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Engineering
Combustion Essentials
Engineering
Combustion Essentials
By

David S-K. Ting

Engineering Combustion Essentials

By David S-K. Ting

This book first published 2018

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Copyright © 2018 by David S-K. Ting

All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN (10): 1-5275-1414-5

ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-1414-0
Combustion is essential to human survival, and so is learning. This book
aims at sparking inquisitive minds on fire, setting off a series of positive
chain reactions which beautify everyday and future combustion.

“At times our own light goes out and is rekindled by a spark from another
person. Each of us has cause to think with deep gratitude of those who
have lighted the flame within us.”
—Albert Schweitzer
 CONTENTS

Preface ....................................................................................................... xii

Acknowledgements .................................................................................. xiii

Chapter One ................................................................................................. 1

Introduction
1.1 What is Combustion? ....................................................................... 2
1.2 Combustion in Applications............................................................. 4
1.3 A Highlight of Combustion Science Development .......................... 6
1.3.1 The Phlogiston Theory ............................................................ 7
1.3.2 Antoine Lavoisier .................................................................... 8
1.3.3 Other Combustion Milestones ................................................. 9
1.4 Historical Perspective of Combustion Technology ........................ 10
1.4.1 Lighting ................................................................................. 10
1.4.2 Steam Boilers ........................................................................ 12
1.4.3 Internal Combustion Engines ................................................ 14
1.4.4 Gas Turbines ......................................................................... 16
1.5 Book Layout .................................................................................. 18

Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 21

Thermochemistry
2.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 23
2.2 Fuels ............................................................................................... 27
2.3 Stoichiometry ................................................................................. 27
2.3.1 Air/Fuel Ratios ...................................................................... 28
2.3.2 Equivalence Ratios ................................................................ 30
2.3.3 Reactive Additives ................................................................ 31
2.4 Thermodynamic Property Relations .............................................. 32
2.4.1 Equation of State ................................................................... 32
2.4.2 Calorific Equations of State .................................................. 32
2.4.3 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures ......................................... 34
2.4.4 Amagat’s Law of Additive Volumes ..................................... 35
2.4.5 Ideal Gas Mixtures ................................................................ 36
viii Contents

2.5 Thermodynamic Laws and Functions ............................................ 37

2.5.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Fixed Mass
(Closed System) ........................................................................ 39
2.5.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Volume .... 44
2.6 Enthalpy: Vaporization, Formation, Combustion .......................... 45
2.6.1 Latent Heat of Vaporization .................................................. 45
2.6.2 Heat of Formation ................................................................. 45
2.6.3 Heat of Combustion .............................................................. 46
2.6.4 Heating Value........................................................................ 48
2.7 Adiabatic Flame Temperature ........................................................ 49

Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 55

Chemical Equilibrium and Dissociation
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 56
3.2 The Second Law of Thermodynamics ........................................... 57
3.2.1 Thermodynamic Functions .................................................... 58
3.3 Equilibrium of Thermodynamic Systems ...................................... 59
3.3.1 Constant-Volume Process ..................................................... 61
3.3.2 Constant-Temperature Process .............................................. 63
3.3.3 Constant-Pressure-and-Temperature Process ........................ 64
3.3.4 Chemical Potential Minimization .......................................... 65
3.3.5 Equilibrium Constants ........................................................... 66
3.4 Dissociation ................................................................................... 68

Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 81

Chemical Kinetics
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 82
4.2 Global versus Elementary Reactions ............................................. 83
4.2.1 Global Reactions ................................................................... 83
4.2.2 Order of Reaction .................................................................. 86
4.3 Elementary Reactions .................................................................... 86
4.3.1 Molecularity of a Reaction .................................................... 87
4.3.2 The Law of Mass Action ....................................................... 87
4.4 Types of Chemical Reactions ........................................................ 88
4.4.1 First-Order Reactions ............................................................ 90
4.4.2 Second-Order Reactions ........................................................ 91
4.4.3 Consecutive Reactions .......................................................... 94
4.4.4 Opposing or Reversible Reactions ........................................ 95
4.4.5 Chain Reactions..................................................................... 99
4.5 The Arrhenius Law and the Collision Theory.............................. 102
 Engineering Combustion Essentials ix

4.6 Pressure and Temperature Effects on Reaction Rate ................... 108

4.6.1 Pressure Effect..................................................................... 108
4.6.2 Temperature Effect .............................................................. 109
4.7 Net Production Rates ................................................................... 109
4.8 Chemical Time Scales.................................................................. 110

Chapter Five ............................................................................................ 113

Laminar Premixed Flames
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 115
5.2 Laminar Flame Speed, Flame Propagation Speed, and Mass
Burning Rate ................................................................................ 116
5.2.1 The Freely Propagating Planar Flame ................................. 119
5.2.2 The Freely Propagating Spherical Flame ............................ 120
5.2.3 The Confined Spherical Flame ............................................ 122
5.3 The Structure of Combustion Wave............................................. 125
5.4 Laminar Flame Speed Measurements .......................................... 128
5.4.1 The Non-Existing Ideal Planar Combustion Wave ............. 128
5.4.2 A Stationary Spherical Flame .............................................. 129
5.4.3 Common Flame Observation Methods ................................ 131
5.4.4 Bunsen Burner ..................................................................... 133
5.4.5 Soap Bubble ........................................................................ 136
5.4.6 Constant Volume Chamber ................................................. 136
5.4.7 Flat Flame Burner................................................................ 138
5.4.8 Stagnation and Opposed Flame Burners ............................. 139
5.5 Premixed Laminar Flame Theories .............................................. 139
5.5.1 Thermal Theory ................................................................... 140
5.5.2 Thermal Species - Thermal Theory with Species
Diffusion ................................................................................. 141
5.5.3 Modern Comprehensive Theories or Models ...................... 144

Chapter Six .............................................................................................. 148

Turbulence
6.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 149
6.2 Fundamental Characteristics of Turbulence................................. 150
6.3 Characterization of Turbulence .................................................... 154
6.4 Scales of the Swirls ...................................................................... 155

Chapter Seven.......................................................................................... 166

Premixed Turbulent Flames
7.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 167
7.1.1 Premixed Laminar Flame .................................................... 168
x Contents

7.1.2 Premixed Turbulent Flame .................................................. 169

7.2 A Quick Recap of Flow Turbulence ............................................ 173
7.3 Premixed Turbulent Burner Flames ............................................. 174
7.4 Relative Scales of Flow and Combustion .................................... 175
7.5 Categorization of Premixed Turbulent Flame Regimes ............... 179
7.5.1 Wflow >> Wchem or O/u’ >> Gl/Sl .............................................. 181
7.5.2 Wflow < Wchem or O/u’ < Gl/Sl ................................................... 182
7.5.3 Further Remarks on Premixed Turbulent Flame Regimes .. 183
7.6 Turbulent Length Scale and the Flame Surface Area................... 184
7.6.1 A Saturated, Wrinkled Flame Front .................................... 185
7.6.2 An Unsaturated, Wrinkled Flame Front .............................. 186
7.6.3 Comments on the Turbulent Length Scale in Premixed
Combustion............................................................................. 187

Chapter Eight ........................................................................................... 191

Spark-ignited Premixed Turbulent Flame Propagation
8.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 193
8.2 Turbulent Flame Acceleration and the Driving Mechanisms....... 194
8.2.1 Progressive Flame-Turbulence Interaction (The Evolution
Mechanism) ............................................................................ 195
8.2.2 Relative Flame / Eddy Size ................................................. 198
8.2.3 Volume Expansion Effects (Expanding-Pushing
Mechanism) ............................................................................ 200
8.2.4 Darrieus-Landau Instability ................................................. 201
8.2.5 Attenuation of Flame Front Wrinkling................................ 203
8.2.6 Further Progressive Turbulent Flame Growth Evidence ..... 203
8.2.7 Additional Remarks on Turbulent Flame Acceleration ....... 205
8.3 Other Parameters for Characterizing Turbulent Flames............... 206
8.3.1 Correlating Turbulent Flame Speed with Strain Rate.......... 206
8.3.2 Correlating Turbulent Flame Speed with Fractal Lengths... 208
8.4 Lewis Number and Markstein Number ........................................ 211
8.4.1 Lewis Number ..................................................................... 211
8.4.2 Markstein Number............................................................... 213
8.5 Rapid Distortion Theory .............................................................. 214
8.6 In-Cylinder Flows ........................................................................ 219
8.7 Ultra-Lean, Premixed Methane-Air Flame Growth ..................... 220
8.8 A Fast-Burn, Low-Emission, Spark-Ignition Engine ................... 225
8.8.1 Background ......................................................................... 225
8.8.2 A Fast-Burn, Low-Emission Engine Cylinder..................... 227
 Engineering Combustion Essentials xi

Chapter Nine............................................................................................ 238

Non-premixed Flame
9.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 239
9.2 One-Dimensional Diffusion Flame .............................................. 241
9.3 Two-Dimensional Diffusion Jet Flame ........................................ 242
9.3.1 Elementary Laminar Jet....................................................... 242
9.3.2 Rudimentary Laminar Jet Flame ......................................... 247
9.3.3 The Burke and Schumann Flame ........................................ 248
9.4 Laminar to Turbulent Diffusion Jet Flame................................... 249
9.5 Turbulent Non-Premixed Flame .................................................. 252
9.6 Some Remarks on Turbulent Non-Premixed Flame .................... 253

Chapter Ten ............................................................................................. 256

Spray and Droplet
10.1 Introduction................................................................................ 257
10.2 Droplet Combustion ................................................................... 258
10.2.1 The d2-Law of Droplet Vaporization ................................. 259
10.2.2 The d2-Law of Droplet Combustion .................................. 260
10.3 Spray Formation......................................................................... 263
10.4 Comments on Spray-Turbulence-Combustion Interactions ....... 266

Chapter Eleven ........................................................................................ 268

Combustion in Nature
11.1 Introduction................................................................................ 269
11.2 Fire ............................................................................................. 269
11.3 Natural Fire Survivors and Retardants ....................................... 271
11.4 The Amazing Bombardier Beetle............................................... 273

Appendix ................................................................................................. 277

Enthalpy and Entropy Tables
By J. Aman and D.S-K. Ting
 PREFACE

This book is primarily intended for introducing combustion to senior

undergraduate and junior graduate students in mechanical and chemical
engineering. Some undergraduate knowledge of thermodynamics and fluid
mechanics is required to comprehensively appreciate the material.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This book could not be realized without grace from above, and the able
hands of many gracious individuals. The author is particularly indebted to
the following instrumental individuals for going way out of their way in
helping him realizing this dream of his.

Prof. Dr. M. David Checkel, who gave the author the only combustion
course, as a reading course. In the absence of formal lectures and lecture
notes, the independent lifelong learning has been exceedingly painful and
yet rewarding.

The Combustion Engineering classes from 2011 onward at the University

of Windsor, for pointing out many obvious and not so obvious errors in
the original manuscript, An Introduction to Combustion Engineering,
2011, Naomi Ting’s Books, and also the revised version, Some Basics of
Combustion Engineering, 2012, Naomi Ting’s Books. Even after these
two versions, Jamie Smith threw in his towel after proofreading the first
couple of chapters. Lucas Semple made it much farther, ultimately more
painfully to this author, Lucas gave many invaluable general comments
which caused some serious sweating from the author. It took a proven
marathon runner, Dr. Jacqueline Stagner, to endure the pain and correct all
the bad jokes/English along with many subtle omissions such as commas
and hyphens, from the beginning until the end. The leftovers, very tedious
checking of symbols and nomenclature were effected by Junguo Wang and
Yang Yang. They also straightened the references. When the manuscript
failed to completely clear the 3 spot checks, Dr. Mehdi Ebrahimi and Yang
Yang combed through the final version with different powerful software.
Furthermore, Navjut Sandhu and Junguo Wang also double-checked some
chapters. Even then, some errors escaped, but only to be caught by the
powerful eyes of the marathon runner!

The author would still be drawing figures, if not for the following skillful
and helping hands: Ashhar Ahmed, Saarah Akhand, Ning Cao, Fawas
Hameed, Frank Iakovidis, Kristie Pearce, Navjot Sandhu, Naomi Ting,
Tachelle Ting, Yoniana Ting, Zarek Ting, Junguo Wang, Hao Wu, Yang
Yang, and Zhenyi Yang. Their names are ascribed underneath their
xiv Acknowledgements

artworks. Dr. Julia Aman produced the thermodynamic tables in the

Appendix.

Mom, dad, sisters and brother; making fire and cooking aromatic wild
plants still mesmerizes the author. There is no better place to experientially
savor combustion other than the lush rainforest of Borneo island.

Naomi, Yoniana, Tachelle, and Zarek Ting, whose many sarcasms and
love fueled the striving of this book over the years.
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

“Success isn't a result of spontaneous combustion. You must set yourself

on fire.”
—Arnold H. Glasow.

Chapter Objectives
‫ל‬ Define combustion.
‫ל‬ Classify combustion into appropriate categories.
‫ל‬ Provide examples of combustion in engineering applications.
‫ל‬ Appreciate the general history of combustion science.
‫ל‬ Highlight Phlogiston Theory and Antoine Lavoisier.
‫ל‬ Convey the history of some combustion technologies.
‫ל‬ Present book outline.

Nomenclature
CI compression ignition
HCCI homogeneous charge compression ignition
SI spark ignition
2 Chapter One

1.1 What is Combustion?

“Combustion is without exaggeration the most important reaction to the
human race. All human and animal existence depends upon combustion as
its course of energy.” – G.G. Brown [1928]. In this book, the term
‘combustion’ refers to a rapid chemical reaction between a fuel and an
oxidizer which produces heat and light. A fuel is a combustible material
which releases energy in terms of heat and light when it is combusted.
Wood is possibly the most classical and best known fuel. Within context,
an oxidizer is a (chemical) substance which is required for the fuel to burn.
As the word implies, the most common oxidizer is oxygen. In other words,
combustion is a rapid exothermic chemical reaction which transforms
chemical energy (energy stored in chemical bonds) to heat. An everyday
example is a birthday candle, Fig. 1.1, where chemical energy stored in the
wax is converted into both heat and light. Another example is a natural gas
fire (place) as depicted in Fig. 1.2, which is used for keeping the indoor
environment warm in the winter time.

Fig. 1.1. A birthday candle (photo taken by Y. Ting).

 Introduction 3

Fig. 1.2. A natural gas fire place (photo taken by Y. Ting).

Combustion can be divided into two main categories, flame versus non-
flame (Table 1.1). Homogenous charge compression ignition (HCCI) is a
well-known example of a flame-less (non-flame) combustion. HCCI is
flame-less as the relatively slow (compared to typical combustion)
reaction takes place throughout the entire volume of the charge, that is, the
reaction is not limited to a well-defined reacting region called flame. Both
flame and flame-less combustion can be further categorized into premixed
and non-premixed types. When the fuel and the oxidant are well mixed
(premixed) prior to reaching the reacting flame front, the flame is said to
be premixed. The rate of combustion is not dependent on the fuel-oxidant
mixing process for premixed flames. A Bunsen burner flame is a premixed
flame that is stationary, whereas the premixed flame in a spark ignition
(SI) engine is propagating.

A non-premixed flame occurs when the fuel and oxidizer are not premixed
prior to combustion. The term ‘diffusion’ is also used interchangeably
with ‘non-premixed,’ even though strictly it applies to the molecular
diffusion of chemical species. The birthday candle in Fig. 1.1 is a diffusion
flame. With heating, the wax melts, moves up along the wick and
evaporates. The evaporated ‘wax’ diffuses from the wick outward while
the oxidant diffuses inward. Combustion takes place in the region where
the fuel-oxidant mixture composition is near stoichiometric. The energy
conversion process in the prevailing compression ignition (CI) diesel
engines is another applied example of non-premixed flame. It is worth
4 Chapter One

mentioning that part of the combustion event in CI engines is premixed

combustion. Nevertheless, the entire combustion process is governed by
diffusion of the injected fuel and the compressed air in the engine cylinder.

Table 1.1. Classification of Combustion

Combustion
Flame Non-flame
(Flame-less)
Premixed Non-premixed HCCI
Bunsen burner (stationary) Torch (gas)
SI engine (propagating) Lamp (liquid to gas)
Candle (solid, liquid, gas)
Match (solid)

1.2 Combustion in Applications

Combustion is not only involved in, but is the essence of, many
engineering applications. There are many everyday examples in power
generation, built environment heating, cooking, and industrial processes.

In power generation, coal, oil, and natural gases are burned in furnaces to
generate power and steam. More recently, biofuels such as wood chips and
other biomass are also gaining acceptance. Even more common are the
reciprocating engines, especially the aforementioned SI and CI engines,
which combust liquid and gaseous fuels when converting chemical energy
to useful work.

A natural gas furnace is still the dominant heating system for providing
human thermal comfort in North American winters. Efficiencies in excess
of 90% are quite typical for today’s high-efficiency (two-stage) furnaces.

Figure 1.3 is a photo of a portable butane stove which is frequently used

for making a ‘steamboat’ (Chinese fondue or hot pot). We note that
commercial cooking, in particular, is dominated by the natural gas stove,
such as that portrayed in Fig. 1.4. On the other hand, outdoor barbequing
in North American summers is predominately done via propane barbeques.
There is definitely a lot of room for improving these basic living
necessities for better performance, saving both fuels and the environment.
Thermodynamically speaking, converting electricity, presumably the
highest quality energy, into heat, the lowest form (dustbin) of energy, for
 Introduction 5

cooking purposes is a bad practice. Electric cooking is perhaps a lot more

harmful to the environment than well-engineered combustion cooking.

Fig. 1.3. A portable butane stove (photo taken by Z. Ting).

Fig. 1.4. A natural gas stove top (created by N. Cao).

Combustion is also at the core of many industrial processes such as metal

processing, glass melting, and cement manufacturing, among many others.
This class of combustion engineering applications is possibly least likely
to be replaced by more renewable alternatives. Thus, efforts to ensure
continuously cleaner and more efficient combustion in these areas are
critical.
6 Chapter One

1.3 A Highlight of Combustion Science Development

In ancient Greek science, water, earth, air, and fire are the four
fundamental elements of the world. Later, in part due to Plato and
Aristotle, a fifth element aether (ether or quintessence) was added to the
list. Eastern traditions, including Chinese and Indian, also have similar
five basic elements. In context with combustion, fire crossed all these
different cultures as one of the fundamental elements. Concerning fire,
Greek mythology renders Prometheus in resolving the heat-deprived,
shivering mankind with fire stolen from Mount Olympus. Factually, the
following subsections give a brief walkthrough of historical combustion
science development. The readers are forewarned that, while some first-
discovery credits are sure, others are not so certain. In fact, there are
records recognizing different persons as the first inventors. To some
extent, this is expected, especially when they are contemporaries who have
written about the ideas via less-than-formal vehicles, in different
languages. In engineering, the further complication concerns granting
more credit to the one who had the idea first, or the one who actually made
the first working device or hardware, not to mention the exclusion of some
lost history, especially those cultures where knowledge was primarily
passed down through the generations orally. As more lost history is being
uncovered, further clarification will emerge with time.

According to the Smithsonian [Smithsonian-Fireworks, 2017], somewhere

between 600 and 900 AD, Chinese alchemists accidentally discovered the
first version of gunpowder when mixing potassium nitrate with sulfur and
charcoal. This eventually led to the use of gunpowder, black powder, or
“fire drug” in weaponry. The earliest recording of gunpowder weaponry,
including references to a gunpowder catapult, took place in 1046. On the
celebration side, fireworks (Fig. 1.5) are an essential ingredient for
occasions such as national days and new years. In these days, with
abounding fingers pointing at combustion as a root cause behind many
problems, it is next-to-impossible to make the public realize the utter
dullness that would ensue if there were no fireworks.
 Introduction 7

Fig. 1.5. A cheerful combustion phenomenon – fireworks in display

(photo taken by K. Pearce).

1.3.1 The Phlogiston Theory

The German alchemist and physician Johann Joachim Becher [1635-1682]
replaced two of the four ancient Greek fundamental elements, fire and air,
with three forms of earth, terra lapidea, terra fluida, and terra pinguis
[Conant, 1950]. According to Becher’s Physical Education published in
1667, he believed that terra pinguis was released when combustible
substances were burned. Later, Georg Ernst Stahl, professor of medicine
and chemistry, renamed terra pinguis as phlogiston. The phlogiston theory
states that a substance loses its phlogiston into the air via burning; see Fig.
1.6. In other words, part of the substance before burning is phlogiston, and
thus, the substance weighs less after losing its phlogiston to air. A down-
to-earth example is cremation, where a typical adult will be left with
approximately 3% of the original body weight in terms of ashes. Thus, our
bodies are highly phlogisticated. As phlogiston is “essence” or “soul,” we
may say that human beings are largely ‘spiritual beings.’
8 Chapter One

Fig. 1.6. Phlogiston is lost into the air when a substance burns (created by
S. Akhand).

1.3.2 Antoine Lavoisier

Antoine Lavoisier [1743-1794] was a French Chemist who is regarded as
“the Father of Modern Chemistry” or “the Father of Combustion” [ACS,
1999, Lavoisier, 1967]. He came from a rich family whose father wanted
him to be a lawyer, while his own passion was for science. As a good son,
Lavoisier obtained a degree in law, but he never practised it. Instead, he
spent literally all his time and energy on science. His passion and extreme-
hard-work led him to be elected to the prestigious Academy of Science at
the very young age of twenty-five. To facilitate his experimental research,
he needed money and this presumably was the reason he became a tax
collector.

Who could be a better assistant that one’s better half? A notable

contribution of Mrs. Lavoisier was the translation of many technical
reports into English and Latin.

Employing careful measurements, Lavoisier found that something

weighed more after burning, and this did not make sense at that time as
this disagreed with the prevailing Phlogiston Theory. He thought that
something in the air had caused the weight increase. Lavoisier used a glass
 Introduction 9

enclosure to cover phosphorus over a pool of mercury. When focussing

sun rays through a lens onto phosphorus enclosed in a glass jar over a pool
of mercury, Lavoisier found that the formation of phosphorus calx was
associated with a corresponding rise in the mercury level. Additional
experiments along this line (phosphorus, sulphur, tin) consistently led to a
decrease of about one fifth of the air, thus Lavoisier realized that there was
something in the air that played a vital role in the burning. It was his
encounter with Clergyman Joseph Priestley that confirmed the discovery
of oxygen. Lavoisier’s extended series of rigorous efforts, particularly via
careful measurements, eventually solidified in his Réflexions sur le
Phlogistique, putting the false phlogiston belief to rest.

Lavoisier’s involvement with politics, as a tax collector for the king to

fund his lab, ended up causing him his life. He was sentenced to die on a
guillotine at the age of 51, after the French Revolution.

1.3.3 Other Combustion Milestones

Other notable combustion milestones include that made by Robert Bunsen
[1811-1899], who extensively studied a wide range of gaseous premixed
flames. Specifically, Bunsen measured flame temperature and flame speed
using a Bunsen burner (Fig. 1.7) starting in 1855 [Jensen, 2005]. He also
collected flame enthalpy data with the help of a calorimeter.

Fig. 1.7. A Bunsen burner (created by N. Cao).

10 Chapter One

Mallard and Le Châtelier [1883] were probably the first to propose a

theory on flame propagation, and also the first researchers who documented
the effects of turbulence on flame propagation. According to Mallard and
Le Châtelier, Schloesing and de Mondesir were the first to note turbulence
enhancement in combustion in 1864 [Woodbury et al., 1921].

Research on detonation was initiated by Chapman and Jouguet around

1900 [Chapman, 1899, Jouguet, 1905]. They differentiated the supersonic
combustion phenomenon from the then somewhat better known subsonic
deflagration.

The first combustion text was written in German by W. Jost [1903-1988]

in 1938, which was later translated into English by H.O. Croft in 1946
[Jost, 1946]. World War II led to the momentous development of gas
turbines and rockets. Subsequently, Lewis and von Elbe wrote the second
combustion text (the first combustion text in English), in 1951 [Lewis &
von Elbe, 1951]. It is worth mentioning that there were precursors, that is,
earlier published documents which contained partial contents of the final
monographs. For example, Lewis and von Elbe used the same title in their
earlier ‘book’ published in 1938 by Cambridge University Press. As such,
which book or author should be credited with the inauguration of the first
combustion book is somewhat arguable.

1.4 Historical Perspective of Combustion Technology

Here is a brief and incomplete overview concerning the early engineering
applications of combustion. Only four areas of combustion technologies
are succinctly presented to illustrate their historical progression and
significance.

1.4.1 Lighting
Before the discovery of electricity, flames from wood, oil lamps, gas
lamps, and candles were used to provide lighting. Some of the earliest
lamps utilized a wick to draw oil from a reservoir to sustain a flame.

It is generally recognized that it was in 1780 that the Swiss physicist and
chemist François Pierre Ami Argand [1750-1803] invented the tubular
wick which significantly improved the brightness of the lamp [Saltzman,
1999]; see Fig. 1.8. The basic idea was to have a cylindrical wick to allow
air to flow through and around it, significantly increasing the light
 Introduction 11

intensity (five to ten times brighter than a candle). A cylindrical chimney

stabilized the flame, and along with a mechanism for adjusting the height
of the wick, the resulting Argand flame burned efficiently, brightly, and
also cleanly.

In 1784, Jean-Pierre Minckelers [1748-1824] used pyrolyzed coal for gas

flames [Cleveland & Morris, 2014]. He enclosed oil in the barrel of a gun
and heated it in a forge to produce the much lighter gaseous fuel.

According to Borman and Ragland [1998], it was Benjamin Thompson

who improved Argand’s concept into astral lamp design in 1810.
Thompson’s improvements include the introduction of a barometric fuel
level supply and a rack-and-pinion wick adjustment. Thompson possibly
also contributed by allowing air to flow through the centre of the wick and
around the wick exterior to increase the flame volume and brightness. He
also added a glass chimney to help control the airflow around the flame.

Fig. 1.8. A modern day Argand Lamp (photo taken by T. Ting, drawing
created by N. Cao).

In 1890, Austrian scientist and inventor, Carl Auer Freiherr von Welsbach
[1858-1929], invented the first modern gas mantle [Welsbach, 2018]; see
12 Chapter One

Fig. 1.9. Von Welsbach’s invention was considered ‘modern’ because it

was not the first or original invention. In other words, there were some
previous designs including the Clamond basket invented in the 1880s by
the Parisian, Charles Clamond [Clamond, 2018]. In 1885, Welsbach
received a patent for his gas mantle design, consisting of 60% magnesium
oxide, 20% lanthanum oxide, and 20% yttrium oxide. These original
mantles gave off a green-tinted light. It was not until 1890 that Welsbach
used cotton fabric soaked with a salt solution containing thoria and ceria,
i.e., 99% thorium dioxide and 1% cerium (IV) oxide, to produce the first
working mantles. The idea was to stabilize the flame on the mantle. It is
worth noting that Welsbach is also known for his work on rare earth
elements, which led to the development of the flint.

Fig. 1.9. A 21st century gas mantle (photo taken by T. Ting).

1.4.2 Steam Boilers

The earliest boilers operated by heating a kettle of water from the bottom
and directing the steam through a narrow opening. By the 1700s, enclosed
 Introduction 13

furnaces were used to direct more heat to the boiler kettle. Not until the
1750s were fire-tube boilers, where flue gas flowed inside tubes wound
through the water vessel, invented. These boilers were not safe to operate,
however.

In 1788, James Rumsey [1743-1792] patented the first water-tube boiler

[Borman & Ragland, 1998]. Instead of flue gas, water flowed inside the
tubes while the heat was supplied on the outside; see Fig. 1.10. This boiler
boosted capacity and was safer to operate. Nonetheless, these boilers were
not very successful, due to construction problems including steam leaking
and deposits building up in the tubes.

It was not until 1856 that a truly successful water-tube boiler was designed
by Stephen Wilcox [1830-1893]. Within a few years, he and his life-long
friend, George Babcock, founded Babcock and Wilcox Company in 1867
[ASME-Wilcox, 2017].

Fig. 1.10. A steam boiler (created by A. Ahmed).

14 Chapter One

1.4.3 Internal Combustion Engines

In 1673, Dutch mathematician, astronomer, physicist, horologist (one who
possesses the art and science of measuring time), and author of early
science fiction, Christiaan Huygens [1629-1695] (in a letter to his brother)
gave the first indications that anyone had approached a working engine. In
1678, he designed a basic form of internal combustion engine fuelled by
gunpowder [Huygens, 1680]. While there are those who said that he never
successfully built one, other records state that he not only built it, but also
demonstrated its power by lifting seven to eight boys into the air using a
large demonstration unit [EOHT, 2017].

The aforesaid history is described somewhat different in Hautefeuille

[2018]. In 1676, French clergyman, physicist, and inventor, Jean de
Hautefeuille [1647-1724] produced a concept of the internal combustion
engine with gunpowder as the fuel. He was the first person to propose the
use of a piston in a heat engine. It is said that Huygens proposed a similar
device two years later, in 1680, based on de Hautefeuille's suggestion, and
it is possible that Huygens constructed some form of prototype; see Fig.
1.11. It is noted that de Hautefeuille tended to prematurely publish his
ideas and rarely perfected his inventions, before abandoning them in
favour of new pursuits. The Paris Academy of Sciences attested to the
value and usefulness of many of his discoveries, but it never conferred on
him the honour of electing him as a member.

In 1861, Belgian engineer Jean Joseph Étienne Lenoir [1822-1900]

constructed the first production engine. On ignition, the piston flew to the
top of the cylinder, uncovering exhaust ports which allowed the heated
gases to escape. The piston then fell back due to gravity and cooling, and
thus, did work (power stroke). In the Lenoir cycle, an ideal gas undergoes
a constant volume (isochoric) heat addition, an isentropic expansion, and a
constant pressure (isobaric) heat rejection. Today’s reader may be
surprised to learn that the first Lenoir engines operated only at
approximately 3% efficiency. One must, however, keep in mind that these
were the very first inventions; it took years of undue striving to raise
efficiencies to 30%.
 Introduction 15

Fig. 1.11. Huygens’ internal combustion engine (created by A. Ahmed).

In 1867, German engineer Nikolaus August Otto [1832-1891] built the

first spark ignition engine with compression [McNeil, 1982]. Otto was
originally inspired by Lenoir, and his first attempts in inventing a newer
engine were with his brother. It is not clear, to be politically neutral, if
Otto knew of French engineer de Rochas’ 1862 patent on the four-stroke
concept. While not everyone agrees, Alphonse Eugène Beau de Rochas
[1815-1893] is credited as the one who originated the principle of the four-
stroke internal-combustion engine, and Nikolaus Otto is recognized as the
inventor of the four-stroke internal-combustion engine.

In the 1880s, two-stroke engines were developed. Dugald Clerk [1854-1931]

introduced the two-stroke engine concept in 1880 [Clerk, 2018]. One major
advantage of a two-stroke engine over its four-stroke counterpart is the
16 Chapter One

much larger power-per-size (weight) of the engine. As such, two-stroke

engines dominate in agile applications such as chainsaws and lawn
mowers.

In 1892, German inventor and mechanical engineer Rudolf Christian Karl

Diesel [1858-1913] invented compression-ignition engines, doubling the
efficiency by permitting much greater compression ratios without the
engine knocking (uncontrolled ignition and damaging combustion before
desirable combustion occurs).

1.4.4 Gas Turbines

As early as AD 62, Hero of Alexandria [10-70 AD], a Greek mathematician
and engineer, described and invented an aeolipile, a steam-powered device
[Hero, 2018]. The aeolipile consisted of a spherical drum containing water
along with two stream outlets pointing in the same circular direction. A
fire was used to boil the steam, and the hot steam ejecting out through the
two outlets caused the aeolipile to spin; see Fig.1.12. Apparently, this was
undertaken and realized completely out of curiosity and fun. On the more
practical side, it is interesting to note that among Hero’s most well-known
inventions was a wind wheel for harnessing wind on land.

In 1791, English coal master and inventor John Barber [1734-1801]

patented a gas turbine which utilized a compressor, a combustor, and an
impulse turbine [Barber, 2018]. Like most patents, it was not practically
realized, but first inventions such as this had a profound influence on
subsequent development. In this case, it took a few years before the first
working gas turbine emerged.

In the 1880s, Norwegian inventor Jens William Aegidius Elling [1861-

1949] invented the first working gas turbine with a constant-pressure
combustor [Elling, 2018]. Elling is considered to be the father of the gas
turbine. His first gas turbine patent was granted in 1884. Elling made the
first turbine a reality in 1903. His original machine used both rotary
compressors and turbines to produce 11 bhp (8 kW) net.
 Introduction 17

Fig. 1.12. Hero’s aeolipile (created by S. Akhand).

18 Chapter One

1.5 Book Layout

Chapter 2 covers the fundamental thermodynamics of combustion,
including adiabatic flame temperature. Based on the second law of
thermodynamics, dissociation and thermodynamic equilibrium are
disclosed in Chapter 3. The time rate of change, which is absent in
thermodynamics but critical when dealing with combustion, is detailed in
Chapter 4. Well-mixed fuel-oxidizer combustion without the complication
of flow turbulence, i.e., laminar premixed flames, is described in Chapter
5. Before dealing with turbulent premixed flames, flow turbulence is
introduced in Chapter 6. Chapter 7 is devoted to premixed turbulent
flames. The ever-prominent, spark-ignited turbulent flame propagation is
treated separately in Chapter 8. Diffusion-controlled, non-premixed flames
are conveyed in Chapter 9. Spray and droplet are briefly discussed in
Chapter 10. The book ends with a succinct account of combustion in
nature, Chapter 11.

Problems
Problem 1.1
Within one page, define combustion, explosion, deflagration, and
detonation. Give proper academic (standard journal papers and books)
references (exactly where you obtained the definitions) and a brief
example for each case.

Problem 1.2
Within two pages, give an historic account and describe the operation of
combustion in lighting, gas mantles, internal combustion engines, boilers,
and/or turbines. Use reliable references and cite them accurately.

Problem 1.3
Within three pages, clearly explain how a gas mantle works. Remember to
redo this problem after learning about premixed laminar flame (Chapter
4).

Problem 1.4
Give three examples of naturally occurring processes that involve
combustion.
 Introduction 19

Problem 1.5
Check out, from the literature, five fire-retarding plants. For example,
plants that thrive after a forest fire via regeneration, are one kind of fire-
retarding plants.

References
ACS, The Chemical Revolution, Paris, France, June 8, 1999.
ASME-Wilcox,
https://www.asme.org/engineering-topics/articles/boilers/stephen-
wilcox , accessed on May 6, 2017.
Barber, https://www.famousinventors.org/john-barber, accessed on July 6,
2018.
Borman, G.L., Ragland, K.W., Combustion Engineering, McGraw-Hill,
1998.
Brown, G.G., “Introduction (to the collection of papers presented before
the joint symposium of the Divisions of Gas and Fuel Chemistry and
Petroleum Chemistry at the 76th Meeting of the American Chemical
Society, Swampscott, Massachusetts, September 10-14, 1928),”
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 20(10): 998, 1928.
Chapman, D. L., “VI. On the rate of explosion in gases,” Philosophical
Magazine Series 5. 47 (284): 90–104, 1899.
Clamond, https://chestofbooks.com/crafts/scientific-american/sup5/The-
Clamond-Gas-Burner.html#.UYTSO0kQ-k0, accessed on July 6, 2018.
Clerk, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Dugald-Clerk, accessed on
July 6, 2018.
Cleveland, C.J., Morris, C., Handbook of Energy. Volume II:
Chronologies, top ten lists, and word clouds, p. 67, Elsevier, 2014.
Conant, J.B., The Overthrow of Phlogiston Theory: The Chemical
Revolution of 1775–1789, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1950.
Elling,
https://www.revolvy.com/main/index.php?s=%C3%86gidius+Elling&i
tem_type=topic, accessed on July 6, 2018.
EOHT, http://www.eoht.info/page/Gunpowder+engine, accessed on May
6, 2017.
Hautefeuille, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jean-de-Hautefeuille,
accessed on July 6, 2018.
Hero, https://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-technology/ancient-invention-
steam-engine-hero-alexandria-001467, accessed on July 6, 2018.
Huygens, C., “A New Motive Power by Means of Gunpowder and Air”,
Royal Academy of Sciences, 1680.
20 Chapter One

Jensen, W.B., “The origin of the Bunsen burner,” Chemical Education

Today, 82(4): 518, 2005.
Jost, W., Explosion and Combustion Processes in Gases, Translated from
the original German version in 1939 into English by H.O. Croft,
McGraw-Hill, 1946.
Jouguet, E., “Sur la propagation des réactions chimiques dans les gaz" [On
the propagation of chemical reactions in gases],” Journal de
Mathématiques Pures et Appliquées, Series 6, 1: 347–425, 1905.
Lavoisier, A, “Great discoveries in science. 3. Combustion: Antoine
Lavoisier (1743-1794) [filmstrip],” Detroit: Produced by the Jam
Handy Organization, c 1967.
Lewis, B., von Elbe, G., Combustion, Flames and Explosions of Gases,
[same title as their earlier publication of the portion of the book in
1938 by Cambridge University Press], Academic Press, 1951.
Mallard, F.E., Le Châtelier, H., “Recherches expérimentales et théoriques
sur la combustion des mélanges gazeux explosives,” Annales des
Mines, 8(3): 274-378, 1883.
McNeil, I., “Nokolaus Otto: the four-stroke genius,” New Scientist, p. 714,
September 9, 1982.
Saltzman, M.D., “Francois-Pierre Ami Argand: Let there be light,”
Bulletin for the History of Chemistry 24: 48-52, 1999.
Smithsonian-Fireworks, http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/14-
fun-facts-about-fireworks-180951957/, accessed on July 3, 2017.
Welsbach,
https://web.archive.org/web/20160303204450/http://www.althofen.at/
AvW-Museum/Englisch/biographie_e.htm, accessed on July 6, 2018.
Woodbury, C.A., Lewis, H.A., Canby, A.T., “The nature of flame
movement in a closed cylinder,” SAE Journal, 8(3): 209-218, March,
1921.
 CHAPTER TWO

THERMOCHEMISTRY

“He who can no longer pause to wonder and stand rapt in awe, is as good
as dead; his eyes are closed.”
—Albert Einstein.

Chapter Objectives
‫ל‬ Introduce basic chemical parameters of interest.
‫ל‬ Glance at hydrocarbon fuels and their resource predictions.
‫ל‬ Discuss air composition, mixture stoichiometry, and equivalence
ratio.
‫ל‬ Briefly review of relevant thermodynamic property relations.
‫ל‬ Convey ideal gas, Dalton’s law of additive pressures, and
Amagat’s law of additive volumes.
‫ל‬ Discuss enthalpy in terms of latent heat, enthalpy of formation,
and enthalpy of combustion.
‫ל‬ Recap lower heating value and higher heating value.
‫ל‬ Apply the first law of thermodynamics to deduce adiabatic flame
temperature.

Nomenclature
A air
C concentration (molar density)
cP specific heat at constant pressure
cv (or, c‫ )׊‬specific heat at constant volume
CV control volume
E (total) energy
e specific energy
F fuel
g gravity
H (total) enthalpy
22 Chapter Two

h specific enthalpy
݄௙௢ enthalpy of formation
hfg latent heat of vaporization
hmix mixture enthalpy per unit mass
݄ത௠௜௫ mixture enthalpy per unit mole
HHV higher heating value
HV heating value
k proportionality constant
KE (total) kinetic energy
LHV lower heating value
m mass
MW molecular weight
N number of molecules
NAvo Avogadro number, = 6.02214×1023 molecules/mol
NP number of molecules of a product
NR number of molecules of a reactant
n number of moles
P pressure
Pref reference pressure, = 1 atm
Psat saturation pressure
PE (total) potential energy
Q (total) thermal energy (heat)
q specific thermal energy (heat)
R gas constant
Ru universal gas constant (8314.3 J/kmol˜K)
S (total) entropy
s specific entropy
smix mixture entropy per unit mass
‫ݏ‬ҧ௠௜௫ mixture entropy per unit mole
SATP standard ambient temperature and pressure (25qC and 101 kPa)
T temperature
Tsat saturation temperature
U (total) internal energy
u specific internal energy
v specific volume, or, velocity
W work
X mass fraction
Y mole fraction
z z direction (vertically down)
 Thermochemistry 23

Greek and Other Symbols

Ȗ specific heat ratio, = cP/c
Ȝ equivalence air/fuel ratio
ȡ density
ĭ symmetric equivalence fuel/air ratio
ij equivalence fuel/air ratio
ȥ stoichiometry, Ł Yfuel/Yfuel,stoich
‫׊‬ volume
o
superscript “o” signifies at the reference (SATP) state

2.1 Introduction
Energy can be viewed as the capacity to perform work. It can exist in
forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, magnetic, chemical,
and nuclear. Ball 1 at an elevation (the circle with dashed line on the right)
in Fig. 2.1 has some potential energy. As such, it has the capacity to knock
Ball 2 out of its equilibrium position to the left. The first law of
thermodynamics deals with conservation of energy; i.e., energy cannot be
created nor destroyed, it can transform from one form to another. The
potential energy of Ball 1 at an elevation on the right in Fig. 2.1 is
progressively transformed into kinetic energy as it swings toward Ball 2.
To that end, thermodynamics is the science and study of energy in its
different forms and the transformation of energy from one form to another,
and entropy.

Fig. 2.1. Energy and the first law of thermodynamics (created by D. Ting).
24 Chapter Two

Thermodynamics deals with energy in equilibrium, and thus, it does not

lend itself to the rate of energy transformation, release from chemical to
thermal energy, involved in combustion. The ‘power bar’ on the left side
in Fig. 2.2 is thermodynamically-correctly labelled (500 J of energy),
whereas the one on the right is falsely labelled (1000 W of power). The
rate of power output in wattage can only be determined by the rate of
metabolism of the consumer (chemical kinetics), and not the power bar
(thermodynamics) itself. Hence, ‘energy bar’ rather than ‘power bar’ is the
more appropriate term. In spite of this limitation, thermodynamics is
useful, or more correctly, essential, for describing the equilibrium states of
reacting multi-component systems, for global parameters such as the heat
(thermal energy) and power output may be estimated by assuming
thermodynamic equilibrium. For the ‘power bar’ analogy, a thermodynamic
analysis is literally a prerequisite for chemical kinetics. In other words, an
athlete needs to know how many energy bars she needs to consume to
complete the 42 km marathon, before she can deduce her cruising
(running) speed (metabolism rate).

Fig. 2.2. Thermodynamics (energy in equilibrium; Joules of energy content)

versus Chemical Kinetics (rate of energy release/transfer; Watts of power)
(created by S. Akhand).

Some of the indispensable terms and parameters involved are introduced

and/or defined below. They are essential to the thermochemical analysis of
a process involving combustion.

Thermodynamic Systems
Recall from thermodynamics that a system is a quantity of matter or a
region in space chosen for study.

Closed System: A closed system (control mass) is a system consisting

of a fixed amount of mass, with no mass crossing the boundary. An
example of this would be a combustion chamber with all valves closed.
 Thermochemistry 25

Isolated System: An isolated system is a system consisting of a fixed

mass, and no energy can cross its boundary. Because there is no energy
crossing an isolated system, it appears practically useless; however, it
is a fundamentally-critical reference system.

Open System: An open system (control volume) is a properly-selected

region in space, in which both mass and energy can cross its boundary.
It is probably the most commonly-encountered system in practice.

Mole and Avogadro Number

One mole (1 mol or 1 g-mol) corresponds to 6.02214×1023 molecules or
atoms. A mole is the amount of substance which contains the same
number of molecules as the number of carbon atoms in 12 grams of
carbon-12.

In 1811, Italian physicist and mathematician, Amedeo Avogadro [1776-

1856], postulated that any given samples of ideal gases of the same
volume at the same state contain the same number of molecules. Namely,
the number of molecules (or atoms) in a specific volume of gas is
independent of their size or the molar mass of the gas. The ratio of the
number of molecules (or atoms for single-atom molecules) per unit mole
of the substance is the Avogadro constant or number. Avogadro deduced
that there are 6.02214×1023 molecules (or atoms) in one mole of a
substance, i.e., the Avogadro number, NAvo = 6.02214×1023 molecules/mol
[Fox & Hill, 2007]. While this constant is publically accepted as the
Avogadro number, it is interesting to note that Austrian high school
teacher, Josef Loschmidt might have been the first to estimate the number
of particles in a given amount of a substance [Bodner, 2004].

Mathematically, Avogadro’s law states that

 ‫׊‬/n = k, (2.1)
where ‫ ׊‬is the volume, n is the amount (moles) of the gas, and k is a
proportionality constant. Consequently, Avogadro’s law infers that the
ideal gas constant has the same value for all ideal gases, i.e.,
(P1 ‫׊‬1)/(T1 n1) = (P2 ‫׊‬2)/(T2 n2) = R, (2.2)
where P is the pressure, T is the absolute temperature, R is the ideal gas
constant. Rearranging, we have the ideal gas law,
P‫ = ׊‬nRT. (2.3)
Real gases can deviate from the ideal behaviour. In other words,
Avogadro’s law holds, but only approximately, in practice, and its validity
deteriorates when the conditions deviate away from those which are best
26 Chapter Two

suited for the ideal gas assumption; i.e., low pressure (with respect to the
critical pressure) and high temperature (with respect to the critical
temperature).

Mass Fraction
Mass fraction is the amount of mass of the species under consideration
divided by the total mass of all the species in the system,
Xi = mi / ™mi, (2.4)
where the summation is taken from i = 1 to N.

Mole Fraction
Mole fraction is the number of moles of the species under consideration
divided by the total number of moles in the system,
Yi = ni / ™ni, (2.5)
where ni represents the number of moles of the ith species in the mixture,
and the summation is taken from i=1 to N.

Molar Weight
The molecular mass of a substance is the mass of one molecule of that
substance. Molecular weight is the relative molecular mass which is the
ratio of the mass of the molecule divided by 1/12 of the mass of carbon-
12. Molar mass or molar weight is the mass of one mole of a substance;
e.g., MWH2 = 2.016 g/mol (kg/kmol), MWC = 12 g/mol, MWO2 = 32
g/mol.

Mass Density
Mass density, or simply, density, is mass per unit volume,
ȡ = m / ‫[ ׊‬kg/m3]. (2.6)

Molar Density (Concentration)

Molar density, or concentration, is the amount (number of moles) of the
species per unit volume,
C = n / ‫[ ׊‬mol/m3]. (2.7)

We see that density and concentration are related,

ȡ / C = m / n = MWavg, (2.8)
that is, molar weight is equal to density divided by concentration.
Alternatively, the mass of a sample can be deduced from the amount
(number of moles) multiplied by the molar weight. Or, the amount
(number of moles) is simply the mass divided by the molar weight.
 Thermochemistry 27

2.2 Fuels
A fuel is any material that can be burned (combusted) to release thermal
energy. Hydrocarbon fuels are reasonably the most familiar fuels,
composed chiefly of hydrogen and carbon. A hydrocarbon is saturated
when all the carbon atoms are joined by single bonds, and unsaturated
when some of them are joined by double or triple bonds. Gasoline may be
modelled as octane, C8H18, while diesel can be approximated as dodecane,
C12H26. Isomers are hydrocarbons with the same numbers of hydrogen and
carbon, but of different structures.

Maugeri [2009] disclosed that, in spite of the progressively-expanding

global oil production peak and decline forecasts, these forecasts still
significantly under-predicted both the amount and the times for it to peak,
decline, and become extinct. New oil resource discoveries and the
increased productivity driven by advances in the involved technologies led
Maugeri to predict that not until 2030 will we be extracting half of the
known oil. For a more recent work on forecasting global oil production,
see, for example, Aydin [2015]. In plain English, we may have more fossil
fuels than the current politically-correct view would like to admit. This, by
no means, is an excuse to curtail the need to reduce our polluting of the
environment. Instead, it enhances the need for cleaner fuels, conventional or
contemporary, to go hand-in-hand with cleaner combustion technologies.

In short, it is important to stress that, other than combustion technologies,

combustion fuels have also made great strides in recent years. The coupled
outcome is notable progress in cleaner and more efficient combustion.
Concerning the cleaner fuels, we will likely continue to see natural gas,
alcohol fuels, dimethyl ether, biodiesel and other biofuels [Bae & Kim,
2017, Knothe & Razon, 2017] for many years into the future. As such,
rigorous and proper combustion education is essential for the next
generations of environmentally-responsible, unbiasedly-informed leaders.
In other words, these young minds must first understand combustion and
appreciate its many positive impacts on our existence, then and only then,
can they come up with ingenious means to mitigate the remaining
challenges.

2.3 Stoichiometry
Complete combustion of a hydrocarbon fuel in air occurs when all the
carbon reacts and forms carbon dioxide, and all the hydrogen ends up as
28 Chapter Two

water vapour. Along these lines, stoichiometric, ideal, or theoretical air is

the minimum amount of air needed for complete combustion. In other
words, there is just the right amount of oxidizer to completely oxidize the
fuel in an idealized combustion. For this ideal case, the mixture has the
stoichiometric proportions of fuel and oxidizer. The most common
oxidizer is air, followed by oxygen. For example, we need two moles of
oxygen to completely oxidize one mole of methane,
CH4 + 2O2 ‫ ڵ‬2H2O + CO2. (2.9)
We see that, at stoichiometry, there is neither oxidizer nor fuel left un-
reacted after the combustion takes place, at least ideally. Also, according
to the conservation of mass principle, the total mass of each element is
conserved during a chemical reaction, even though the total number of
moles may change; see Fig. 2.3.

Fig. 2.3. Conservation of mass in combustion (created by D. Ting).

2.3.1 Air/Fuel Ratios

For the ideal combustion process, the air/fuel mass ratio,
A/F)mass = mair/mfuel = A/F)mole (MWair/MWfuel), (2.10)
where MW stands for molecular weight. The corresponding air/fuel mole
(or concentration or volume) ratio,
A/F)mole = nair/nfuel, (2.11)
recalling that n signifies the number of moles.

Example 2.1. Conservation of Atoms.

Given: The overall, or global, chemical reaction (covered under
Chemical Kinetics in Chapter 4), which does not indicate the
actual path of the reaction nor the actual elementary reactions
involved, for complete combustion of one mole of propane in
oxygen is
C3H8 + a O2 ‫ ڵ‬b CO2 + c H2O.
 Thermochemistry 29

Find: The values of a, b, and c. The fuel/air ratio.

Solution:

Conservation of the atoms or species,

C: 3 = b
H: 8 = 2c
O: 2a = 2b + c = 6 + 4
Thus, a = 5, b = 3, c = 4

Therefore, C3H8 + 5 O2 ‫ ڵ‬3 CO2 + 4 H2O.

In terms of concentration or volumetric amount, the fuel/air stoichiometric

ratio
[F]/[A])stoich = 1/5,
where the square brackets [] are used to signify concentration.

In terms of mass, we have

F/A)stoich = (3×12 + 8×1) / (5×32) = 0.275.

Example 2.2. Air/Fuel Ratio.

Given: Dry atmospheric air contains 20.95% O2, 78.09% N2, 0.93% Ar,
and traces (0.03%) of other gases by volume. This dry
atmospheric air, instead of pure oxygen, is used as the oxidizer
for combusting propane.

Find: The overall chemical reaction. The air/fuel ratio.

Solution:

The overall chemical equation becomes

C3H8 + 5(O2 + 3.773N2) ‫ ڵ‬3CO2 + 4H2O + 18.865N2.
where gases other than O2 have been included under the “inert” N2, i.e.,
(air - O2)/O2.

Note that N2/O2 volume ratio = 79%/21% = 3.764 is also frequently used.
The molecular weight of dry air is 28.96 (N2, O2, Ar, CO2, H2). Hence, an
apparent molecular weight of N2 of 28.16, = (28.96 - 0.21×32)/0.79, is
used rather than 28.01.
30 Chapter Two

The stoichiometric air/fuel ratios for the above propane-air reaction are:
In moles or volume,
air/fuel)stoich, mole = air/fuel)stoich, volume = 5(1 + 3.773) / 1 = 23.9.
In weight or mass,
air/fuel)stoich, mass = 5(32 + 3.773×28.16) / (3×12 + 8×1) = 15.7.

2.3.2 Equivalence Ratios

We see that the value of the fuel/air, or its reciprocal air/fuel, ratio varies
depending on whether it is based on mass (weight) or mole (volume). To
normalize it, the equivalence ratio is proposed. The equivalence air/fuel
ratio is defined as
Ȝ Ł air/fuel)actual / air/fuel)stoich, (2.12)
and the equivalence fuel/air ratio is
ij Ł fuel/air)actual / fuel/air)stoich. (2.13)
Note that ij < 1, = 1 and > 1, correspond to fuel-lean, stoichiometric, and
fuel-rich mixtures, respectively. To make the fuel/air equivalence ratio, ij
symmetrical, we can further introduce
ĭ = ij / (1+ij), (2.14)
such that 0 < ĭ < 0.5, ĭ = 0.5, and 0.5 < ĭ < 1 correspond to fuel-lean,
stoichiometric, and fuel-rich mixtures, respectively.

Even less frequently used is the stoichiometry,

ȥ Ł Yfuel / Yfuel, stoich, (2.15)
where Yfuel is the mole fraction of the fuel in the actual mixture,
Yfuel = 1 / (1 + nair) = 1 / (1 + 4.762 × nO2,stoich / ij), (2.16)
and Yfuel, Stoich is the mole fraction of the fuel in the corresponding
stoichiometric mixture. Note that for the afore-illustrated methane-oxygen
example, this last equation becomes
Yfuel = 1 / (1 + nO2) = 1 / (1 + nO2,stoich / ij). (2.17)

It is also worth noting that the general expression for the overall
stoichiometric CaHbOc and dry air reaction is
CaHbOc + (a + b/4 - c/2) (O2 + 3.773 N2)
‫ ڵ‬a CO2 + (b/2) H2O + 3.773 (a + b/4 - c/2) N2. (2.18)

Also common in practice is percentage excess air or percentage theoretical

(stoichiometric) air,
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Title: Sudenmorsian
Hiidenmaalainen tarina

Author: Aino Kallas

Release date: March 7, 2024 [eBook #73095]

Language: Finnish

Original publication: Helsinki: Otava, 1928

Credits: Tuula Temonen

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK

SUDENMORSIAN ***
SUDENMORSIAN

Hiidenmaalainen tarina

Kirj.

AINO KALLAS

Helsingissä, Kustannusosakeyhtiö Otava, 1928.

1.

Tämänkaltainen on tarina Aalosta, Priidik metsävahdin

aviovaimosta, joka Saatanalta sudenhahmoon saatettiin, ja näin
Ihmissutena vihityn miehensä viereltä korpiin karkasi, siellä
metsänpetojen ja Diabolus sylvarum'in elikkä Metsändaimonin
kanssa kanssakäymistä pitäen, ja sentautta maarahvaalta
Sudenmorsiameksi kutsuttu.
 Herra, hyvästi varjele meidän sielumme ja ruumiimme kaikelta
vaaralta ja vahingolta, niinkuin hopiaisella haarniskalla, kusta
Kiusaajan nuolet kilpistyvät, nyt ja hamaan ijankaikkisuuteen!

2.

Siihen aikaan, kuin tämä tosi ja murheellinen tarina tapahtui, oli

Suuremõisan perintövaltiaana Hiidenmaalla yhä vielä viimeisiä
vuosiansa Valtamarski Jacobus de la Gardie, ja Pühalepan pappina
Olaus Nicholai Duncan, tullut Jõelehtmestä mannermaalta. Niin
Valtamarskilla oli palveluksessansa Suuremõisan vallassa
Pühalepassa muudan taidollinen ja kaikkinaisessa metsän
toimituksessa ulosoppinut metsävahti, Priidik nimeltänsä,
maarahvaan sukua. Hänen pirttinsä oli lähellä Haavasuon krouvia,
mutta tämä vuorostansa lähellä susien pyyntipaikkaa, laviata
luhtaniittua, joka kreivin käskystä oli vasituisesti suuria sudenajoja
varten varattu.

Sillä näihin aikoihin olivat sudet, kontiot, ilvekset ynnä muu

metsänpetojen heimo luvultansa ylönpaltisesti lisääntynyt Viron-
sekä Liivinmaalla, niin että muukalaisetkin matkamiehet sen
ihmetyksellä tähdellepanivat. Vaan tämä oli tosin kaikki vielä
vanhojen vaino-aikojen perua, sillä kirjoitettiin Anno 1650, ja maa
hänen asukkaittensa lepäsi nyt Ruotsin rakkaassa rauhassa, ja
meidän vahingollinen vihamiehemme, se ristimätöin moskovalainen,
vain Narvajoen takana turhassa kiukussansa hammasta hioi.

Niin oli susien suku myöskin Hiidenmaalla käynyt ylön julkiaksi,

sillä susi, koska nälkä hänen sisuksiansa kalvaa, on uhkarohkia ja
pelkäämätöin peto, ehkä hän kylläisenä onkin luihu luonnostansa.
Niin eivät sudet talvipakkasella enää kavahtaneet aituuksia, vaan
taloihin tunkeutuivat ja veivät lampaan karsinasta elikkä piskin
pihamaalta. Ja vaikka he kesäisin vain yksin elikkä kaksin vaeltivat,
niin yhtyivät he talven tullen isoiksi laumoiksi ja pitivät vartiota
metsäteillä kuin myös valtateitten vaiheilla, tienkäyjien kimppuun
karaten, niin että monikahdat matkalle lähtiessänsä sitoivat seipään
pitkään köyteen ja sitä rekensä perässä retuuttivat, pedoillen
pelotukseksi.

Niin nämä korven pedot, joitten alku on Perkeleestä (sillä eiköstä

olekin Perkele itse Archilupus elikkä Pääsusi?), ja jotka aina ovat
olleet noituuden kätyreitä, eivät enää tytyneet asuskelemaan Kõpun
ja Ristnan korvissa, kussa heidän tyyssijansa vanhastansa oli, vaan
joukolla he tekivät pesueensa Kõrgessaaren kuusiryteikköön ja
suosaarille keskelle itse Hiidenmaata. Siellä emosudet heittivät
heidän penikkansa, ja koska syksy saapui, niin olivat jo nuoret sudet
varttuneet vaeltaakseen vanhempainsa mukana pitkin saarta.

Näin heistä ja heidän heimostansa koitui koko Hiidensaarelle

sangen ankara vitsaus, liiatenkin, koska he ahneudessansa ahmatin
lailla raatelivat enemmän kuin syödä jaksoivat, niinkuin suden luonto
käskee.

Niin vaikka Suuremõisan ja koko Hiidenmaan valtiaat, väkevät

kreivi de la Gardiet sekä myöskin Ruotsin kruunu panivat toimeen
suuria sudenajoja ja rahvasta kaikin keinoin suden surmaan
yllyttivät, isot tapporahat luvaten, niin ei siitä tahtonut apua tulla.
Eivät tepsineet sudenkuopat, ei ketunmyrkky eikä haaskalta väijyntä,
eivätkä myöskään sudenajot opetettuin koirain kanssa, niin
ylöttömästi nämä pedot sikiytyivät, niinkuin siinä olisivat Saatanan
juonet tyköauttamassa olleet.

Niin talviöisin, mutta erinomattainkin Pyhinä Öinä joulun aikaan

(sillä December on maarahvaan suussa Sudenkuu!), taisi kuulla
heidän ulvovan nälkäänsä ja sydämensä kiukkua taivasta kohden
niinkuin väkevät luihkaajat, niin että hevoset pilttuissansa
hätkähtivät, ja maarahvas sanoi taivaantaaton susille pilviriekaleita
elikkä myös tahkokiviä ravinnoksi viskelevän niinkuin koirille luita.

Mutta nämä julkiat susilaumat olivat vain niinkuin Helvetin

esijoukot, jotka se Rietas Henki, kuin ihmisen kadotuksen jälkeen
aina ankarasti seisoo, edellänsä lähetti.

Sillä ei kauvan senperästä, kun luonnolliset sudet näin riettaiksi

riehastuivat, niin ettei missään tainnut heidän elkeiltänsä turvassa
olla, niin jo alkoivat ihmisenlapsetkin susina juosta ja sudentekoja
tehdä, niinkuin olisi häijy Daimoni heihin mennyt. Ja vaikka tämä
noituuden villitys vasta nyt Hiidenmaalle ulottui, joka tosin on niinkuin
Ultima Thule elikkä Herran silmältä sivuun jäänyt paikka, niin oli se jo
itse kristikunnan vahvimmissa varustuksissa, niinkuin Saksanmaalla
ynnä Böhmissä kuin myös Hispaniassa sekä Franskanmaalla jo
aikoja sitten vallan päälle päässyt. Sillä kunnialliset ja säädylliset
ihmiset, jotka hamaan tähän saakka olivat kirkossa käyneet ja
armoaterian autuudeksensa nauttineet, raatelivat nyt raavas- ynnä
lammaskarjaa verenhimoisen suden hahmossa, vaikka ennen eivät
olisi edes verenhaikua sietäneet.

Näin oli Herra hetkeksi aukaissut selkoseljällensä Rumien Henkien

rautahäkit. Eikä tästä voinut mitäkään epäilystä olla, vaan se
todistettiin moninkertaisesti itsensä näitten viheliäisten Ihmissutten
elikkä Lycanthropus'ten suulla, koska heitä tutkittiin per viam
inquisitionis ja vesikokeen kautta, sillä Vesi, joka on puhdas
Elementti, ei epäpuhdasta vastaanota, vaan riettaat ja saastaiset
tyköänsä pois hylkää. Ja monikin Ihmissusi on noitana roviolla
poltettu, niin että hänen sielunsa taidettaisiin puhtaana taivaalle
tarita, vaikka ruumis tulelta tuhottiinkin.

Niin myös Hiidenmaalla usiat Herran laumasta lankesivat tähän

uuteen loukkuun, kuin Saatana oli ulosfundeerannut. Sillä vaikka hän
Liivinmaalla oli yhteen moision armolliseen Frouvaankin ruvennut,
niin hän kuitenkin parhaasta päästä haukutteli oppimatonta yhteistä
kansa parkaa, ettei sen olisi pitänyt osaksensa saaman sitä autuutta,
kuin Kristus taivaasta Isänsä helmasta maan päälle alastoi.

Näin ei tosin yksikään voinut olla varma hänen häijyltä

väijytykseltänsä, sillä siinä ei auttanut ei siveys eikä hurskaus, ei
vanhuuden viisaus eikä nuoruuden uljuus eikä myöskään varuilla-
olo.

3.

Tapahtui sitten, että Priidik, Suuremõisan metsävahti, joka vielä

nuorimies ja naimatoin, lähti yhtenä suvisena huomenena Kassarin
saareen lampaita ostamaan, yli sen matalan salmen, kuin eroittaa
Kassarin sekä Orjakun saaret Keinästä. Ja sattui sangen tyyni sää,
niinkuin kaikki ilman tuulet olisivat Herran sapattia pitäneet, taivas oli
rastaan rinnalla, ja maa hengitti hellettänsä, niinkuin palavaisen
pätsin suu.
 Niin Priidik metsävahti, koska hän oli ennättänyt mäenseljänteelle,
joka Kassarin saaren halkaisee, ja koko saari ynnä hänen niemensä
ja myös meren aava luotoinensa hänen edessänsä aukenivat, äkkäsi
yhden niemen nenässä erinomaista elämätä, ja hänen korvansa
eroittivat vaimoväen kirkunata ynnä lampaitten hätähistä määkimistä.
Mutta koska hän mäeltä alas astui, niin hän näki parisataisen
lammaslauman karkailevan pitkin kivikkorantaa, ja paljaskinttuisten
lasten, joitten seassa oli aikuisiakin vaimonpuolia, niitä lehtivitsoilla
hätyyttävän ja ajelevan kohti vedenrajaa, sillä tämä oli suvinen
lampaanpeso. Niin lampaat alinomaa pääsivät karkuun heidän
saarroksestansa ja juoksuttivat takaa-ajajiansa pitkin rantaa, kunnes
Priidik metsävahdin saapuessa paikalle kaikki lampaat oli ahdettu
aivan vedenrajaan, niinkuin vähään niemennokkaan. Ja karjalapset
seisoivat ketjuna ympärillä, lampaita yhä kinttuihin hosuen, niin ettei
heillä enää mitämaks pakoonpääsöä ollut.

Niin Priidik näki tämän kaksisatapäisen lammaslauman, joka vielä

oli talvitakuissansa ja keritsemätöin, rynnistelevän niinkuin yhtenä
vavahtelevana ruhona, sätkyttelevin jäsenin ja pahasti pelvoissansa.
Ja luontokappaleet hengenhädässänsä ja typeryydessänsä pyrkivät
toinen toisensa päälle, niinkuin susi olisi laumassa ollut, kaulojansa
kurkotellen ja yhä viheliäisesti määkien, jäärät sekä uuhet ynnä
karitsaistensa kanssa, jotka olivat toistensa jalkoihin sotkeutua, sillä
sekasorto oli sangen suuri.

Niin Priidik metsävahti jäi tätä suvista lampaanpesoa katselemaan,

ettei hänellä hoppua ollut, itse ison kiven varjossa lymyten. Mutta
vaimot, joita oli kymmenkunta, sieppasivat lammaslaumasta milloin
minkäkin lampaan, oman merkkinsä jälkeen, kuin hänen kinttuunsa
elikkä korvaansa poltettu oli. Eivätkä he katsoneet, niistä kiireissänsä
kiinni saivat, etukäpälistä elikkä takakintuista. Vaan armotta he
avuttoman lampaan veteen laahasivat, sen kellellensä keikauttivat ja
kaksin käsin alkoivat villoja viruttaa.

Silloin Priidik, ehkä hän taampana seisoi, äkkäsi vedessä

seisoskelevain vaimonpuolten seassa yhden nuoren piikaisen, joka
samalla muotoa oli vedessä uumiinsa saatikka, mutta vähän
erillänsä muista, ja pesi vastahakoista emälammasta, joka kaiken
aikaa oli karata hänen käsistänsä.

Niin Priidik tunsi hänet neitsykäiseksi hänen valloillisista

hiuksistansa ja säppälistä. Mutta tämä piikainenpa ei riuhtonut
lammasta niinkuin muut vaimonpuolet, eikä hän myöskään mielensä
kiivauksissa kiroillut eikä sättinyt, vaan koetti luontokappaletta
lauhduttaa säälivin sanoin ja armeliaasti, puhuen lampaalle
lauhkiasti niinkuin lapselle.

Koska lammas oli pesty yltä sekä alta, niin piikainen sen irti
käsistänsä päästi, ja lammas kohta kuivalle kahlasi, pudistellen vettä
villoistansa, niinkuin uitettu koira.

Mutta samalla piikainen itsekin tuli vedestä rannalle läpimärjissä

vaatteissansa, jotka tiukkuivat vettä.

Niin Priidik metsävahti kiven katveesta näki sangen selkiästi

tämän nuoren piikaisen muodon, sillä eivät märjät vaatteet sitä
varjella tainneet, sekä hänen kasvojensa katsannon, joka oli häneen
päin käännetty. Hänen hiuksensa olivat ruskianpunertavat, niinkuin
rantaruoho, kuhunka keväinen vesi punaisen ruosteen painaa, mutta
silmät tummat, niinkuin suonsilmät, vetävät ja vajottavaiset, ja niitten
kalvo liikkumatoin niinkuin suovesi.
 Niin piikainen nyt tarttui toiseen, vähempään lampaaseen, sen
hellävaroin helmaansa nosti ja alkoi astua veteen taakkaansa
kantaen. Mutta Priidik metsävahti ei tainnut muuta kuin hämmästellä
hänen nuoria voimiansa, että hän jaksoi raskasta lammasta näin
kepiästi käsivarsillansa kantaa nuoresta ijästänsä huolimatta.

Niin Priidik seisoi hievahtamatta ison kiven takana, kunnes kaikki

lampaat oli pesty.

Silloin lapset katkaisivat ketjunsa, ja lampaat hajautuivat joka

taholle niinkuin surman suusta päässeet.

Mutta nyt vaimonpuolet vuorostansa alkoivat märjissä

vaatteissansa mellakoida matalassa ja lämpimässä rantavedessä ja
priiskoitella vettä toistensa niskaan ja silmännäköön.

Ja koska he olivat tästä ilakoinnista kyllänsä saaneet, niin he

tulivat taas vedestä, vaihtaaksensa vaatteensa ja mennäksensä
itsekukin kotiansa.

Mutta Priidikiin oli mennyt sisälle niinkuin iili, ettei hän paikalta
päässyt, vaan hänen yhä katsoman piti.

Niin piikainenkin tuli rannalle, meni syrjemmälle, ja siellä

häveliäästi hiekalle märjän hameensa ja aivinaisen paitansa pudotti,
tuiki tietämättä, että vieraan miehen silmä hänen viattomuuttansa
katseli palavin katsein.

Ja Priidik metsävahti tällöin näki, että piikaisella vasemman rinnan

alla oli ruskia luoma, niinkuin piskuisen yöperhosen siipi, jota rahvas
myös tulenkirjoiksi elikkä noidanluomaksi kutsuu.
 Vaan piikainen kuivan hameen yllensä pujotti, märjät vaatteet
nyytiksi yhteensitoen.

Ja koska he näin kaikin olivat valmiit, niin he yhdessä kylään päin

lähtivät, jättäen lapset lampaita kaitsemaan.

Mutta Priidik metsävahti sanoi itseksensä:

»Totisesti, tämän piikaisen pitää oleman säyseä luonnoltansa,

koska hän näin oli lauhkia ja pitkämielinen lammasten seassa eikä
heitä riuhtonut elikkä muuten kiivastellut. Eiköstä siis mahtaisi hän
myös miehensä ja lapsensa (jos Herra häntä siunaisi) hyvin ruokota
ja hellästi hoitaa ja myös palkollisensa, karjansa ynnä koko talonsa
lempiästi ja sopuisasti vallita, niin että hänen kanssansa olisi
miehellä hyväolo ja rauha ratki?»

Mutta näin hän tosin suostutteli sydäntänsä eikä tahtonut panna

merkille Saatanan puumerkkiä tässä piikaisessa, niinkuin ovat
noidanluoma ynnä punaiset hiukset, vaan kovetti korvansa
varoitukselta, sillä hän oli päätähavin langennut rakkauden loukkuun.

Eikä ehtinyt kulua kuin puoli ajastaikaa, ennenkuin jo tästä

Kassarin saaren piikaisesta, Aalo nimeltänsä, joka saaren rannassa
suvisena huomenena lampaita pesi, oli tullut Priidikin, Suuremõisan
metsävahdin aviovaimo, ja Priidik näin valittunsa lammaslauman
keskeltä toi, niinkuin kerran Jacob enonsa Labanin tyttären Rakelin
Haranin maalta.

4.
 Mutta niinkuin vuorokaudessa on kaksi puolta, yksi päivänpuoli
ynnä yönpuoli toinen, samalla muotoa ovat monikahdat tosin päivän
lapset ja päivän tekoja tekevät, ja toiset taas yön lapset, jotka yön
ajatuksissa askartavat, vaan kolmansissa vaihtuu niinkuin
vuorokaudessakin yö sekä päivä. Ja kaikki tämä tutaan aikanansa,
koska koettelemus sen ilmisaattaa.

Niin Suuremõisan metsävahdista Priidikistä ja hänen

nuorikostansa Aalosta ei ollut alussa kellään mitäkään kertomista, ja
suupalttien sekä kielilakkarien myllyssä ei ollut enempätä vettä kuin
saarten joissa suviseen aikaan. Sillä he elivät hiljaisesti ja rakkaassa
sovussa sekä yksimielisyydessä keskenänsä ja niin myös
kylänmiestensä kanssa, kävivät sangen usiasti kirkossa ynnä P.
Ehtoollisella, niinkuin kristityn tulee, ja myös maalliselle esivallalle ja
moisiolle alamaisuutta ja sanankuuliaisuutta osoittivat kaikissa
menoissansa. Eikä Aalosta tainnut kukaan laittavata sanaa sanoa,
sillä hän oli aamunvirkku ja auttamaan altis, ei pikapuheinen eikä
pensiä, ei myöskään närkästyvä, vaan hyvämielinen ja tavoiltansa
tasainen kuin nurmennukka, vaikka toisia oudostuttikin hänen
katsantonsa kalvakkuus ja hänen hiustensa väri. Sillä se oli niinkuin
kulokatajan, ehkä ne kylläkin nyt lyhyiksi leikatut olivat, ja hän ne
talvella villaiseen huppuun peitteli ja suviseen aikaan pitkällä ja
kapialla liinaisella, jonka päät riippuivat pitsein kanssa kahden
puolen hänen harteillensa, niinkuin naidun naisen sopii.

Niin koska Priidik metsävahti ja Aalo hänen nuorikkonsa olivat

vajaan ajastajan aviosäädyssä olleet, syntyi heille esikoisena
tyttölapsi, joka kannettiin kasteelle Pühalepan kirkossa ja sai
nimeksensä Piret.
 Vaan se Rietas Henki, joka rauhaa vihaa, oli jo valinnut tämän
vaimonpuolen omaksensa, niinkuin lammas merkitään laumasta, ja
vain ovelasti odotti, milloin hänet omaan formuunsa valaisi.

Sillä niinkuin savenvalaja samasta savenpalasta saattaa tehdä

savikruukun elikkä myös uuninkaakelin, niin myös Perkele taitaapi
yhdestä noidasta tehdä suden elikkä kissan elikkä myös vuohen,
ilman että hän mitäkään hänestä poisottaa elikkä häneen tykölisää.
Vaan se tapahtuu, niinkuin savi valetaan ensin yhteen, sitten toiseen
formuun, sillä Perkele on savenvalaja, mutta noidat ovat savi.

Niin keväällä mahlakuussa (niinkuin maarahvas Martius'ta kutsuu)

toimeenpantiin taas suuret sudenajot Suuremõisassa, niin pian kuin
Soelan salmen jää heikkeni, ettei se enää hukan käpälätä kantanut,
ja hänen pakotiensä näin tukittu oli.

Vaan tätä tapahtumata oli jo kauan valmistettu, niinkuin julkista

juhlaa, ja Haavasuon krouviin maarahvasta varten varattu oltta ja
kryyditettyä viinaa ja vielä säkkipillinpuhaltajia, sillä sudenpeijaisissa
piti myös tanssattaman.

Ja samalla muotoa oli tähystäjät pantu soille ja rämeille, ja kaikki

vanhat sudenkeihäät kylissä ruosteesta kirkastettu.

Mutta ei vain kylänrahvas näitä sudenajoja vartonut, vaan myöskin

Saatanan leirissä oli niistä iso ilo, sillä ne tulivat hänelle perin
otolliseen aikaan.

Niin yhtenä huomenena muudan väijystäjä, joka puun latvassa oli

tähystänyt, toi tiedon, että susia oli nähty.
 Ja kaikki Kereman, Värssun, Hagasten, Pulisten, Vahtrapään,
Sarven ja Hillikesten miehet oli käsketty näihin sudenajoihin, kaksi
elikkä kolme miestä itsekustakin talosta, yhteensä kahdeksatta sataa
henkeä ynnä vaimoväen ja alaikäisten kanssa, samoin kaikki
Suuremõisan metsävahdit, Priidik heidän joukossansa.

Niin koitti routainen kevätpäivä, joka päiväsessä tosin jo pälviä

sulatteli, mutta alavilla mailla ja soilla vielä kirren kannatti.

Koska Priidik metsävahti anivarhain huomenella Haavakrouviin

saapui, vilisi siellä väkeä, niinkuin messumarkkinoilla, ja itsekukin oli
pannut parasta päällensä, niinkuin kalliina pitopäivänä.

Niin myöskin Aalo oli lähtenyt katsomaan sudenajoa ja peijaisia, ja

hänellä oli yllänsä väljä ja leviähihainen nuttu, mutta sen alla
lampaanruskia hame, alta poikkiraitainen ja yltäyleensä laskosteltu.
Vaan että vielä pakasti, niin oli hänellä päässä ruskia huppu, kuin
kutsutaan karbus, punapauloilla soriasti palisteltu. Ja vielä oli hänellä
uumillansa vaskiset vyötäisketjut, kilisevistä rahoista kootut, ja
toisella kupeella puukko tinaisine tuppinensa, mutta toisella neulikko.

Mutta koska hän näin täydessä pitoasussansa asteli, ei hän

aavistanut paulaa, kuin hänen polullensa asetettu oli, vaan hän oli
tänä huomenena hilpiä, niinkuin nuori naarashirvi, ja hänen kaunis
katsantonsa oli iloksi ihmisille.

Niin ensin keihäsmiehet lähetettiin pyyntipaikalle verkkoinensa, ja

he lähtivät suin päin ratsujensa seljässä, täyttä ravia ja keihäät
ojossa, niinkuin kasakkain elikkä kalmukkein parvi.

Ja heidän jälkeensä lähtivät vasituiset sudenajajat elikkä

loomarahvas kiertämään tätä Hiidensaarta isossa kaaressa, kirkuen
kurkkunsa täydeltä ja paukutellen heidän tuliluikuillansa, näin
peloittaen sudet piilopaikoistansa, jos he mitämaks älyisivät lymytä
tiheikköön elikkä suosaareen.

Niin kävi suuri humu ja häly näillä Hiiden hettehillä, kussa muuten
vain kurki ynnä kuovi huutaa, ja hukka ulvoo.

Mutta Priidik metsävahti kiiruhti pyyntipaikkaa kohden, jota varten

oli varattu se lavia luhtaniittu. Niin sen toisessa päässä oli sangen
korkia kiviaita, mutta kiviaidan takana piilossa susiverkot, ettei niitä
näkymän pitänyt.

Ja Priidik sekä muut pyyntimiehet nyt vesaikkoon kahden puolen

luhtaniittua lymysivät, näin vartoen ääntä päästämättä.

Niin yhtäkkiä kuului mustarastaan varoitus puusta, ja samalla

tulivat molemmat sudet näkyviin, joita loomarahvas takaa-ajoi, ja
huudot sekä kirkuna niitten kintereillä. Eikä heidän auttanut enää
pensaikkohon piiloutua, sillä koirain äkiä haukku heidät sieltä heti
eteenpäin hoputti. Niin he vain kumpikin vauhtiansa kovensivat, kita
ammollansa, ja tummanpuhuva kieli kaukana riipuksissa.

Niin Aalo, Priidik metsävahdin vihitty vaimo, joka muun rahvaan

seassa seisoi, näki ajetut sudet ohitsensa kuolemanahdistuksessa
syöksyvän.

Ja vaikka he kruudinsauhuunkin peittyivät, koska laukaukset

sivulta sekä takaa tihiästi pamahtelivat, niin hän ennätti nähdä, että
etumainen susi oli vähempi varreltansa, mutta toinen sensijaan iso ja
väkevä metsänpeto, korkia jalvoiltansa, ja sen ruho pitkä ja harmaa,
kuono terävä, ja otsa leviä, ja sen vinot ja villit silmät täynnä korven
vihaa.
 Niin Aalo yhtäkkiä nämä sanat selkiästi korvissansa kuuli:

»Aalo, piikaiseni Aalo, tuletkos kanssani suolle?»

Niin hän hätkähti, niinkuin olisi luotipanoksen kylkeensä saanut,

sillä hän ei tainnut nähdä näitten sanojen sanojata. Vaan hänen
sieluansa ja myös ruumistansa sysättiin sangen kiivaasti suuresta
tuulispäästä, niinkuin voimallinen väki olisi hänet jalkainsa sijalta
ilmaan irroittanut ja siinä yhdellä hirmuisella vauhdilla ympärinsä
pyhässä pyörremyrskyssä pyörittänyt, niinkuin utuista linnun
untuvata, kunnes hänen henkensä salpaantui, ja hän oli pyörtyä
paikallensa.

Mutta kaikki tämä tapahtui nopiammin, kuin lokki meren yllä

siipeänsä liikuttaapi.

Niin toinnuttuansa Aalo näki ensimmäisen suden koko ruumiinsa

ponnistukseen pingoittavan, niin että pää, jalat ynnä häntä yhdeksi
viivaksi suoristuivat, ja näin päätähavin loikkaavan yli kiviaituuksen
mitämaks kahdesti aidan korkeudelta, koska hän luuli sen takana
pelastuksen peittyvän, vaikka siellä väijyikin varma surma.

Mutta silloin isompi ja väkevämpi peto, joka jälkimmäisenä juoksi,

koska kaikkien silmät hänen kumppaniinsa kiintyneet olivat, ottikin
vuorostansa vauhtia sivullepäin ja metsään pakeni, miesten ketjun
katkaisten.

Vaan Aalo juoksujalkaa kiviaidan tykö kiiruhti ja näki siellä suden

jo verkossa rimpuilevan, joka oli peittänyt hänet huppuun, niin ettei
hänellä enää irtipääsöä ollut. Niin tämä satimeen sattunut
metsänpeto läähätti, niinkuin olisi hänen kylkensä halkiamaisillansa
ollut, ja vaahti valui hänen mustanpuhuvasta kidastansa käyrien
kulmahammasten välitse, koska kylänrahvas häntä ärsyttäen
ähätteli.

Niin Aalo näki miehien jo seisovan keihäät ojossa valmiina

iskemään ne suden kylkeen, ja miehensä Priidikin heidän
seassansa.

Ja samalla Aalo taas kuuli, ehkä tällä kertaa etäämpää, niinkuin

olisi kuka korvesta huikannut, mutta niin että se vain häneltä kuultiin:

»Aalo, — Aalo piikaiseni, — tuletkos suden seuraan suolle?»

Ja se kuului niinkuin kutsu ja niinkuin houkutushuuto suolta.

Niin tänä hetkenä meni häneen Daimoni, niin että hän riivattiin.

Ja tämä Henki oli Diabolus sylvarum, Metsän ynnä Suden Henki,

jolla suolla ja korvessa kotonsa on, rohkia ja pelvotoin, voiman ja
vapauden henki, mutta myös raivon ja väkivallan, salattu yli kaiken
ymmärryksen, siivekäs niinkuin myrskytuuli ja palava niinkuin
maailman sydän, mutta kuitenkin Pimeyden kahleissa.

Mutta samassa tuokiossa Priidik metsävahti jo työnsikin keihäänsä

verkossa viskelehtivän suden kylkeen, ja monta muuta miestä hänen
kanssansa, niin että pedon veri korkialle priiskoitettiin.

Vaan eivät edes koirat sudenlihaan koskea tahtoneet, niin karkiata

ja karvasta se on heidänkin kurkullensa, vaan se heitettiin
haaskalintuin hävittää.

Ja myöhään yöhön kuului Haavasuon krouvista riemu ja remu,

säkkipillin piipitys ynnä pyssyin pauke, koska rahvas olven ja viinan
voimalla sudenpeijaisia vietti, ja poikaiset sekä piikaiset tanhujansa
tanssasivat.

5.

O noidat, jotka ennen ja jälkeen Meidän Herramme lihaksitulon

Saatanan
sapattia juhlitte, kukas lukunne luetella taitaa: Simon P. Raamatussa,
Circe ynnä Medea, Roman keisareista Caracalla, Nero, Julianus
Apostata,
Paaveista Sylvester II, Alexander VI, Julius II, ja viimeksi vielä
Faust ynnä Scotus! Kuinkas olisi siis pieni piikainen Aalo
Pühalepassa
Hiidenmaalla tainnut Pimeyden Mahtia vastustaa?

Niin näistä Suuremõisan sudenajoista saakka Aalo, Priidik

metsävahdin aviovaimo, alkoi ikävöidä suolle ja sutten seuraan,
poies ihmisten ilmoilta ja kristillisen seurakunnan yhteydestä,
kuhunka hänet P. Kasteen ja toisten Sakramenttien kautta oli liitetty.
Sillä se Henki, joka oli häneen ruvennut, lietsoi niinkuin palkeilla
liekin paloa hänen verissänsä, että hänen pitäisi Saatanan tahto
täyttämän ja ihmishahmonsa sudenmuotoon muuttaman. Koska
ehtoo joutui, ja sudet hämärän tullen alkoivat likemmäksi
ihmisasumuksia liikuskella, niin että heidän ulvontansa korvan
kuuluville ulottui, niin jo Aalokin pirtin kynnykselle kesken
askareitansa unohtui kohti korpea tuijottamaan, ja sutten ulvonta
kosketti hänen korvaansa niinkuin suloisin soitto, että hänkin heidän
henkensä heimoa oli.