 6)
2
1 ⎧⎪ (−1) n −1 ⋅ (n − 1) ! (−1) n −1 ⋅ (n − 1) ! ⎫⎪
= ⎨ − ⎬.
1 1 7x + 6 2i ⎩⎪ ( x − i) n ( x + i) n ⎪⎭
= −
2 2 ( x + 2)(2 x + 3) By using formula (12)
7x + 6 A B (−1)n −1 ⋅ (n − 1) ! ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
= + = ⎢ n
− ⎥ ...(1)
( x + 2)(2 x + 3) x + 2 2x + 3 2i ⎣ ( x − i) ( x + i) n ⎦
Let 7 x + 6 = A(2 x + 3) + B( x + 2) To simplify this, we transform the complex numbers
Taking x = −2 ⇒ A = 8
x + i and x – i to polar form by putting
x = r cos q, y = r sin q
x = −3 / 2 ⇒ B = −9
\ x = cos θ, 1 = r sin θ
x 2 1 1⎡ 8 9 ⎤ 1
Then = − ⎢ − ⎥ x 2 + 1 = x + 1 = r , tan θ =
2 2 2
( x + 2)(2 x + 3) 2 2 ⎣ ( x + 2) 2 x + 3 ⎦ x
...(2)
n
⎡ x2 ⎤
D ⎢ −n −n
⎥ ( x − i) = (r cos θ − ir sin nθ)
⎢⎣ ( x + 2)(2 x + 3) ⎦⎥
= r − n (cos nθ + i sin nθ) ...(3)
⎛1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ 9 n⎛ 1 ⎞
= D n ⎜ ⎟ − 4D n ⎜ ⎟+ D ⎜ ⎟ by De Moivre’s theorem*
⎝ ⎠
2 ⎝ x + 2⎠ 2 ⎝ 2x + 3 ⎠
Similarly (x + i)− n = r − n (cos nθ − i sin nθ) ...(4)
4(−1) n ⋅ n ! 9 (−1) n ⋅ n ! ⋅ 2 n Using (3) and (4) in (1), we get
=0− +
( x + 2) n +1 2 (2 x + 3) n +1
(−1)n −1 ⋅ (n − 1) !
D n [tan−1 x ] = ⋅ 2ir − n sin nθ
⎡ 9(−1) n ⋅ n ! 2 n −1 4 ⎤ 2i
= (−1) n ⋅ n ! ⎢ n +1
− n +1 ⎥
⎣⎢ (2 x + 3) ( x + 2) ⎦⎥ (−1) n −1 ⋅ (n − 1) ! ⎛ 1⎞
Example 4: Find the nth derivative of tan–1 x. = n/2
sin ⎜ n tan −1 ⎟ On using (2)
( x + 1)
2
⎝ x⎠
Solution: Let y = tan −1 x
x 1
Example 5: If y = x log , show that
dy 1 1 x 1
Then y1 = = =
dx 1 + x 2 x 2 − i2
n2 © xn x n ¸
(where i2 = –1) yn ( 1) ( n 2)! ª .
n n¹
« ( x 1) ( x 1) º
1
=
( x + i)( x − i) x −1
Solution: We have y = x log
By partial fractions x +1
y = x[log(x − 1) − log(x + 1)]
1⎡ 1 1 ⎤
= −
2i ⎣ x − i x + i ⎥⎦
⎢
Differentiating w.r.t. ‘x’, we get n2 © x 1 x 1 ¸

( 1) (n 2)! ª
n n¹
⎡ 1 1 ⎤ « ( x 1) ( x 1) º
y1 = log(x − 1) − log(x + 1) + x ⎢ − ⎥
⎣ x − 1 x + 1⎦
© 1 1 ¸
(1)n 1 (n 1) ! ª ¹
⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤ n
1)n º
y1 = log(x − 1) − log(x + 1) + ⎢1 + + −1+ « ( x 1) (x
⎣ x − 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x + 1⎥⎦
⎡ x −1 x +1 ⎤
1 1 = ( −1) n − h ⋅ ( n − 2)! ⎢ − +
y1 = log(x − 1) − log(x + 1) + +
x −1 x +1 ⎣ ( x − 1)
n
( x + 1) n ⎥⎦
Differentiating (n – 1) times with respect to x, we
get n 1 © 1 1 ¸
+ ( 1) (n 1) (n 2)! ª n n ¹
« (x 1) ( x 1) º
d n 1 d n 1
yn log( x 1) log( x 1)
dx n 1 dx n 1 ( 1)n 2 (n 2)!
d n 1¦ 1 µ d n −1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ © x 1 x 1 n 1 n 1 ¸
n 1 § ¶ ⋅⎜ ⎟ × ª
n¹
dx ¨ x 1· dx n −1 ⎝ x + 1 ⎠ « ( x 1)
n
( x 1) n
( x 1) n
(n 1) º
n2 n2
d ¬d » d ¬d » ⎡ x−n
log( x 1)¼ n 2 log( x 1)¼ x+n ⎤
dx n 2 ® dx ½ dx ® dx ½ = (−1) n −2 ⋅ (n − 2)! ⎢ n
− ⎥.
⎣ (x − 1) ( x + 1) n ⎦
( 1)n 1 (n 1)! ( 1) n 1 (n 1)!
dn n
( x 1) n ( x 1)n Example 6: If yn ( x log x ) , prove that
dx n
d n2 ¦ 1 µ d n2 ¦ 1 µ yn (n 1)! nyn 1 .
§ ¶ § ¶
dx n 2 ¨ x 1· dx n 2 ¨ x 1·
© 1 1 1¸
Deduce that yn (n !) ª log x 1 ! .
« 2 3 n ¹º
⎡ 1 1 ⎤
( 1) n 1
(n 1)! ⎢ (x − 1)n + (x + 1)n ⎥
⎣ ⎦ dn
Solution: yn = n
( x n log x)
dx
( 1)n 2 ( n 2)! ( 1) n 2 (n 2)!

( x 1) n 1 ( x 1) n 1 d n −1 ⎧ d n ⎫
= n −1 ⎨ dx
( x log x)⎬
dx ⎩ ⎭
© 1 1 ¸
( 1)n 1 (n 1)! ª ( x 1) n ( x 1) n¹ d n −1
« º = n −1
[nx n−1 ⋅ log x + x n−1 ]
dx
n2 © 1 1 ¸
( 1) ( n 2) ! ª ⎡ d n −1 ⎤ d n −1
n 1 n 1 ¹
« ( x 1) ( x 1) º = n ⎢ n −1 ( x n −1 ⋅ log x )⎥ + n −1 ⋅ ( x n −1 )
⎢⎣ dx ⎦⎥ dx
© 1 1 ¸
(1)n 1 (n 1) ! ª n ¹ yn = n ⋅ yn −1 + (n − 1)!
« ( x 1) (x 1)n º
1
⎡ dn d n −1 n −1 ⎤ 4.
⎢where n = n! ⇒ n −1
( x ) = (n − 1) !⎥ x − 6x + 8
2
⎣⎢ dx dx ⎥⎦
⎡ (−1)n ⋅ n! ⎡ 1 1 ⎤⎤
This is the first of the required results. ⎢ Ans. ⎢ n +
− n + ⎥⎥
⎣ ( x − 4) ( x − 2) ⎦ ⎥⎦
1 1
⎢⎣ 2
Taking n = 1, 2, 3, . . . successively in the result just
proved, we get x
5.
( x − 1)(2 x + 3)
d0
y1 = y0 + 0 ! = 0
( x 0 log x) + 1 = log x + 1
dx ⎡ ⎤⎤
(−1)n ⋅ n! ⎡ 1 3.2n
y2 = 2 y1 + 1 ! = 2(log x + 1) + 1 ⎢ Ans. ⎢ n +
+ n + ⎥⎥
⎣⎢ ( x − 1) (2 x + 3) ⎦⎥ ⎦⎥
5 1 1
⎣⎢
y 3 = 3y 2 + 2 !
x © ( 1)n n! ¸
= 3{2(log x + 1) + 1} + 2 ! 6. ª Ans. ¹
( x − 3) (2 x − 1)
2
25 º
«
⎛ 1 1⎞
= 3! ⎜ log x + 1 + + ⎟
⎝ 2 3⎠ ⎡ 15( n + 1) 1
7. ⎢ n+2
−
....... ............................... ⎣ ( x − 3) ( x − 3) n +1
....... ...............................
2n + 1 ⎤ ⎛ 2x ⎞
⎡ 1 1 1⎤ + n +1 ⎥
tan −1 ⎜ 2 ⎟
yn = n ! ⎢ log x + 1 + + + ! + . (2 x − 1) ⎦ ⎝1− x ⎠
⎣ 2 3 n ⎥⎦
Hence proved. [ Ans. 2( 1) n 1 (n 1)! sin n R sin nR,
where R cot 1 x ]
EXERCISE 1.1 ⎡ x + 1⎤
8. tan −1 ⎢ ⎥
⎣1 − x ⎦
Find the nth derivative of the following
functions: [ Ans. ( 1) n 1 (n 1)! sin n R sin nR,
1. log(ax + b)(cx + d ) where R cot 1 x ]
⎡ an cn ⎤ −1 ⎛ 2 x ⎞
n −1
⎢ Ans. (−1) ⋅ (n − 1)! + n⎥
9. sin ⎜ ⎟
⎣⎢ (ax + b) n
(cx + d ) ⎦⎥ ⎝ 1 + x2 ⎠
2. sin4x [ Ans. ( 1) n 1 (n 1)! sin n R sin nR,
[Ans. 2 n −2 [2 n −1 cos(4 x + nπ / 2) − cos(2 x + nπ / 2)] where R cot 1 x ]
3. e x cos x cos 2 x
© 1 x n/2 1.3 LEIBNITZ’S THEOREM
ª Ans. e [10 cos(3 x n tan 1 3)
« 2 Statement: The following theorem, known as
Leibnitz’s theorem provides a useful formula for
2 n / 2 cos( x nQ / 4) ¸º computing the nth derivative of a product of two
functions.
* Gottfried William Leibnitz (1646–1716) was born in Leipzig (Germany). He was Newton’s rival in the invention of calculus. He spent his
life in diplomatic service. He exhibited his calculating machine in 1673 to the Royal Society. He has Linguist and won fame as
Sanskrit scholar.
Theorem: If u and v be any two functions of x with

⎛ π⎞
un and vn as their nth derivatives. Then the nth + x(n − 1)n ⋅ 3n −1 ⋅ sin⎜ 3x + (n − 2) ⎟
derivative of uv is given by the formula. ⎝ 2⎠
(uv) n = uvn + nC1u1vn−1 + nC2u2 vn−2 + nC3u3vn−3 + n(n − 1)(n − 2) ⋅ 3n −3 ⋅ sin(3x + (n − 3)π / 2)
Example 2: Find the nth derivative of ex log x.
+ !! + nCn −1 un −1v1 + un v ...(1)
Solution: Let u = e x v = log x
Note: Since (uv) n = (vu) n , formula (1) may be
stated also as follows (by interchanging u and v) 1
un = Dn (ex ) = e x ⋅ v1 =
n n n x
(vu) n vun C1 v1un 1 C2 v2 un 2 C3 v3un 3
1
! n
Cn 1 vn 1u1 vn u ...(2) v2 = −
x2
By Leibnitz’s theorem, we get
n n
WORKED EXAMPLES (vu) n vun C1 v1un 1 C2 v2 un 2
n
Example 1: Find the nth derivative of x3 sin 3x. C3 v3un 3 ""
Solution: Let u = x 3 and v = sin 3x 1 x ¦ 1 µ
log x e x n
C1 e n
C2 e x §
Then x ¨ x 2 ¶·
u1 = 3x 2 vn = D n (sin 3x) ¦ 2µ x
n
C3 § e !
u2 = 6 x n
= 3 sin(3x + nπ / 2) ¨ x 3 ¶·
u3 = 6 © 1 n(n 1) 1
= ex ´ ª log x n x 2
vn −1 = 3n −1 sin(3x + (n − 1)π / 2) « 2 x
Therefore, by Leibnitz’s theorem, we have n(n 1)( n 2) 1 ¸

3 !¹
(uv) n 3 x º
n n n Example 3: If y = x 2 e x , prove that
uvn C1 u1vn 1 C2 u2 vn 2 C3u3 vn 3
!![ x 3 sin 3 x ]n 1 1
yn n(n 1) y2 n(n 2) y1 (n 1)(n 2) y
2 2
x 3 3n sin(3 x nQ/2)
n n 1
Solution: We have y = x 2 e x ...(1)
C1 3 x 3
2
sin(3x (n 1)Q / 2) Differentiating w.r.t. ‘x’
n
C2 6 x 3n 2 sin(3 x ( n 2)Q / 2) y1 = x 2 e x + 2 xe x = y + 2 xe x ...(2)
¦ Qµ y2 = y1 + (2 xex + 2e x ) = y1 + ( y1 − y) + 2e x
n
C3 6 3n 3 sin § 3 x (n 3) ¶
¨ 2·
= 2 y1 − y + 2e x ...(3)
¦ nQ µ x
[where 2xe = y1 – y using (2)]
x 3 3n sin § 3 x
¨ 2 ¶· Next, differentiating (1) n times, using the Leibnitz’s
theorem, we get
3 x 2 n sin(3 x (n 1)Q / 2)
yn = e x ⋅ x 2 + nC1 ⋅ e x ⋅ (2 x ) + nC2 ⋅ e x ⋅ 2 n( x 2 − 1) n
y1 = ⋅ 2x
2 x x
= x e + 2nxe + n(n − 1) ⋅ e x ...(4) x2 −1
Substituting for x2ex, 2xex and ex from (1), (2) and ( x 2 − 1) y1 2 nx ( x 2 1) n ,
(3) in (4), we get
where y ( x 2 1)n
1
yn = y + n( y1 − y) + n(n − 1) ⋅ ( y2 − 2 y1 + y)
2 ( x 2 − 1) y1 = 2nxy
1 1
= n(n − 1) y2 − n(n − 2) y1 + (n − 1)(n − 2) y ( x 2 − 1) y1 − 2nxy = 0
2 2
This is the required result. Again differentiating w.r.t. ‘x’, we get
Example 4: Differentiate the following equation ( x 2 − 1) y2 + 2 xy1 − 2n [ xy1 + y] =0

n times (1 x 2 ) y2 xy1 a 2 y = 0. ( x 2 − 1) y2 + 2 xy1 − 2n xy1 − 2ny =0
Solution: Let us differentiate each term of the given
( x 2 − 1) y2 − 2(n − 1) xy1 − 2ny =0
equation n times by using the Leibnitz’s theorem,
thus, we get ...(1)
By Leibnitz’s theorem, we get
D n [(1 − x 2 ) y2 ]
D n [( x 2 − 1) y2 ]
= (1 − x 2 ) yn + 2 + n C1 ⋅ (−2 x ) yn +1 + nC2 (−2) yn
= ( x 2 − 1) yn + 2 + n C1 ⋅ 2 x ⋅ yn +1 + n C1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ yn
= (1 − x 2 ) yn + 2 − 2nxyn +1 − n(n − 1) yn
= ( x 2 − 1) yn + 2 + 2nxyn +1 + n(n − 1) yn
D n ( xy1 ) = xyn +1 + nC1 (1) yn D n ( xy1 ) = xyn +1 + n C1 ⋅ (1) yn
= xyn +1 + nyn = xyn +1 + nyn
D n ( a 2 y) = a 2 y n D n (y) = yn
\ The nth derivative of the given equation is From equation (1), becomes,
{(1 − x 2 ) yn + 2 − 2nxyn +1 − n ( n − 1) yn } ( x 2 1) yn 2 2 nxyn 1 n(n 1) yn 2(n 1)
– { xyn 1 nyn } a 2 yn 0 ( xyn 1 nyn ) 2 nyn 0
i.e., ( x 2 − 1) y n + 2 + (2 n − 2 n + 2) xy n + 1
(1 − x 2 ) yn + 2 − (2n + 1) xyn +1 − (n2 − a2 ) yn = 0 . + ( n 2 − n − 2 n 2 + 2 n − 2 n ) y n = 0.
Example 5: If (x 2 1)n , prove that ( x 2 − 1) yn + 2 + 2 xyn +1 − n(n + 1) yn = 0.

Hence proved.
(x 2 1)yn 2 2xyn 1 n(n 1) yn 0.
Example 6: If y acos (log x) bsin (log x),
Solution: We have y = ( x 2 − 1) n
prove that x 2 yn 2 (2n 1)xyn 1 (n 2 1)yn 0.
Differentiating this, we get
y1 = n( x 2 − 1) n−1 ⋅ 2 x Solution: Let y = a cos(log x) + b sin(log x ) ...(1)
Differentiating, we get
1 1 ⎛x⎞
y1 = −a sin(log x) ⋅ + b cos(log x) ⋅ = P log ⎜ ⎟
x x
⎝n⎠
− a sin(log x) + b cos(log x) cos−1 ( y/b) = P(log x − log n)
y1 =
x
y
xy1 = − a sin(log x) + b cos(log x ) = cos{P(log x − log n)}
b
Again differentiating, we get y = b cos{P(log x − log n)} ...(1)
xy2 + y1 = −a cos(log x) ⋅ 1 − b sin(log x) ⋅ 1 Differentiating, we get

x x 1
y1 = −b sin{P(log x − log n) ⋅ P ⋅
1 x
xy2 + y1 = − [a cos(log x) + b sin(log x)]
x xy1 = − Pb sin{P(log x − log n)}
Squaring on both sides
x 2 y2 + xy1 = − y [Using equation (1)]
x 2 y12 = P 2 b 2 sin2 {P(log x − log n)}
x 2 y2 + xy1 + y = 0 ...(2)
Differentiating this equation n times by using the x 2 y12 = P 2 b 2 [1 − cos2 {P(log x − log n)}]
Leibnitz’s theorem, we get
n n n
= P 2 [b 2 − b 2 cos2 {P(log x − log n)}]
D ( x y2 ) = x yn + 2 + C1 ⋅ 2 x ⋅ yn +1 + C2 ⋅ 2 yn
2 2
x 2 y12 = P 2 [b 2 − y 2 ], [Using equation (1)]

= x yn + 2 + 2nxyn +1 + n(n − 1) yn
2
Differentiating, we get
D n ( xy1 ) = xyn +1 + n C1 ⋅ 1 ⋅ yn 2 xy12 + x 2 2 y1 y2 = −2P 2 yy1
= xyn +1 + nyn
Dividing both sides by 2y1
xy1 + x 2 y2 = − P 2 y
D n ( y) = y n
Þ x 2 y2 + xy1 + P 2 y = 0 ...(2)
From the equation (2) becomes
Differentiating this equation ‘n’ times by using
x 2 yn + 2 + 2nxyn +1 + n(n − 1) yn + xyn +1 + nyn + yn Leibnitz’s theorem, we get
=0 D n ( x 2 y2 ) = x 2 yn + 2 + nC1 ⋅ 2 xyn +1 + nC2 ⋅ 2 yn
x 2 yn + 2 + (2n + 1) xyn +1 + (n 2 − n + n + 1) yn = 0
= x 2 yn + 2 + 2nxyn +1 + n(n − 1) yn
x 2 yn + 2 + (2n + 1) xyn +1 + (n 2 + 1) yn = 0.
D n ( xy1 ) = xyn +1 + nC1 ⋅ (1) yn
Hence proved.
= xyn +1 + nyn
Example 7: If cos 1 (y / b) log(x / n) P , prove
D n ( P 2 y) = P 2 y n
that x 2 yn 2 (2n 1)xyn 1 (n2 P 2 )yn 0.
From the equation (1), becomes
Solution: We have
p x 2 yn + 2 + 2nxyn +1 + n(n − 1) yn + xyn +1 + nyn + P2 yn
⎛x⎞
cos−1 ( y / b) = log ⎜ ⎟ =0
⎝n⎠
x 2 yn + 2 + (2n + 1) xyn +1 + (n 2 − n + n + P 2 ) yn = 0 Þ ( x 2 − 1) y12 − m 2 y 2 = 0

Differentiating again, we get
x 2 yn + 2 + (2n + 1) xyn +1 + (n 2 + P 2 ) yn = 0.
Hence proved. ( x 2 − 1)2 y1 y2 + y12 (2 x) − m2 ⋅ 2 yy1 = 0
Dividing both sides by 2y1, we get
Example 8: If y1 / m y 1 / m 2x prove that ( x 2 − 1) y2 + xy1 − m2 y = 0 ...(2)
(x 2 1)yn 2 (2n 1)xyn 1 (n2 m 2 )yn 0. Differentiating this equation n times by using
Solution: We have y1 / m + y −1 / m = 2 x
D n [( x 2 − 1) y2 ]
1/ m 1
Þ y + 1/ m = 2x = ( x 2 − 1) yn + 2 + n C1 ⋅ (2 x) ⋅ yn +1 + n C2 ⋅ 2 yn
y
= ( x 2 − 1) yn + 2 + 2nxyn +1 + n(n − 1) yn
2/m 1/ m
y + 1 = 2 xy
D n ( xy1 ) = xyn +1 + n C1 ⋅ yn
( y1 / m ) 2 − 2 xy1 / m + 1 = 0 = xyn +1 + nyn
So that,
D n (m 2 y) = m 2 yn
2 x ± 4x 2 − 4 From the equation (2), becomes,
y1 / m = = x ± x2 − 1
2 ( x 2 − 1) yn + 2 + 2nxyn +1 + n(n − 1) yn
+ xyn nyn m2 yn 0
Þ y = ( x ± x 2 − 1)m ...(1) 1
Differentiating, we get ( x 2 − 1) yn + 2 + (2n + 1) xyn +1 + (n2 − m2 ) yn = 0.

Hence proved.
⎡ x ⎤
y1 = m ( x ± x 2 − 1)m−1 ⋅ ⎢1 ± ⎥ Example 9: If x = sin t and y = cos pt, prove that
⎢⎣ x 2 − 1 ⎥⎦
(1 x 2 ) yn 2 ( 2n 1) xyn 1 (n2 p2 ) yn 0.
m Solution: We have x = sin t, y = cos pt
⎡ x ± x2 − 1⎤
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎡ x 2 − 1 ± x ⎤ Differentiating w.r.t. ‘t’,
= m⋅ ⋅⎢ ⎥
( x ± ( x 2 − 1) ⎢⎣ x 2 − 1 ⎥⎦ dx
= cos t,
dy
= − p sin pt
dt dt
m dy dy dx
m ⎡ x ± x2 − 1⎤ So that, y1 = =
y1 = ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ dx dt dt
x2 − 1
y1 = − p sin pt
cos t
x 2 − 1 ⋅ y1 = my Using (1) Squaring on both sides
Squaring on both sides, we get
⎡ sin 2 pt ⎤
y12 = p 2 ⎢
− 1) y12 =m y 2 ⎥
2 2 2
(x
⎣⎢ cos t ⎦⎥
⎡1 − cos2 pt ⎤ (1 + x 2 ) y2 + 2 xy1 = 0 ...(2)

=p ⎢
2
2 ⎥
⎢⎣ 1 − sin t ⎥⎦ Differentiating this equation n times using the
⎡1 − y2 ⎤ (1 + x 2 ) yn + 2 + n C1 ⋅ (2 x) yn +1 + n C2 ⋅ 2 yn +
y12 = p 2 ⎢ 2⎥
⎣⎢1 − x ⎥⎦ 2 xyn +1 + n C1 ⋅ 2 yn = 0
(1 − x 2 ) y12 = p 2 (1 − y 2 ) (1 x 2 ) yn 2nxyn
2 1
Þ (1 − x 2
− p (1 − y ) = 0
) y12 2 2
n(n 1) yn 2 xyn 1 2 nyn 0
Differentiating this w.r.t. ‘x’, we get
(1 − x 2 )2 y1 y2 − 2 xy12 + 2 p 2 yy1 = 0 (1 + x 2 ) yn + 2 + 2(n + 1) xyn +1 + n(n + 1) yn = 0
Dividing by 2y1 ...(3)
This is the first of the required results.
(1 − x 2 ) y2 − xy1 + p2 y = 0 ...(1)
For x = 0, (1), (2) and (3) give
Differentiating this equation n times by using the
Leibnitz’s theorem, we get y1 (0) = 1, y2 (0) = 0 ...(4)
Dn [(1 − x 2 ) y2 ] y n + 2 (0) = − n(n + 1) yn (0) ...(5)

Therefore (5) gives, on taking n = 1, 3, 5, ......
= (1 − x 2 ) yn + 2 + nC1 (−2 ⋅ x) yn +1 + nC2 (−2) yn
y3 (0) = −1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ y1 (0) = −2 !, Using (4)
y5 (0) = −3 ⋅ 4 ⋅ y3 (0) = −3 ⋅ 4 ⋅ (−2) = 4 !
= (1 − x 2 ) yn + 2 − 2nxyn +1 − n(n − 1) yn
y 7 (0) = −5 ⋅ 6 ⋅ y5 (0) = −(6 ! ) and so on ...(6)
D n [ xy1 ] = xyn +1 + n C1 ⋅ yn Next, since y2(0) = 0 equation (5) gives
= xyn +1 + nyn y4 (0) = y6 (0) = y8 (0) = 0 ...(7)
From (6) and (7), we find that
Dn ( p2 y) = p yn
2
From this equation (1), becomes ⎧ n −1

⎪(−1) 2 (n − 1) !, n is odd
y n ( 0) = ⎨
(1 − x 2 ) yn + 2 − (2n + 1) xyn +1 − (n2 − p2 ) yn = 0. ⎪⎩ 0 , n is even
Hence proved.
Thus, for all n, yn is determined at x = 0.
Example 10: If y = tan –1 x, prove that
−1
(1 x 2 )yn 2(n 1)xyn n(n 1)yn 0. Example 11: If y = em sin x
, prove that
2 1
Hence determine yn at x = 0. (1 − x 2 ) yn + 2 − (2n + 1) xyn +1 − ( n 2 + m 2 ) yn = 0 .

Solution: y = tan–1 x ...(1)
Differentiating w.r.t. ‘x’
Hence determine yn at x = 0
1
y1 = ...(1) −1
1 + x2 Solution: Let y = em sin x
Differentiating w.r.t. ‘x’

So that (1 + x 2 ) y1 = 1
−1 m
Differentiating this, we get y1 = em sin x
⋅
1 − x2
my [ Ans. x 2 cos( x nQ / 2)
y1 = ...(2)
1 − x2
+ 2 nx cos{ x + ( n − 1) π / 2}
1 − x 2 ⋅ y1 = my + n(n 1)cos{x (n 2)Q / 2]
Squaring on both sides
(ii) x sin x cos x
(1 − x 2 ) y12 = m 2 y 2
[ Ans. x2n −1 sin(2 x + nπ / 2)
Differentiating, this we get
(1 − x 2 )2 y1 y2 − 2 xy12 + n ⋅ 2n − 2 sin(2 x + ( n − 1) π / 2]
= 2m2 yy1 (iii) x n e x

Dividing both sides 2y1, we get,
¬ n2 n 1 n2 (n 1)2 n 2 ¯¸
»
(1 − x 2 ) y2 − xy1 − m 2 y = 0 ...(3) © Ans. e x ¯ x n x x !¼ ¹
« ¯® 1! 2! ¯ º¹
½
Differentiating this equation n times we get the
equation 2. Differentiate the following equation n times
(1 − x ) yn + 2 − (2n + 1) xyn +1 − (n + m ) yn = 0
2 2 2
x 2 y2 + xy1 + (a 2 − P 2 ) y = 0 .
...(4)
Putting x = 0, in equation (4), we get © Ans.
«
x 2 yn 2 (2 n 1) xyn 1
y n + 2 (0) = (n + m ) yn (0)
2 2 ...(5)
(n2 a2 P
2
) yn 0 ¸º
Further, from (1), (2), (3), we find that
y(0) = 1, y1 (0) = m, y2 (0) = m 2 ...(6) 3. If y = [x + 1 + x 2 ]m , prove that
Consequently, (5) gives
(1 + x 2 ) yn + 2 + (2 n + 1) xyn +1 + (n 2 − m 2 ) yn = 0
y3 (0) = (1 + m ) y1 (0) = m (1 + m )
2 2 2 2
sin −1 x
y5 (0) = (32 + m 2 ) y3 (0) = m 2 (12 + m 2 )(32 + m 2 ),! 4. If y = , prove that
1 − x2
y 4 (0) = (2 + m ) y2 (0) = m (2 + m )
2 2 2 2 2
(1 − x 2 ) yn + 2 − (2n + 3) xyn +1 − (n + 1)2 yn = 0

2 2 2 2 2 2 2
y6 (0) = (4 + m ) y4 (0) = m (2 + m )(4 + m ),!
−1
In general, 5. If y = e a cos x
, prove that
y n ( 0)
(1 − x 2 ) yn + 2 − (2n + 1) xyn +1 − (n2 + a2 ) yn = 0
⎧⎪m(12 + m2 )(32 + m2 )![(n − 2)2 + m2 ], if n is odd
=⎨
sinh −1x
⎩⎪m (2 + m )(4 + m ),![(n − 2) + m ] if n is even.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
6. If y = , prove that
1 + x2
EXERCISE 1.2 (1 + x 2 ) yn + 2 + (2n + 3) xyn +1 + (n + 1)2 yn = 0

−1
1. Find the nth derivatives of the following 7. If y = etan x
, prove that
functions:
2 (1 − x 2 ) yn + 2 + (2n + 1)( x + 1) yn +1 + (n2 + 4) yn = 0
(i) x cos x
8. If x = sin t, y = sin pt, prove that (r, q) are called the polar coordinates of the point P;
and we write P = (r, q), or P(r, q).
(1 − x 2 ) yn + 2 − (2n + 1) xyn +1 − (n2 − p2 ) yn = 0
9. If y = log[x + 1 + x 2 ], prove that
(1 + x 2 ) yn + 2 + (2n + 1) xyn +1 + n 2 yn = 0
Deduce that
⎧ n −1
⎪( −1) 2 ⋅ 12 ⋅ 32 ⋅ 52...(n − 2)2 , if n is odd
⎪
yn (0) = ⎨
⎪ 0, if n is even
⎪
⎩
10. If y = sin( m sin −1 x ), prove that

Fig. 1.1
(1 − x 2 ) yn + 2 − (2n + 1) xyn +1 + (m2 − n2 ) yn = 0 In particular, r is called the radial distance and q is
Deduce that yn(0) = 0 when n is even, called polar angle. Also, O is called the pole, the x-
axis is called the initial line and OP is called the
and yn + 2 (0) = (n2 − m2 ) yn (0) with y1 (0) = m radius vector.
when n is odd. Let (x, y) be the Cartesian coordinates of the point
P. Then we find that (see Fig. 1.1)
11. If y = cos(m sin −1 x), prove that
r = x 2 + y 2 , θ = tan −1 ( y/x ) ...(1)
(1 − x ) yn + 2 − (2n + 1) xyn +1 − (n − m ) yn = 0
2 2 2
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ ...(2)
Deduce that yn (0) Relations (1) enable us to find the polar coordinates
(r, q) when the cartesian coordinates (x, y) are known
⎧⎪0, if n is odd conversely, the relation (2) enable us to find the
⎨ 2 2
= ⎪⎩ n (2 − m ) (42 − m 2 ) ...[( n − 2)2 − m 2 ], if n
2
cartesian coordinates when the polar coordinates are
known.
is even
If P is a variable point on a plane curve C, then the
1.4 POLAR CURVES equation of the curve in the cartesian form is a
relationship of the form y = ƒ(x).
Introduction Similarly, the equation of C in the polar form (or
the polar equation of C) is a relationship of the form
Polar curves have many application in engineering r = ƒ(q) a curve specified by a polar equation
fields. Some application of differential calculus to referred to as a polar curve.
geometry will discuss in this section. Other than
cartesian system of coordinates, there is another 1.4.1 Angle between Radius Vector and
system to represent a point and curve analytically in Tangent
a plane known as the polar coordinates system. Let P(r, q) be a point on a polar curve r = ƒ(q) and
Polar coordinates PT be the tangent to the curve at P, meeting the x-
axis (initial line) at the point T. Let y be the angle
Consider a point P in the xy-plane. Join the point O
which PT makes with the positive x-axis, and f be
(origin) and P. Let r be the length of OP and q be the
the angle between the radius vector OP and the
angle which OP makes with the (Positive) axes. Then
tangent PT.
If (x, y) are the Cartesian coordinates of the point P, the angle between the common radius vector OP and
we have tangents PT1 and PT2.
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ ...(1) C
rg R
dy
and = slope of PT = tan ψ = tan(θ + φ) ...(2) C
dx
ψ =θ+φ re R P
because
Y
G
R
C T
P G
G
T
R Z
X R
O T X
O
Fig. 1.2 Fig. 1.3
From the relations (1), we find, on noting that This angle is determined by using the formula
r = ƒ(q)
tan φ1 − φ2 = tan(φ1 − φ2 )
dx dr
= cos θ − r sin θ,
dθ dθ
tan φ1 − tan φ2
=
dy dr 1 + tan φ1 ⋅ tan φ2
= sin θ + r cos θ
dθ dθ
Thus, if f1 and f2 are known, the angle between C1
dy dy/d θ ( dr/d θ)sin θ + r cos θ and C2 at the point of intersection P is determined.
\ = =
dx dx/d θ (dr/d θ) cos θ − r sin θ Orthogonal curves
Dividing both the numerator and the denominator on From the above analysis it is evident that the angle
the right-hand side by (dr/dq) cos q, we get between C1 and C 2 at P is p/2 if and only if
dy tan θ + r (d θ/dr ) φ1 − φ 2 = π/ 2 or, equivalently, tan f1 tan f2 = – 1.
= ...(3)
dx 1 − r ( d θ/dr ) tan θ In this case, we say that the curve intersect
On the other hand, we find that (2), that orthogonally.
dy tan θ + tan φ
= tan(θ + φ) = ...(4)
dx 1 − tan θ ⋅ tan φ
WORKED EXAMPLES
Comparing equation (3) and (4), we get
dθ Example 1: Find the angle between radius vector
tan φ = r ⋅ ...(5)
dr and tangent for the curve r = a (1 – cos q).
This is the formula for the angle f between the radius Solution: Given r = a(1 − cosθ)
vector OP and the tangent PT. Differentiating w.r.t. ‘q’, we get
1.4.2 Angle between Polar Curves dr
= a sin θ
The angle of intersection of two curves is the angle dθ
between their tangents at that point. Let f1 and f2 be Then the angle f between the radius vector and the
tangent is given by
⎛ 2a ⎞ 2a
dθ 1 = r ⋅⎜ 2 ⎟ = r sin θ
\ tan φ = r ⋅ =r⋅ ⎝ r sin θ ⎠
dr a sin θ
r (1 + cos θ)
a(1 − cos θ) =
= r sin θ
a sin θ
2 cos2 θ/2
2sin 2 θ/2 =
= 2 sin θ/2 cos θ/2
2 sin θ/2 cos θ/2
⎡ 1 − cos θ = 2sin2 θ / 2 ⎤ [1 + cosθ = 2 cos2 θ / 2]

⎢ ⎥ = cot θ/ 2
⎣⎢sin θ = 2sin θ / 2 ⋅ cos θ / 2 ⎦⎥
tan φ = tan(π/ 2 − θ/ 2)
tan φ = tan θ/ 2
[cot θ / 2 = tan (π / 2 − θ / 2]
i.e., f = θ/ 2.
i.e., φ = π/ 2 − θ/ 2
Example 2: Find the angle between the radius
vector and the tangent at any point on the 2a 2π
following curves: (b) Given curve, = 1 − cos θ at θ =
r 3
2a
(a) 1 cos R 2a
r = 1 − cos θ
r
2a 2Q
(b) 1 cos R at R Taking logarithm on both sides, we get
r 3 log2a − log r = log (1 − cos θ)
R cot B
(c) r ae , where a is a constant Differentiating w.r.t. q
(d) r m am (cos mR sin mR ) 1 dr 1
0− = sin θ
r dθ 1 − cos θ
(e) r 2 a 2 sin 2R
Solution: Given curve, 1 dr 2 sin θ/2 cos θ/2
− =
2a r dθ 2sin 2 θ/2
(a) = 1 + cos θ ...(1)
r 1 dr
= − cot θ/2
Differentiating w.r.t. ‘q’, we get r dθ
−2a dr dr
⋅ = − sin θ
r 2 dθ \ = −r ⋅ cot θ/ 2
dθ
dr r 2 sin θ dθ r
= But tan φ = r ⋅ = = − tan θ/2
dθ 2a dr −r ⋅ cot θ/2
Then the angle f between the radius vector and the tan φ = − tan θ/ 2
tangent is given by or tan φ = tan(−θ/2)
dθ [tan(−θ / 2) = − tan(θ / 2)]
tan φ = r ⋅
dr
i.e., φ = − θ/ 2 if θ = 2 π/3
π Dividing numerator and denominator by cos mq

φ =−
= −60°
3
2π π π 1 + tan mθ
Also ψ =θ+φ= − = = 60° =
3 3 3 1 − tan mθ
\ Slope of the tangent
tan π/4 + tan mθ
= tan ψ = tan(60°) = 3. =
1 − tan π/4 ⋅ tan mθ
(c) Given curve, r = aeθ cot α
tan φ = tan(π / 4 + mθ)
Differentiating w.r.t. ‘q’, we get
i.e., φ = π / 4 + mθ .
dr
= aeθ cot α ⋅ cot α
dθ (e) Given curve r 2 = a 2 sin 2θ
Then the angle f between the radius vector and the Differentiating w.r.t. ‘q’, we get
tangent is
dr
dθ aeθ cot α 2r ⋅ = a 2 ⋅ cos 2θ ⋅ 2
tan φ = r ⋅ = θ cot α dθ
dr ae ⋅ cot α
dr a2
tan φ =
1 = ⋅ cos 2θ
dθ r
cot α
tan φ = tan α dθ r ⋅r
tan φ = r ⋅ = 2
i.e., φ = α. dr a cos2θ
(d) Given curve,
r2
r m = a m (cos mθ + sin mθ) =
a 2 cos2θ
Differentiating w.r.t. ‘q’, we get
m −1 dr a 2 sin 2θ
mr = a m (−m sin mθ + m cos mθ) =
dθ a 2 cos2θ
dr tan φ = tan 2θ
mr m −1 = mam (cos mθ − sin mθ)
dθ i.e., φ = 2θ.
r m dr Example 3: Find the angle of intersection of each
= a m (cos mθ − sin mθ)
r dθ of the following pairs of curves:
(a) r 2 sin R , r sin R cos R
dr ra m (cos mθ − sin mθ)
=
dθ rm (b) r a(1 cos R ), r 2a cos R
a
dθ r ⋅rm (c) r alog R , r log R
tan φ = r ⋅ =
dr r ⋅ a m (cos mθ − sin mθ)
Solution: In each case, let f, be the angle between
a m (cos mθ + sin mθ) the radius vector and the tangent for the first curve,
= and f2 be the corresponding angle for the second
a m (cos mθ − sin mθ)
curve.
cos mθ + sin mθ (a) For the curve r = 2 sin q, we have
tan φ =
cos mθ − sin mθ
dr Now at the point of intersection of the given curves,

= 2 cos θ both the equations r = a(1 – cos q) and
dθ
r = 2a cos q hold. Thus at this point
dθ 2 sin θ 1 – cos q = 2 cos q
\ tan φ1 = r ⋅ = = tan θ
dr 2 cos θ or cos q = 1/3
or q = cos–1 (1/3)
So that φ1 = θ
Equation (1), becomes
For the curve r = sin θ + cos θ, we have
π 1
φ2 − φ1 = + cos−1 (1/3)
dr 2 2
= cos θ − sin θ
dθ This is the angle between the given curves, which is
evidently obtuse.
d θ sin θ + cos θ
tan φ 2 = r ⋅= The acute angle is 1/2 cos–1 (1/3)
dr cos θ − sin θ
(c) For the curve r = a log q, we have
Dividing numerator and denominator by cos q
1 + tan θ dr a
tan φ 2 = = tan (π/ 4 + θ) =
1 − tan θ dθ θ
So that φ2 = π/ 4 + θ. dθ
\ tan φ1 = r ⋅
\ The angle between the curves is dr
π θ
φ1 − φ2 = φ2 − φ1 = = a log θ ⋅
4 a
(b) For the curve r = a(1 – cos q), we have tan φ1 = θ log θ ...(1)
dr a
= a sin θ For the curve r = , we have
dθ log θ
d θ a(1 − cos θ)
\ tan φ1 = r = dr a 1
dr a sin θ =− ⋅
2 θ
dθ (log θ)
tan φ1 = tan θ/ 2
\ φ1 = θ/ 2 dθ a ⎪⎧ (log θ)2 ⋅ θ ⎪⎫
\ tan φ 2 = r ⋅ = ⎨− ⎬
dr log θ ⎪⎩ a ⎪⎭
For the curve r = 2a cos θ, we have
dr = −θ log θ ...(2)
= 2a(− sin θ) From (1) and (2), we get
dθ
= −2a sin θ tan φ1 − tan φ2
tan φ1 − φ2 =
dθ 2 a cos θ
1 + tan φ1 ⋅ tan φ2
\ tan φ2 = r = = − cot θ
dr −2 a sin θ
2θ log θ
= tan(π/ 2 + θ) = ...(3)
1 − θ2 (log θ)2
[tan(π / 2 + θ) = − cot θ]
Now at the point of intersection of the curve, we
So that φ2 = π/ 2 + θ
a
have r = a log θ and r = so that (at this point).
π θ log θ
\ φ1 − φ2 = φ2 − φ1 = + ...(1)
2 2
1 n n
log θ = or log θ = 1 or θ = e (b) For the curve r = a cos nθ, we have
log θ
Hence equation (3) becomes dr
nr n −1 ⋅ = − a n sin nθ ⋅ n
2e dθ
tan φ1 − φ2 =
1 − e2 r n dr
⋅ = − a n sin nθ
⎛ 2e ⎞ r dθ
or φ1 − φ2 = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ ...(4)
⎝ 1 − e2 ⎠
This is the angle between the given curves. dr −ra n sin nθ
=
Example 4: Prove that the following pairs of
dθ rn
curves intersect orthogonally: dθ
tan φ1 = r ⋅
(a) r a(1 cos R ), r b(1 cos R ) dr
(b) r n an cos nR , r n b n sin nR rn a n cos nθ
=− =−
(c) r asec 2 (R / 2), r b cosec 2 (R / 2) a n sin nθ a n sin nθ
Solution: tan φ1 = − cot nθ ...(1)
(a) For the curve r = a (1 + cos θ), we have Next, for the curve r n = b n sin nθ , we have
dr dr
= − a sin θ nr n −1 ⋅ = bn cos nθ ⋅ n
dθ dθ
d θ a(1 + cos θ) r n dr = n
\ tan φ1 = r ⋅ =
dr − a sin θ ⋅ b cos nθ
r dθ
1 + cos θ
tan φ1 = − ...(1)
sin θ dθ rn bn sin nθ
tan φ 2 = r ⋅ = n = n
For the curve r = b (1 − cos θ), we have dr b cos nθ b cos nθ
dr tan φ 2 = tan nq ...(2)

= b sin θ
dθ From (1) and (2), we get
dθ b(1 − cos θ) tan φ1 ⋅ tan φ2 = –1
\ tan φ2 = r ⋅ =
dr b sin θ \ Thus the curves cut orthogonally.
1 − cos θ (c) For the curve r = a sec (θ/2), we have
2
tan φ 2 = ...(2)
sin θ
dr
From (1) and (2), we get = a sec2 (θ/ 2) tan(θ/ 2)
dθ
1 − cos2 θ
tan φ1 ⋅ tan φ 2 = = dθ a sec2 θ/2
− sin 2 θ \ tan φ1 = r ⋅ =
dr a sec 2 θ/2 ⋅ tan θ/2
sin2 θ
− = –1 [1 – cos2q = sin2q] = cot θ/ 2
sin2 θ
tan φ1 = tan(π/ 2 − θ/ 2)
This relation implies that the curves intersect
orthogonally. [cot θ / 2 = tan (π / 2 − θ / 2)]
φ1 = π/ 2 − θ/ 2 We note that
Next, for the curve r = b cosec 2 θ/2, we have 1 − sin 2 θ

tan φ1 ⋅ tan φ 2 =
− cos2 θ
dr
= −b cosec2 (θ/ 2) cot(θ/ 2) cos2 θ
dθ = = −1
− cos2 θ
dθ \ The angle between the curve is 90°
\ tan φ 2 = r ⋅
dr a
(b) For the curve r = , we have
b cosec 2 θ/2 1 + cos θ
= − a sin θ
−b cosec 2 θ/2 cot θ/2 dr
=
dθ (1 + cos θ)2
= − tan θ / 2
tan φ 2 = tan(−θ/ 2) dθ 1 + cos θ
\ tan φ1 = r ⋅ =−
dr sin θ
\ φ 2 = −θ/ 2
b
For the curve r = , we have
Evidently φ1 − φ2 = π/ 2 1 − cos θ
\ The given curves intersect orthogonally. dr b sin θ
=
Example 5: Find the angles of intersection of dθ (1 − cos θ)2
the following pairs of curves: dθ
(a) r a(1 sin R ), r b(1 sin R ) \ tan φ 2 = r ⋅
dr
a b (1 − cos θ)
(b) r ,r =
1 cosR 1 cosR sin θ
aR a (1 − cos2 θ)
(c) r ,r . Evidently, tan φ1 ⋅ tan φ 2 =− = −1
1 R 1 R2 sin 2 θ
Solution: \ The angle between the curves is 90°.
(a) For the curve r = a(1 + sin θ), we have aθ
dr (c) For the curve r = , we have
1+ θ
= a cos θ
dθ
1+ θ a 1 a
dθ = or +1 =
\ tan φ1 = r ⋅ θ r θ r
dr
1 + sin θ Differentiating w.r.t. ‘r’
=
cos θ 1 dθ a
For the curve r = b (1 − sin θ), we have So that − ⋅
2 dr
= − 2 (or)
θ r
dr
= −b cos θ dθ a θ2
dθ = 2
dθ dr r
\ tan φ 2 = r ⋅
dr
1 − sin θ d θ aθ2
= \ tan φ1 = r ⋅ = ...(1)
− cos θ dr r
⎛ aθ ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ θ = (1 + q) q EXERCISE 1.3
⎝ r ⎠
1. Find the angle of intersection for each of the
⎡ aθ ⎤
⎢ where r = (1 + θ) ⎥ following pairs of curves:
⎣ ⎦
(i) r = a cos θ, 2r = a . [Ans. π/3]
a
For the curve r = , we have (ii) r = sin θ + cos θ, r = 2 sin θ . [Ans. π/4]
1 + θ2
a (iii) r = 6 cos θ, r = 2(1 + cos θ) . [Ans. π/6]
1 + θ2 =
r
Differentiating w.r.t. ‘r’ (iv) r 2 sin 2 2θ = 4, r 2 = 16 sin 2θ .
dθ a [Ans. 2π/3]
So that 2θ =− 2
dr r
(v) r n = an sec(nθ + α), r n = bn sec(nθ + β) .
dθ
\ tan φ 2 =r⋅ [Ans. α − β]
dr
(vi) r = a sin 2θ, r = a cos 2θ .
−a 1 ⎛a⎞ 1
= = − ⎜ ⎟ = − (1 + θ2 ) ...(2) [ Ans. tan −1 (4/3)]
2r θ 2θ ⎝ r ⎠ 2θ
From (1) and (2), we get 3θ 10
(vii) r = ,r = .
tan φ1 − tan φ2 1+ θ 1 + θ2
tan φ1 − φ2 =
1 + tan φ1 ⋅ tan φ2 [ Ans. tan −1 (29/26)]
θ(1 + θ) +
1
(1 + θ2 ) (viii) r = a(1 + cos θ), r 2 = a 2 cos 2θ .
= 2θ
1 ...(3) [Ans. 3sin−1 (3/4)1/4 ]
1 − (1 + θ)(1 + θ2 )
2
2. Show that each of the following pairs of
curves intersect orthogonally:
At the point of intersection, both the equation
(i) r = aθ, rθ = a
aθ a
r= and r = hold.
1+ θ 1 + θ2 (ii) r = 2 sin θ, r = 2 cos θ
Therefore, as this point.
(iii) r = aeθ , reθ = b
aθ a
= or (1 + θ2 ) = 1 + θ
1 + θ 1 + θ2 (iv) r 2 sin 2θ = a 2 , r 2 cos 2θ = b 2 .
(or) θ =1
Using this in (3), we get 1.4.3 Pedal Equation for Polar Curves
2 +1 Consider a polar curve r = ƒ(q) and a point P(r, q)
tan φ1 − φ2 = =3
1− 2 on it. Let M be the foot of the perpendicular
φ1 − φ2 = tan−1 (3) dropped from the origin O onto the tangent to the
curve P, and let the length of this perpendicular
This is the angle between the given curves.
be p (= OM) see Fig. 1.4.
WORKED EXAMPLES
Example 1: For the cardioid r a (1 cos R )

show that p rcosR / 2.
Solution: For the given curve, r = a (1 + cos θ),
we have
dr
= − a sin θ.
dθ
d θ a(1 + cos θ)
\ tan φ = r ⋅ =
dr −a sin θ
Fig. 1.4 2 cos2 θ / 2

=
−2sin θ/2 cos θ/2
We note ∠OPM = φ.
Therefore, from the right angled triangle OPM, ⎡ 1 + cos θ = 2 cos2 θ / 2 ⎤
we have ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣sin θ = 2 sin θ / 2 cos θ / 2⎥⎦
OM
sin φ = = − cot θ/2
OP
p [tan (π / 2 + θ / 2) = − cot θ / 2]
=
r tan φ = tan(π/2 + θ/2)
This gives p = r sin φ ...(1) \ φ = π/ 2 + θ/ 2
Consequently, we get [see subsection 2.4.3
1 1 cosec 2 φ equation 1]
\ = =
p2 r 2 sin 2 φ r2 p = r sin φ = r sin(π/ 2 + θ/ 2)
[sin (π / 2 + θ / 2) = cos θ / 2]
1
= 2
[1 + cot 2 φ] = r cosθ/ 2 .
r
Example 2: For the curves r aR , show that
1 ⎡ 1 ⎤
= 2 ⎢1 + ⎥
r ⎣ tan 2 φ ⎦ r2
p
r2 a2
1 ⎡
2⎤
1 ⎛ dr ⎞ Solution: Given the curve r = aθ, we have
= 2
⎢1 + 2 ⎜ dθ ⎟ ⎥
r ⎢⎣ r ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ dr
= a.
2 dθ
1 1 ⎛ dr ⎞
= + ⎜ ⎟ ...(2) Therefore, formula [see subsection 1.4.3 equation
r2 r 4 ⎝ dθ ⎠ 2] gives
This formula enables is to compute p for any polar 2
curves r = ƒ(q).
1 1 1 ⎛ dr ⎞
= 2 + 4 ⋅⎜ ⎟
p2 r r ⎝ dθ ⎠
1 1 Equation (1) becomes,

= + ⋅ a2
r2 r4 ⎛ p2 ⎞ r3
r = 2a ⎜ 2 ⎟ or p2 =
⎜r ⎟ 2a
1 r 2 + a2 ⎝ ⎠
=
p 2
r4 This is the pedal equation of the given curve.
(b) For the curve
r2
\ p= as required. 2a
r 2 + a2 = 1 − cos θ ...(2)
r
Example 3: Find the pedal equation of the 2 a dr
Differentiating, − , = sin θ
following polar curves: r 2 dθ
(a) r a (1 cos R )
dθ 2a
\ tan φ = r ⋅ =−
2a dr r sin θ
(b) 1 cos R
r
1 − cos θ
=− [using (2)]
l sin θ
(c) 1 e cos R .
r
2 sin 2 θ/2
Solution: =−
2 sin θ/2 cos θ/2
(a) For the curve r = a (1 + cos θ)
= − tan θ/ 2
dr tan φ = tan (π − θ/ 2)
= − a sin θ
dθ
So that φ = π − θ/ 2
dθ Hence p = r sin φ = r sin (π − θ/ 2)
\ tan φ = r ⋅
dr
= r sin θ/ 2 ...(3)
a(1 + cos θ) a
= Now (2) can be rewritten as = sin 2 θ/ 2 an using
−a sin θ r
(3), this becomes
2 cos2 θ/2
= a p2
−2sin θ/2 cos θ/2 = 2 or p2 = ar.
r r
This is the pedal equation of the given curve.
= − cot θ/ 2
l
tan φ = tan (π/ 2 + θ/ 2) (c) For the curve = 1 + e cos θ, we have ...(4)
r
\ φ = π/ 2 + θ/ 2 −l dr
⋅ = −e sin θ
p = r sin φ = r sin(π/ 2 + θ/ 2) r 2 dθ
= r cosθ/ 2 ...(1) dr r 2 e sin θ
So that =
On the other hand, the equation of the curve may dθ l
be rewritten as Squaring on both sides, we get
2
r = a (1 + cos θ) = 2a cos2 (θ/ 2) ⎛ dr ⎞ r 4 e2 sin 2 θ
⎜ dθ ⎟ =
⎝ ⎠ l2
e2 r 4 = − cot nθ
= sin 2 θ
l2
2 4
tan φ = tan(π/ 2 + nθ)
e r 2
= (1 − cos θ) [tan (π / 2 + nθ) = − cot nθ]
l2
\ φ = π/ 2 + nθ
e2 r 4 ⎡ ⎞ ⎤
2
1 ⎛l
= 2 ⎢1 − 2 ⎜ − 1⎟ ⎥ [using (4)] \ p = r sin φ = r sin (π / 2 + nθ)
l ⎢⎣ e ⎝ r ⎠ ⎥⎦
Hence [by formula (2)] [sin (π / 2 + nθ) = cos nθ]
2 = r cos nθ
1 1 1 ⎛ dr ⎞
= + ⎜ ⎟
p2 r2 r 4 ⎝ dθ ⎠ ⎛ rn ⎞
⎜⎜' cos nθ = n ⎟⎟
⎝ a ⎠
e2 ⎧⎪ ⎞ ⎫⎪
2
1 1 ⎛l
= + ⎨1 − ⎜ − 1 ⎟ ⎬ ⎛ r n ⎞ r n +1
r2 l 2 ⎩⎪ e2 ⎝ r ⎠ ⎪⎭ = r ⋅⎜ n ⎟ = n
⎜a ⎟ a
⎝ ⎠
This is pedal equation of the given curves.
1 e2 ⎧⎪ 1 l2 2l ⎫⎪ (b) For the given curves, we find
= + ⎨1 − − + ⎬
r2 l 2 ⎪⎩ e2 r 2 e2 e2 r ⎪⎭ dr
= an(sech nθ)(tanh nθ)
dθ
1 ⎡ 2 2l ⎤
=
⎢ e + r − 1⎥ Hence, the formula
l2 ⎣ ⎦ 2
1 1 1 ⎛ dr ⎞
This is the pedal equation of the gives curve. = + ⋅⎜ ⎟ gives
p2 r2 r 4 ⎝ dθ ⎠
Example 4: Find the pedal equation of the
following curves:
1 1 a 2 n2
(a) r n a n cos nR = + (sech 2 nθ)(tanh 2 nθ)
p2 r2 r4
(b) r a sech nR .
Solution: 1 a 2 n2
= 2
+ 4
(sech 2 nθ)(1 − sech 2 nθ)
r r
(a) For the curve r n = a n cos nθ, we find
1 a 2 n2 r 2 ⎛ r2 ⎞ ⎡ r⎤
n −1 dr = + ⋅ ⎜⎜ 1 − 2 ⎟⎟ ⎢ where sech nθ = a ⎥
nr ⋅ = − na n sin nθ r 2
r 4 a2 a ⎣ ⎦
dθ ⎝ ⎠
1 n2 ⎡ r 2 ⎤
dθ −r n−1 = + ⎢1 − ⎥
So that = n r2 r 2 ⎢⎣ a 2 ⎥⎦
dr a sin nθ
1 n2 n2 r 2
= + − ⋅
dθ −r n r2 r2 r 2 a2
tan φ = r ⋅ = n
dr a sin nθ 1 + n2 n2
= 2 − 2
r a
a n cos nθ This is the pedal equation of the given curves.
=−
a n sin nθ
EXERCISE 1.4
1. Find the pedal equation (p – r equation) of
the following curves:
(i) r = aeθ cot α . [Ans. p = r sin α]
(ii) r = a (1 − cos θ) . [Ans. r 3 = 2ap2 ]
(iii) r = a sin mθ .
[Ans. r 4 = p2 (a2 m2 + 1)(1 − m2 ) r 2 ]
(iv) r = a sin (θ/ 3) .

3
[Ans. ap3 = r 4 ]
(v) r m cos mθ = a m . [Ans. pr m −1 = am ]
Fig. 1.5
(vi) r = a sec mθ .
Note 1: If k (> 0) is the curvature of a curve at P,
[Ans. (m2 − a2 /p2 ) r 2 = a2 (m2 − 1)] then the radius of curvature of the curve of r is
1
(vii) r (1 − sin θ/ 2) 2 = a . . This follows from the definitions of radius of
k
[Ans. ar 3 − ap4 ] curvature and the result that the curvature of a
circle is the reciprocal of its radius.
2. Show that the pedal equation at the curve
Note 2: If for an arc of a curve y decreases as s
r m = a m sin mθ + b m cos mθ is dψ
increases, then is negative. But the radius of
ds
r m +1 = p a 2 m + b 2 m .
a circle in non-negative.
1.5 RADIUS OF CURVATURE 1 ds

So to take r = = some authors remark k
k dψ
Introduction also as non-negative
Let P be any point on the curve C. Draw the tangent dψ
i.e., k =
at P to the circle. The circle having the same ds
curvature as the curve at P touching the curve P,
is called the circle of curvature. It is also called dψ
The sign of indicates the convexity and
the osculating circle. The centre of the circle of ds
the curvature is called the centre of curvature. The concavity of the curve in the neighbourhood of
radius of the circle curvature is called the radius the point.
of curvature and is denoted by ‘r’
ds
Many authors take r = and discard negative
dψ
sign if computed value is negative.
1
\ Radius of curvature r = .
k
1.5.1 Radius of Curvature in 1.5.2 Radius of Curvature in

Cartesian Form Parametric Form
Suppose the Cartesian equation of the curve C is Let x = ƒ(t) and y = g(t) be the parametric equations
given by y = f (x) and A be a fixed point on it. of a curve C and P(x, y) be a given point on it.
Let P(x, y) be a given point on C such that arc dy dy/dt
AP = s. Then = ...(4)
dx dx/dt
Then we know that
dy d2 y d ⎡ dy/dt ⎤ dt
= tan ψ ...(1) = ⋅
dx and 2 dt ⎢⎣ dx/dt ⎥⎦ dx
Where y is the angle made by the tangent to the dx
curve C at p with the x-axis and
1/ 2 dx d 2 y dy d 2 x
ds = ⎧⎪1 + ⎛ dy ⎞ ⎫⎪ ⋅ − ⋅
2
⎨ ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ dt dt 2 dt dt 2 1
...(2) = ⋅
dx ⎪⎩ ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎛ dx ⎞
2 dx
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. ‘x’, we get ⎜ dt ⎟ dt
⎝ ⎠
d2 y dψ
= sec2 ψ ⋅
dx 2 dx
dx d 2 y dy d 2 x
2 ⋅ − ⋅
d ψ ds d y dt dt 2 dt dt 2
= (1 + tan 2 ψ) ⋅ = ...(5)
ds dx dx 2 ⎛ dx ⎞
3
⎜ dt ⎟
1/2 ⎝ ⎠
1 ⎡ ⎛ dy ⎞
2⎤
= (1 + tan ψ ) ⋅ ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟
2
⎥
ρ ⎢ ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎥⎦ dy d2 y
⎣ Substituting the values of and in the
[By using (1) and (2)] dx dx 2
Cartesian form of the radius of curvature of the
3/2 curve y = ƒ(x) [Equation (3)]
1 ⎡ ⎛ dy ⎞
2⎤
d2 y
= ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
dx 2 ρ ⎢ ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎣ 3/2
⎡ ⎛ dy ⎞2 ⎤
⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
3/2 dx
⎧⎪ ⎛ dy ⎞2 ⎫⎪
ρ =
[1 + y12 ]3/2
= ⎣⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎥
⎨1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ y2 d2y
⎪ ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎪⎭
\ r =⎩ ...(3)
dx 2
d2y
dx 2
3/2
dy d2 y ⎧⎪ ⎛ dy/dt ⎞2 ⎫⎪
where y1 = and y2 = 2
⎨1 + ⎜ ⎬
dx dx dx/dt ⎟⎠ ⎪
= ⎩⎪ ⎝ ⎭
Equation (3) becomes
⎪⎧ dx d 2 y dy d 2 x ⎪⎫
3
⎛ dx ⎞
{1 + y12 }3/2 ⎨ ⋅ 2 − ⋅ ⎬ ⎜ dt ⎟
ρ = ⎪⎩ dt dt dt dt 2 ⎪⎭ ⎝ ⎠
y2
This is the Cartesian form of the radius of curvature
of the curve y = f (x) at P(x, y).
3/2 3/2
⎧⎪⎛ dx ⎞2 ⎛ dy ⎞2 ⎫⎪ ⎧ 2 ⎛ x ⎞⎫ ⎛x⎞
⎨⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ ⎨sec ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ a sec3 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ a ⎠⎭ ⎝a⎠
dt dt
⎩⎪⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎭⎪ =⎩ =
ρ = ...(6) 1 ⎛x⎞ ⎛x⎞
dx d 2 y dy d 2 x sec2 ⎜ ⎟ sec 2 ⎜ ⎟
⋅ − ⋅ a ⎝a⎠ ⎝a⎠
dt dt 2 dt dt 2
dx dy ⎛x⎞
where x′ = , y′ = = a sec ⎜ ⎟
dt dt ⎝a⎠
2
d x d2 y ⎛x⎞
x ′′ = 2 , y′′ = 2 \ Radius of curvature = a sec ⎜ ⎟ .
dt dt ⎝a⎠
Equation (6) becomes,
{x ′2 + y′2 }3/ 2 xµ
ρ = ¦
x ′y′′ − y′x ′′ Example 2: For the curve y c cos h § ¶ show
¨ c·
This is the Cartesian form of the radius of curvature
in parametric form.
y2
that S
c
WORKED EXAMPLES (1 + y12 )3/2
Solution: ρ =
y2
Example 1: Find the radius of curvature at any
¦ xµ ¦ xµ
y c cos h §
point on the curve y a logsec §¨ . Here ¶
c·
a ¶· ¨
(1 + y12 )3/2 ⎛x⎞ 1 ⎛x⎞

y1 = c sinh ⎜ ⎟ × = sinh ⎜ ⎟
Solution: Radius of curvature ρ = ⎝c⎠ c ⎝c⎠
y2
⎛x⎞ ⎛x⎞ 1
Here, y = a logsec ⎜ ⎟ y2 = cosh ⎜ ⎟ ×
⎝a⎠ ⎝c⎠ c
1 ⎛x⎞ ⎛x⎞ 1 3/2

y1 = a × ⋅ sec ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ tan ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎧ 2 ⎛ x ⎞⎫
⎛x⎞ ⎝a⎠ ⎝a⎠ a ⎨1 + sinh ⎜ ⎟ ⎬
sec ⎜ ⎟
r =⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭
⎝a⎠
1 ⎛x⎞
cosh ⎜ ⎟
⎛x⎞ c ⎝c⎠
y1 = tan ⎜ ⎟
⎝a⎠
3/2
⎛x⎞ 1 ⎡ ⎛ x ⎞⎤
y2 = sec ⎜ ⎟ ⋅
2 c ⎢cosh 2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝ c ⎠⎦
⎝a⎠ a = ⎣
⎛x⎞
cosh ⎜ ⎟
⎧ 2 ⎛ x ⎞⎫
3/2
⎝c⎠
⎨1 + tan ⎜ ⎟ ⎬
ρ =⎩ ⎝ a ⎠⎭
Hence ⎛x⎞
1 ⎛x⎞ = c cos h 2 ⎜ ⎟
sec2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎝c⎠
a ⎝a⎠
2 Example 5: Find the radius of curvature at

1⎧ ⎛ x ⎞⎫
= ⎨c cosh ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ ¦ 3a 3a µ
c⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭ § , ¶ on x 3 y3 3axy.
¨ 2 2·
1 2
= ⋅y Solution: We have
c
(1 + y12 )3/2 ⎛ 3a 3a ⎞
y2 ρ= at ⎜ 2 , 2 ⎟
= ⋅ Hence proved. y2 ⎝ ⎠
c
Hence x 3 + y 3 = 3axy
Example 3: Find the radius of curvature at
(1, – 1) on the curve y = x2 – 3x + 1. Differentiating with respect to ‘x’
(1 + y12 )3/2 3x 2 + 3y 2 y1 = 3a [ xy1 + y]

Solution: We have ρ = at (1, − 1)
y2
3( y2 − ax ) y1 = 3( ay − x 2 )
Here y = x 2 − 3x + 1
y1 = 2 x − 3, y2 = 2 ay − x 2
y1 = ...(1)
Now [ y1 ](1, −1) = −1 y 2 − ax
Again differentiating w.r.t. ‘x’
[ y2 ](1, −1) = 2
( y 2 − ax ) ⋅ ( ay1 − 2 x ) − ( ay − x 2 )(2 yy1 − a )
Þ y2 =
ρ(1, −1) = (1 + 1)
3/2
\ 2 2 ( y2 − ax )2
= = 2.
2 2
...(2)
Example 4: Find the radius of curvature at ⎛ 3a 3a ⎞
Now, from (1) at ⎜ , ⎟
(a, 0) on y = x 3 ( x − a). ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
(1 + y12 )3/2 2
Solution: We have ρ = at (a, 0) ⎛ 3a ⎞ ⎛ 3a ⎞
y2 a⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
y1 =
2
Hence, y = x 3 ( x − a) = x 4 − x 3a ⎛ 3a ⎞ ⎛ 3a ⎞
⎜ 2 ⎟ − a⎜ 2 ⎟
y1 = 4 x 3 − 3x 2 a ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
y2 = 12 x 2 − 6 xa
6 a 2 − 9a 2
=
Now [ y1 ]( a, 0) = 4a 3 − 3a 3 = a 3 9a 2 − 6 a 2
[ y2 ]( a, 0) = 12a − 6 a = 6a
2 2 2
−(9a 2 − 6 a 2 )
=
[1 + (a 3 )2 ]3/2 (9a 2 − 6 a 2 )
\ ρ( a, 0) =
6a2 y1 = –1
⎛ 3a 3a ⎞
(1 + a6 )3/2 Now, from (2) at ⎜ , ⎟
= . ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
6a 2
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Dormer wanted to say: “You’ve got a marvellous imagination!” which
would have been intended as an unfavourable criticism. But the
words stuck on his lips. Instead he said:
“It’s all very well. You don’t seem to see the serious part of all this—
waste!”
“Waste, my dear fellow!” And to Dormer the harsh, cheerful voice
had all the officious familiarity of a starling, gibing at one from an
apple tree. “Waste is not serious. It is nature’s oldest joke. It used to
be called Chaos. From it we came. Back to it we shall go. It will be
called Immortality. The Graves Commission will give it a number, a
signboard, and a place on the map, but it will be Immortality none the
less. From Titans to tight ’uns, ‘each in his narrow grave.’”
“Oh, chuck it,” said Dormer, disgusted and having no memories of
that quotation. “You’ve evidently never been in charge of a burying
party!”
“I have. I did twelve months in the line, as a platoon commander.
How long did you do that?”
“Twelve months about!”
“I believe you, where thousands wouldn’t. Twelve months was about
the limit. In twelve months, the average Infantry subaltern got a job,
or got a blighty! I know all about it!”
“Then you ought to know better than to speak so. It’s not a joke!”
“My dear Dormer, if it were not a grim joke it would be utterly
unbearable.”
“I disagree entirely. It’s that point of view that we are suffering from
so much. You don’t seem to see that this army is not an army of
soldiers. It is an army of civilians enlisted under a definite contract.
They aren’t here for fun.”
“Oh, come, Dormer, don’t you believe in enjoying the War?”
“I believe in getting it done.”
“You never will, in that frame of mind.”
“Oh, shan’t I? What would happen if I didn’t see that the right people
get to the right place, with the right orders and right supplies,
including you and your blessed flagwaggers?”
“Nothing to what will happen if the troops once begin to regard the
show as a matter of business! You haven’t got a shako and a big
brown horse, but you must play up, as if you had!”
“What rot you talk. I have a tin hat because it will stand shrapnel
better than a shako. I have mules because they stand the life better
than a horse?”
“Yes, but do you admire your tin hat? Do you really care for mules!”
Something made Dormer say in spite of himself:
“I did once come across a man who cared!”
“There, what did I tell you. He was winning the War!”
(“Whatever did I tell him that for?” Dormer asked himself vexedly. “A
nice song he’ll make of it.”) But he only said:
“You’re all wrong, as usual. He did nothing of the sort. He just made
a row in billets!”
“Quite right too. Most of ’em deserve a row!”
“Possibly, but he went the wrong way to work!”
“Ah, that depends!”
(Irritating brute!)
“No, it doesn’t. Were you ever at Ypres?”
“Was I not. I was hit at Hooge stables, and had to walk nearly a
couple of miles to get to a dressing station!”
“Well, then, you remember, in the back billets, a place called the
‘Spanish Farm’?”
“Don’t I just. Great big old house, with a moat, and pasture fore and
aft.”
What a way to put it!
“Well, this chap I’m telling you of, was billeted there. He was
attached to a Trench Mortar Battery. He was in charge of the mules.
He didn’t talk a lot of rot about it, as you suggest he should. One of
his mules was wounded and the other sick. He broke down the front
of the shrine at the corner of the pasture to get a bit of shelter for
them!”
The effect of this recital was not what Dormer expected.
“That was an unspeakably shocking thing to do, worse than losing
any number of mules!”
“I suppose you’re a Catholic?”
“Yes, I am!”
“I thought as much. Well, I’m not, nor was this driver I’m telling you
about. He just hated the waste and destruction of it all.”
“So he destroyed something more precious and permanent.”
“He thought a live mule was better than a dead saint.”
“He was wrong!”
And then the fellow shut up, got quite sulky. Dormer was delighted
with his prowess in argument, waited a moment, turned on his side,
and slept, as only men can who live in the open air, in continual
danger of their lives, and who lose the greater portion of the night in
ceaseless activity.
When his servant woke him, with tea and orders and the nightly lists
of traffic and stores, it was a wonderful golden and green sunset,
tremulous with the evening “hate.” The purple shadows were just
sufficiently long to admit of getting the wounded back, and the road
was filled with ambulances, whirring and grinding as they stopped,
backed, and restarted, while a steady punctual crash, once a minute,
showed that the Bosche were shelling the road or one of the
innumerable camps or dumps along it, in the neighbourhood. Amid
all this clamour, Kavanagh was not silenced, but recited at the top of
his voice, and Dormer had a suspicion that the real reason was that
it helped to keep down the nervousness that grew on men, as the
years of the War rolled on, and the probability of being hit increased.
Especially as, far overhead, the planes that circled and swooped like
a swarm of gleaming flies, were attracting considerable anti-aircraft
fire, and all round, big jagged bits were coming to earth with a noise
almost echoing that of the ambulances.
Dormer’s tidy mind was soon called into action. Some wounded who
had died on the way to the dressing station, had been laid out beside
the road as the ambulances had enough to do without carrying
corpses ten miles. He went to make sure the M.O. had arranged for
a burial party, as he had the strongest belief that casualties lying
about were bad for the morale of the troops. When he got back to
the dug-out, Kavanagh was “going on,” as he bent over a map of the
extensions of the divisional cable lines, like a crow on a gate.
“See those chaps, Dormer?”
“Quis procul hinc—the legends writ
The—er—Picard grave is far away,
Quis ante diem periit
Sed miles, sed pro patria.”
“Do you believe in pronouncing Latin like Julius Cæsar or like Jones
Minor?”
“I don’t believe in it at all. Pure waste of time!”
“Dormer, you are a Utilitarian!”
“Have it your own way so long as you get that cable line of yours
sited. I’ve got parties coming up to-morrow to dig it in!”
“I shall be ready for them. Think of all that language, and language is
only codified thought, buried in the ground, Dormer!”
“I have all the thinking I want over all the men buried in the ground.
We’re losing far too many!”
The “victory” of the Somme had been a saddening experience for
Dormer.
“That shows how wrong you are. We are mortal. We perish. But our
words will live.”
“Rot! Do you mean to say that ‘825 Brigade relieve you to-morrow
Nth. Div. Ack, ack, ack’ will live! Why should it? It’ll be superseded in
four days. Who wants to perpetuate it?”
“I disagree with you, Dormer, I really do. Here we are at the great
crisis of our lives, of the life of European Civilization perhaps. Some
trumpery order you or I transmit may mean in reality ‘Civilization is
defeated, Barbarism has won!’ or it may mean, I hope, ‘Lift up your
eyes unto the hills from whence——’”
“I wish you wouldn’t joke about the Bible!”
“I’m not joking, and you’ll find it out before long. Men will fight so long
as they’ve got something to fight about!”
“Well, they have. They want to get home. They’ll fight fast enough
about that.”
“Not they. That isn’t the thing to make ’em fight. It’s more likely to
make ’em run away. They want an idea.”
“They’ve had enough ideas, I should think. I seem to remember the
walls covered with posters, with an idea a-piece.”
“Those ideas were much too superficial and temporary. They want to
feel that they are something, or that they do something so important
that it doesn’t matter whether they live or die!”
“That’s all wrong. It does matter. This War will be won by the side
that has most men and most stuff left.”
“Nonsense. It will be won by the side that has the most faith.”
“Oh, well, you go and have faith in your cable line. I’ve got to have it
in these working parties.”
It was now dusk enough for the main body of troops to get on the
move. The broad valley below was in ultramarine shadow, the round
shoulders of the down touched with lemon-coloured afterglow. Up
the drift of chalk dust that represented where the road had once
been, an insignificant parish road from one little village to another,
but now the main traffic artery of an Army Corps, there came pouring
the ceaseless stream, men, men, men, limbers, men, mules, guns,
men.
The longer he looked at them, the more certain he became that he
was right. Not merely the specialists in mechanics, engineers,
ordnance, signals, gunners, but the mere infantry had taken months
to train, and could be knocked out in a moment. The problem, of
course, was to save them up until the moment at which they could
produce the maximum effect.
How docile they were. Platoon for this, platoon for that, section of
engineers, then a machine-gun company. Then rations, then limbers,
wagons, hand-carts full of every conceivable kind of implement or
material. Very soon he was obliged to stand in the middle of the
road, with the stream of traffic going up, before him, and the stream
of traffic coming back, behind, so that in addition to checking and
directing one lot he had to keep an eye on the other to see that they
did not begin to smoke until they were well down the side of the hill.
Gradually the darkness thickened, and the crowd thinned, and the
thunder of the front died down. At length he was left with only a
belated hurrying limber or two, or ambulance, sent back for the third
or fourth time to clear the accumulation of casualties. At last he felt
justified in getting into his bunk and shutting his eyes.
Thank goodness that fellow wasn’t back. He, Dormer, would be
asleep, and would not hear him. He counted the khaki shoulders and
dusty wheels that went round and round beneath his eyelids, until he
went off.
Unfortunately for that particular malaise which the War occasioned to
his precise and town-bred spirit, that was not his last sleep that he
slept that night. Many a one never woke again to hear the earth-
shaking clamour of the barrage, to see that eternal procession of
men, men, mules, limbers, men, guns, ambulances, men, lorries,
going on and on like some gigantic frieze. But Dormer did. He was
one of those who, had he been born in the Middle Ages, would have
been described as under a curse, or pictured as working out an
atonement for his own or some one else’s misdeeds. He had to go
on doing his very best, and the more he disliked the whole business
the harder he worked. The harder he worked the longer it seemed to
that desired day when he might return to the quiet niceties of a
branch bank in a provincial town. And all the time Kavanagh kept up
that ceaseless argument as to one’s mental attitude. Dormer didn’t
really believe in having such a thing, for he felt bound to join issue
with the absurd ramblings of the other, and he could not escape,
because their jobs naturally threw them together and because he
secretly admired the way that Kavanagh did his work.
So the days turned into weeks and the weeks into months, the
casualty lists grew longer and longer, the visible fruits of the
immense effort grew smaller and smaller, and as the year wore on,
the weather broke, and the only conditions that make life in the open
tolerable, light and drought, disappeared, and they dwelt in the
sodden twilight of tent or hut, while what had been the white powdery
dust, became the cement-like mud that no scraping could remove.
Sitting dejectedly over some returns he heard
“Still, be still, my soul, the arms you bear are brittle!”
“It’s all very well to sit there and sing. This offensive is a failure, we
shall never get through.”
“I’m afraid you’re right, Dormer. I told you how it would be. I hope we
shall learn the lesson.”
“It means another winter in the trenches.”
“Evidently.”
“It’s very bad for the men. They’ve nothing to show for all that’s been
done.”
“That’s nothing new.
“‘I’m sick of parading,
Through cold and wet wading,
Or standing all day to be shot in a trench!
I’m tired of marching,
Pipe-claying and starching,
How neat we must be to be shot by the French.’
That’s what the men thought of it a hundred years ago. Then, they
had to pipeclay their belts, two whacking great chest-constricting
cross-belts. And their officers didn’t arrange for them to play football,
every time they went out to rest. In fact they didn’t go out to rest.
They just stayed in the line.”
“It wasn’t very dangerous, was it?”
“There wasn’t the shell-fire, of course, but what about disease?”
“They were regulars.”
“My dear fellow, when is a soldier not a soldier?”
“I don’t like riddles.”
“This is a serious question. How long will the War last?”
“Oh,” cried Dormer bitterly, “another two years, I suppose.”
“You’re about twenty wrong. We shall have conscription shortly, then
the real strength will be put into the fight and will compensate for the
losses of France and the inertia of Russia. We shall then settle down
to the real struggle between England and Germany for the markets
of the world.”
Dormer frowned. “You’re a Socialist,” he said.
“Never mind my opinions. It won’t matter by the time we get back
into civvys what we are!”
Something rose up in Dormer. He said with certainty:
“You’re wrong. The men’ll never stand it. Two years at most.”
“The men stood it very well in the Peninsular for six years, and most
of them had been fighting somewhere or other for the previous
quarter of a century.”
“Once again, they were regulars.”
“Once again, so are you.
“‘For gold the sailor ploughs the main,
The farmer ploughs the manor,
The brave poor soldier ne’er disdain,
That keeps his country’s honour!’
That’s you to the life, Dormer. Twenty years hence you’ll be a
bronzed veteran, in a dirty uniform, with a quarter of a century’s
polish on your Sam Browne. You have already had more iron whizz
past your head than any regular soldier gets in a lifetime, or even the
lifetime of two or three generations. You’ve had a practical
experience of war that any general might envy. The only complaint I
have to make against you is that you’re conducting the whole
business as if you were back in your beastly bank, instead of, as the
song says, behaving as one ‘That keeps his country’s honour!’”
“That’s all nonsense. I’ve just sent the 561 Brigade to occupy the
new line that was taken up after the stunt last Thursday. You know
what it’s like. It’s the remains of a German trench turned round, so
that they have all the observation. They’ve strafed it to Hell, and we
are firing on photographs of trenches that are probably empty. It’s all
nonsense to say the defending side loses more men than the
attacking. That’s true while the attack is in progress, but an attack in
its very nature cannot last long, and then the defenders get their own
back.”
As he said the words they were enveloped in an explosion that
shook the wet out of the canvas upon them, and whose aftermath of
falling débris was echoed by stampeded traffic in the road.
“The Bosche seem set on proving you right,” laughed Kavanagh.
“They forget, as you do, that, sooner or later, an attack gets through
and ends the War.”
“Not this one. Nothing but no more reserves will end this. And that
may happen to both sides at once. It may all end in stalemate!”
“If it does, we shall fight again. We represent Right. The enemy
represents Wrong. Don’t you ever forget that for a moment.”
“I don’t. I believe we are in the right, or I should never have joined
up.” When really moved, there came into Dormer’s grey inexpressive
face a queer light, that might have made the Germans pause, had
they seen it. He was a man of few theories, but he was literally ready
to die for those few, when they were attacked. He went on shyly:
“But I don’t believe in war as a permanent means of settling
‘disputes.’”
“Bravo!” cried Kavanagh. “I like you when you speak out. I only wish
you did more of it. You’re quite right, but what you don’t see is that
modern society is so rotten that it can only be kept alive by violent
purges, credit cycles, strikes, and wars. If it were not for such drastic
remedies people of the twentieth century would perish of ease and
comfort.”
“Come, ease and comfort never killed anyone.”
“Spiritually!”
“Oh, I don’t go in for spiritualism!” Dormer was saying, when his
servant brought him his tea. There was bread, that had rolled on the
floor of a lorry until it tasted of dust, oil, blood, and coal. There was
butter. There was marmalade. There was some cake they had sent
him from home. Leaning his elbows on the board on which they
wrote, he held his enamel mug in both hands and swilled his
chlorinated-water, condensed-milk tasting tea. For the first time, as
he clasped the mug and filled his gullet he was warm, hands, mouth,
neck, stomach, gradually all his being. He put the mug down nearly
empty and shoved the cake over to Kavanagh. “Have some?” he
mumbled.
They found themselves in a village of the Somme country, hardly

recognizable for the division that had come there for the offensive,
five months before. Just infantry, with the necessary services,
without artillery, or cavalry, they were billeted in barns and cottages
up and down a narrow valley, with cliff-like downs rising each side
and a shallow, rapid stream flowing between poplars and osier beds
at the bottom. Dormer was entrusted with the critical military
operation of organizing Football, Boxing and entertainment, and
spent his time to his great satisfaction, up and down the three miles
of road that ran through the Divisional Area, notebook in hand, listing
the battalions or companies as entering for one or another of these
sports. He liked it and it suited him.
Mildly interested in sport as such, what he liked about his job was
that it kept his feet warm and his mind employed, and he arranged
so that his daily journey ended sufficiently far from Head-quarters for
some hospitable unit to say, “Oh, stop and have lunch!” It would then
be a nice walk back, a quiet hour or so, getting the correspondence
into shape before the Colonel returned from the afternoon ride, by
which he shook down his lunch and made a place for his dinner.
After that would be tea, orders to sign and circulate, mess, a game of
cards, and another day would be done. He had long found out that
the great art of war lay not in killing Germans, but in killing time.
Over and over again, every day and all day, as he moved up and
down those wintry roads, he looked at the faces of the men who
knew now that the great offensive had resulted in infinitesimal gains,
enormous losses, and only approached the end of the War by so
many weeks. He failed entirely to make out what was going on in
their minds. Officers were always officially pleased to see him
because he was attached to Divisional Head-quarters, because he
came to talk about games, not about work, because he was, as he
was perfectly conscious, one of the most difficult fellows in the world
to quarrel with. He had never had any great bitterness in life, and
was so averse to official “side” that he made an effort to appear as
informal as possible. Sometimes N.C.O.’s would be produced,
consulted as to whether a team could be got together, what amount
of special training could be allowed intending pugilists, without
interfering with necessary drills and fatigues, what histrionic, (or to
put it frankly), what music-hall talent could be found. The N.C.O.’s
were (of course) keen, smart, attentive, full of suggestions and
information. They had to be. They kept their jobs by so being, and
their jobs gave them just the opportunity to live about as well as
lumbermen in the remote parts of North America, instead of existing
like beasts in barns, not pet animals, not marketable produce, but
just beasts, herded and disposed of, counted and controlled, for
such was the fate of the average infantryman, and war being what it
is, there came a gradual acquiescence in it. It could be no other.
But all those plain soldiers, of whom only one or two per cent had
even a voice in their entertainment, of what they thought, who
knows? Dormer wondered. He wondered even more at himself. Why
on earth, in the midst of a European War that had changed his whole
existence so dramatically, he should want to go bothering his head
about what was happening to other people he couldn’t think, but he
went on doing it. Otherwise the life suited him rather well, and with
every fresh week that separated him from the offensive, a sort of
balance so natural to the thoroughly balanced sort of person that he
was, went on adjusting itself, and he found himself thinking that
perhaps in the new year there might be a new chance, the French,
the Russians, the Italians might do something, so might we. Then it
would be over, and one could go home.
It was then that the inevitable happened. He knew it as soon as he
got into the room at the Mairie that served for Q. office. He was so
sure that he stood turning over the correspondence on his desk, the
usual pile of returns, orders, claims and indents, without reading
them, certain that the Colonel was going to speak to him. At last the
Colonel did speak:
“Look here, Dormer, I thought we settled this?”
There it was, the blue questionnaire form, the other memorandums,
Divisional, Corps, Army French Mission, Base Authority, all saying
“Passed to you please, for necessary action.” With an absurd feeling
that it did not matter what he said, or did, and that the whole thing
was arranging itself without him, he got out:
“What is that, sir?”
“This—er—civilian claim for compensation. Something about a girl in
a hayfield. What did you do, when we were up in Flanders?”
He rebelled so against the unfairness of it.
“Major Stevenage had the matter in hand. I went with him to the
spot.”
“What did you find?”
“It was not what I—you—we thought, sir. The words ‘La Vierge’ were
intended to convey that a shrine had been damaged.”
“A shrine? Really. How odd the French are? It was accidental, was
it? Bad driving?”
“No, sir, not exactly. A driver wanted shelter for his mules——”
“Quite right, quite right.”
“So he broke into the shrine——”
“Ah, that was a mistake, of course. Whatever were his unit about to
let him?”
“The matter was not reported until later.”
“Then they placed him under arrest and stoppages?”
“They were moved immediately, sir. But I didn’t gather that any
action was taken.”
“But when Major Stevenage found it out?”
“It had happened so long before that he thought it was impossible to
pursue the matter. So I made a report and sent it to the proper
authority, to see if an ex. gratia payment could be made.”
“And they have done nothing, of course. So the French Mission have
dug it up again.”
“Indeed, sir.”
“Yes. Oh, I can’t wade through all this. But I tell you what, young
Dormer. You’ve got yourself involved in this correspondence, and I
shouldn’t be at all surprised if you didn’t ever get out. I shouldn’t
really.”
“I can’t see that I’ve done anything wrong, sir.”
“Can’t you? Well, it’s no good your telling the French Mission that,
I’m afraid. You might go and try to persuade them that there’s a
mistake, or an exaggeration, and get them to drop it. You’d better go
and see them anyhow. They’re at Flan! Take what’s-his-name with
you.”
From this, Dormer, by long experience, understood that he was to go
to Army Head-quarters and to take the Divisional French Liaison
Officer with him. He neither liked nor disliked the job. It was the sort
of thing one had to do in war-time and he was used to it. So he went
down the little stony street to the pork-butcher’s, where, upon the
swing-gate that admitted one to the dank, greasy, appetizing interior,
where every sort of out-of-the-way portion of the pig lay cooked and
smelling “sentimental,” hung the placard “French Liaison Officer,”
with the number of the Division carefully smudged out. Here, blue-
coated, booted and spurred, sat the French Liaison Officer,
innumerable small printed sheets of instructions before him, carefully
arranged on this pile or on that, while in between lay the cardboard-
covered dossiers.
Dormer’s immediate impression was: “Not enough to do. Passing the
time away,” but he had too much sympathy with such an attitude to
say so. He was greeted with effusion:
“My dear Dormer, to what do I owe the pleasure?”
Dormer never liked effusion. He replied briefly:
“This,” and threw the papers on the table.
It amused him to watch the change in the other’s face from purely
official politeness to perfectly genuine determination to keep out of it.
“Well, Dormer, you’ve heard of System D?”
He had to think whether it was Swedish gymnastics or a patent
medicine.
“It means ‘Debrouillez vous,’ or ‘Don’t get mixed up with it.’ That is
my advice to you. In any case I shall leave it alone. It is a matter of
discipline purely.”
“Quite so.” Dormer did not care whether the sarcasm was obvious.
“But I have received orders to go and see your Chief at Army Head-
quarters, and to take you with me. I suppose you don’t mind going.
It’ll be a ride.”
“I shall be delighted. I will go and tell my servant to have my horse
round. I will introduce you to Colonel Lepage. He is a man of
excellent family.”
“I thought you would,” said Dormer to himself.
Accordingly, they rode together. The Frenchman rode with style,
being bound to show that he was of the class of officer who could
ride, a sharp demarcation in his army. Dormer rode as he did
everything else. He had learned it as part of his training, without
enthusiasm, knowing that a motor-byke was a far better way of
getting about. But he was careful of a horse as of anything else.
They arrived at Flan. It was another little stone-built village. The only
difference he could see between it and Louches, which they had just
left, was that it stood on the top of a hill, the other along the bottom
of a valley.
Its present temporary occupants, however, he could soon see to be
a vastly different category. Every little house was placarded with the
signs or marks of the offices or messes it contained. Very-well-
groomed orderlies and signallers strolled or waited. Big cars and
impeccable riding horses were being held or standing. They found
the French Mission, got their horses held (instead of turning off the
petrol, and kicking down a stand, thought Dormer) and entered.
It was the little Picard parlour of some small rentier, who, having sold
beetroot to advantage during fifty years, found himself able at last to
fold his shirt-sleeved arms, and from his window, or often from his
doorway, to watch other people doing what he had done in the little
paved Place.
He, of course, had gone to Brittany, Bordeaux, the Riviera, to be out
of the sound of the guns that had killed his son, and his vacant place
had been scheduled by a careful Maire as available for billeting. The
French army, more impressed by orders, better trained, more
experienced, had carefully removed every picture, book, or cushion
and stored them in safety—where a British Mess would have left
them—at least until they were broken or disappeared. At small tables
sat two or three officers in azure, with three or more bars on the cuff.
Dendrecourt halted before one of these, clicked his heels, and
saluted, and asked if he might present the Captain Dormer, of the
English Army. Colonel Lepage rose with effusion, excessively
English:
“My dear Dormer, charmed to meet you. Sit down. What can we do
for you?”
“I have been sent to see you about a civilian claim for
compensation.”
“L’affaire Vanderlynde!” put in Dendrecourt.
“Aha!” The Colonel tapped his blotting-pad with a paper knife, and
knitted his brows. “What have you to propose?”
“My General”—Dormer was sufficiently practised to avail himself of
that fiction—“wished me to explain that this matter has been fully
investigated.”
“Ah! so we may shortly expect to hear that the guilty individual has
been arrested?”
“Well, not exactly an arrest, sir. The whole affair rests upon a
mistake.”
“What sort of mistake?” The other officers gave up whatever they
were doing, and gathered round at the tone of the last question.
“Upon investigation, it appears that the claim is not for—er—
personal violence.”
“I should be obliged if you would define personal violence.”
“That would take us rather far afield, sir. All I want to point out is that
the expression ‘La Vierge’ does not refer to Mademoiselle
Vanderlynden, but to an image in a shrine.”
There was some beginnings of a titter and Dormer was conscious
that he was blushing violently. But Colonel Lepage quelled the others
with a look. He had the matter so well in hand that Dormer began
slowly to feel that he must be one of those political soldiers, whose
every act and speech is dictated by the necessities of some policy,
hatched high up among Foreign Offices and their ante-rooms, and
worked out in detail by underlings dealing with underlings. Moreover,
Dormer was perfectly conscious that he was a junior officer, and
therefore a splendid target. Colonel Lepage would not meet him that
evening at Mess. He resigned himself, and the Colonel drew a long
breath, and let himself go.
“Upon my word, it is all very fine for you others. We are much
obliged for the information as to the meaning of the word Vierge. And
also for being told that no arrest has been made and that no
compensation has been offered. Unfortunately the matter has gone a
good deal further than you suppose, and we have to furnish a report
to a higher authority, to the French War Office in fact. The matter is a
most serious one. The claim is for trespass upon private property not
demarcated for billeting under the law of 1873. You follow?”
Dormer held his peace. With the exception of the word demarcated,
the Colonel’s English was as good as his own and many times more
voluble. He contented himself with thinking “Cock—cock—cock—
cock pheasant!”
“Then there is the actual damage to the fabric. You may not be
aware that such an object is held in great veneration by the owners,
more particularly in Flanders where they are very devout. But the
most serious thing of all was the treatment accorded to the Mayor
when he was—with the most perfect legality—called in by the
claimant to take official note of the damage. This functionary was
grossly insulted by the English troops and I regret to say that these
occurrences are far too frequent. Only last Easter at Bertezeele, the
procession of the Religious Festival was the object of laughter of the
troops, who may not be aware that the inhabitants attach great
importance to such matters, but who should be so instructed by their
officers. And at Leders-cappell only last week, the Mayor of that
Commune also was insulted in the middle of his official duties. These
incidents are very regrettable and must be checked. Therefore I
regret to say that your explanation is valueless. Perhaps you will be
so good as to convey this to your General?”
Dormer had a feeling that whatever he said would make no earthly
difference, so he merely muttered:
“Very good, sir,” and turned on his heel.
Walking their horses down the hill from Flan, Dendrecourt said:
“My word, he was in a state of mind, wasn’t he? our Colonel.”
Dormer had the clearest possible presentiment that the moment the
door closed upon them, the Colonel had said ‘Pan’ in imitation of a
cork being snapped into a bottle, and that all the rest of the officers
had laughed. So he said:
“What on earth is behind all this, Dendrecourt?”
“Why, nothing, except the dignity of France.”
“The whole job is only worth a pound or two. I’d have paid it out of
my own pocket rather than have all this about it.”
“Well, of course, you may have enough money to do it, but, my dear
Dormer, a few pounds in England is a good many francs in France,
not only in exchange value, but in sentiment. Then, no one likes
having his grandmother’s tomb broken into——”
“I suppose they will get over it, if they are paid enough money,”
rejoined Dormer, bitterly, for it was exactly what he had heard before.
“Certainly!” replied Dendrecourt, without noticing, “but it is most
unfortunate at this moment. There is a religious revival in France. A
new Commander-in-Chief and a new spirit, and these insults to the
religious sentiment are very trying. Then there is the insult to the
Mayor.”
“Oh, devil take the Mayor!”
The Frenchman shrugged. “The devil has taken all of us, my friend.
We are a sacrificed generation. You find the Mayor of Hondebecq
annoying. So do I. But not more than everything else. You would not
like it if French soldiers laughed at an English Mayor!”
“My dear Dendrecourt, in England a Mayor is somebody. Not an old
peasant dressed up in a top hat and an apron, all stars and stripes.”
“Well, here is lunch!” (He called it lernch.) “I will not join with you,
Dormer, in the game of slanging each other’s nationality.”
Dormer dismounted and handed over his horse, and went in to
lunch, walking wide in the legs and feeling a fool. The only pleasure
he had had was the male-game-bird appearance of Colonel Lepage.
Of course he said nothing about his morning’s work, and of course
Colonel Birchin had forgotten it. At the end of the week the Division
moved into the line and he had to go forward with that fellow
Kavanagh to check the workings of communications. They were “in”
four weeks, and came out in the great cold of January, 1917, and
were moved up near to Doullens. They had not been out a week
before the Colonel sent for him. He knew what it would be about, but
the whole of his mind being occupied with keeping warm, he did not
care. They were in huts, on a high plateau. White snow obliterated
every colour, softened every outline as far as the eye could reach,
except where the road to Arras lay black with its solid ice, the snow
that the traffic had trodden into water, refrozen into a long black
band, scattered with cinders, gravel, chalk, anything that made it
negotiable.
Dormer looked at the collection of huts, with the obvious pathways
between, the obvious, inevitable collection of traffic, lorries and
limbers, motor-cycles and horses, that accumulated round any
Head-quarters. He wondered how long it would take the Bosche to
discover it in some air-photo and bomb it all to blazes. Inside Q.
office, in spite of two big stoves in the tiny box of a place, it was so
cold that every one breathed clouds of steam, and the three officers,
and the clerks, sat in their coats.
“Look here, Dormer!”—the Colonel sounded as though he had a
personal grievance—“just look what I’ve got from the army.”
It was an official memorandum, emanating from Army Head-quarters
and duly passed through the Corps to whom they had belonged, and
by Corps to the Division, inquiring what results had been arrived at in
the Vanderlynden affair, and whether it could not be reported to the
Minister of War that the matter had reached a satisfactory
conclusion.
“I thought you settled all that, while we were at Louches?”
“Well, sir, I went to see them at Army Head-quarters and explained,
or tried to.”
“You don’t seem to have done any good at all. In fact it looks as
though you and Dendrecourt had a nice morning ride for nothing.”
“I couldn’t get a word in. It suited somebody’s politics to blackguard
us just then, and I left it at that. It didn’t seem any use arguing, sir.”
“Well, this must be stopped somehow. We shall have the French War
Minister taking the matter up with Whitehall, directly, and a nice
figure we shall all cut. I’ve known men sent to Salonika or Mespot, as
company commanders, for less than this.”
“Very good, sir. What shall I do?”
“Get on with it. Find out who did the beastly damage, and straf him.
Straf somebody, anyhow, and bring the remains here in a bag. We
can show it to Corps, and they can write a sermon on the efficiency
of the Adjutant-General’s Department.”
“Yessir. If you refer to the correspondence you will see that the name
of the unit is mentioned.”
Dormer stood perfectly still, while his superior officer turned over the
closely written, printed or typed sheets. His face was carefully veiled
in official blankness. He had an idea.
“Well, here you are,” the Colonel was saying, “469 Trench Mortar
Battery. You’ll have to go and see ’em. You ought to have done so
long before!”
Dormer could not help adding, maliciously:
“Wouldn’t it be sufficient if I were to send ’em a chit, sir?”
“No, it wouldn’t. We’ve had quite enough of this procrastination. It’ll
land us all in a nice hole, if we’re not careful. You go and see them
and insist on getting to the bottom of it.”
“Yes, sir. The order of battle will give their position.”
“I’ll see to that. I’ll have it looked up and let you know in the
morning.”

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Ebook Engineering Mathematics Volume I Second Edition Sandeep Online PDF All Chapter

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Engineering Mathematics - Volume I,

Second Edition Sandeep

Engineering Mathematics. Volume-I Second Edition.

Foundations of Applied Mathematics Volume I 1st Edition

Prep X Math Vol I 1st Edition Sandeep Srivastava

Engineering Mathematics by Example Vol. I: Algebra and

Testing of Materials and Elements in Civil Engineering

FOUNDATIONS OF ISO DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS VOLUME I

Fundamentals of Design of Experiments for Automotive

Engineering Mathematics Important Formulas Gradeup

NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS

All rights reserved.

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

Preface to the Second Edition ............................................................................................................ vii

Module 1: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS-I ................................................................................... 1–55

Module 2: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS-II ............................................................................. 47–106

2.14 Maxima and Minima of Functions of Two Variables ............................................................. 96

Module 3: VECTOR CALCULUS ............................................................................................ 107–166

Module 4: INTEGRAL CALCULUS ........................................................................................ 167–225

Module 5: LINEAR ALGEBRA ............................................................................................... 226–312

5.6 Solution of a System of Linear Non Homogeneous Equations ........................................... 243

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1.2 nth DERIVATIVES OF SOME

dny (n − 1)! a n m(m  1)! (m  n 1)( m  n)(m  n  1)! 2  1

Case (v): (5) nth derivative of sin(ax + b)

(−1)n ⋅ p( p + 1)! ( p + n − 1) ⋅ a n d2y

d2y D n (sinx) = sin(x + nπ / 2) ...(18)

= a2 cos(ax + b + 2π / 2) Let y = e ax sin(bx + c)

Thus, we have the formula

d2y = (a2 + b2 )n / 2 eax cos{bx + c + n tan −1 (b/a)} ...(21)

 k (sin B) sin(bx c)] = keax cos(bx + c + α) = (m log a) 3 y

Solution: Example 2: Find the nth derivative of the

3 ⎛ nπ ⎞ 3n ⎛ nπ ⎞ (v) e ax cos 2 x sin x

(ii) We note that Therefore,

Differentiating w.r.t. ‘x’, we get n2 © x 1 x 1 ¸

Theorem: If u and v be any two functions of x with

Therefore, by Leibnitz’s theorem, we have n(n  1)( n  2) 1 ¸

Example 4: Differentiate the following equation ( x 2 − 1) y2 + 2 xy1 − 2n [ xy1 + y] =0

= xyn +1 + nyn = xyn +1 + nyn

Example 5: If (x 2  1)n , prove that ( x 2 − 1) yn + 2 + 2 xyn +1 − n(n + 1) yn = 0.

xy2 + y1 = −a cos(log x) ⋅ 1 − b sin(log x) ⋅ 1 Differentiating, we get

x 2 y12 = P 2 [b 2 − y 2 ], [Using equation (1)]

x 2 yn + 2 + (2n + 1) xyn +1 + (n 2 − n + n + P 2 ) yn = 0 Þ ( x 2 − 1) y12 − m 2 y 2 = 0

Differentiating, we get ( x 2 − 1) yn + 2 + (2n + 1) xyn +1 + (n2 − m2 ) yn = 0.

⎡1 − cos2 pt ⎤ (1 + x 2 ) y2 + 2 xy1 = 0 ...(2)

Dn [(1 − x 2 ) y2 ] y n + 2 (0) = − n(n + 1) yn (0) ...(5)

From this equation (1), becomes ⎧ n −1

Hence determine yn at x = 0. (1 − x 2 ) yn + 2 − (2n + 1) xyn +1 − ( n 2 + m 2 ) yn = 0 .

Differentiating w.r.t. ‘x’

= 2m2 yy1 (iii) x n e x

(1 − x 2 ) yn + 2 − (2n + 3) xyn +1 − (n + 1)2 yn = 0

EXERCISE 1.2 (1 + x 2 ) yn + 2 + (2n + 3) xyn +1 + (n + 1)2 yn = 0

9. If y = log[x + 1 + x 2 ], prove that

10. If y = sin( m sin −1 x ), prove that

⎡ 1 − cos θ = 2sin2 θ / 2 ⎤ [1 + cosθ = 2 cos2 θ / 2]

π Dividing numerator and denominator by cos mq

dr Now at the point of intersection of the given curves,

dr tan φ 2 = tan nq ...(2)

Next, for the curve r = b cosec 2 θ/2, we have 1 − sin 2 θ

Example 1: For the cardioid r  a (1 cos R )

Fig. 1.4 2 cos2 θ / 2

1 1 Equation (1) becomes,

(iv) r = a sin (θ/ 3) .

1.5 RADIUS OF CURVATURE 1 ds

dny (n − 1)! a n m(m 1)! (m n 1)( m n)(m n 1)! 2 1

k (sin B) sin(bx c)] = keax cos(bx + c + α) = (m log a) 3 y

Differentiating w.r.t. ‘x’, we get n2 © x 1 x 1 ¸

Therefore, by Leibnitz’s theorem, we have n(n 1)( n 2) 1 ¸

Example 5: If (x 2 1)n , prove that ( x 2 − 1) yn + 2 + 2 xyn +1 − n(n + 1) yn = 0.

Example 1: For the cardioid r a (1 cos R )