Environmental Mechanochemistry

Recycling Waste into Materials using

High Energy Ball Milling 1st Edition
Matej Baláž
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Matej Balá ž

Environmental Mechanochemistry
Recycling Waste into Materials Using
High-Energy Ball Milling
1st ed. 2021
Matej Balá ž
Institute of Geotechnics, Slovak Academy of Sciences,
Košice, Slovakia

ISBN 978-3-030-75223-1 e-ISBN 978-3-030-

75224-8
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75224-8

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are

reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
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names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
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the relevant protective laws and regulations and
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The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to

assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of
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company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11,
6330 Cham, Switzerland
Dedicated to my father Peter, who has been a great
example for me and who ignited the passion for
mechanochemistry inside of me
Preface
Mechanochemistry is a branch of chemistry which is
concerned with chemical and physico-chemical
changes of substances of all states of aggregation due
to the influence of mechanical energy. This definition
has been formulated at the end of twentieth century
and is still valid almost 150 years later. It is an
outstanding branch of science applicable in wide range
of fields. By some experts, it is often considered as a
very narrow branch of chemistry concerned with
organic reactions, but from my point of view, it offers
great tools for diverse scientific areas concerning
mainly chemistry, materials science and environmental
science. This book aims to show this with relation to
waste treatment. The studies covered in this book were
written mostly by people with an experience in waste
treatment, and this publication aims to provide a
bridge with mechanochemistry. It is quite a difficult
task to cover all waste materials treated by this
method, but by showing numerous examples of its
utilization for this purpose, mechanochemistry is
shown here as a golden thread in the treatment of
different wastes.
Mechanochemistry utilizes tools of high-energy ball
milling. My initial goal was to cover all the studies
dealing with ball milling (including a conventional one)
of waste materials published so far, and the initial
search in scientific database after typing “ball milling
waste” has shown around 600 articles, which seemed
as a reasonable number of articles to be a good basis
for a monograph. However, the reviewer opened my
eyes by pointing out that many important papers are
missed by using just this single search and that it is
mandatory to use the combination of words “ball
milling, waste, recycling, mechanochemical, mechanical
activation” and individual waste names. When I did this
during the revision, I have found even larger amount of
articles, and it was clear to me that my initial plan was
too ambitious, as it is beyond the power of an
individual to cover such a huge amount of research
articles in a single-authored monograph. Moreover, the
reviewer was also right that not all the studies on ball
milling of waste are “mechanochemical” ones, as the
forces of conventional ball milling are not satisfactory
to bring about mechanochemical effects (e.g.,
mechanical activation). Nevertheless, as such works
have already been included in the original manuscript,
I have decided to keep the scope of the monograph so
broad to possibly attract also researchers using
conventional ball milling merely as a technique for
particle-size reduction.
The studies reviewed in this book were published
until the year 2019. As this topic is really hot and a lot
of researchers devote their effort to it, new papers
appear almost every day. Again, a decision needed to be
made at some point, and as this book was being
completed on the verge of years 2019 and 2020, this
seemed like an appropriate thing to do. The earliest
date from which the works devoted to each waste
material was simply set by the date of the last review
paper covering the mechanochemical treatment of
particular waste materials (e.g., for electronic waste, a
nice review was published in 2015, so with some
exceptions, just studies published after this date are
reviewed here).
The first chapter provides an introduction into
mechanochemistry in terms of its history and basic
theories, describes high-energy milling process and
explains common physico-chemical phenomena
observed during the treatment by this method. The rest
of the book is devoted to the ball milling (mostly high-
energy milling one) treatment of different types of
waste. Waste materials under study are divided
into three large groups (Parts) based on the character
of the waste they deal with: consumer waste,
technogenic waste and agricultural waste. These large
groups are then subdivided into smaller groups based
on the exact type of waste (e.g., electronic, coal fly ash,
biomass, etc.), thus forming individual Chapters. Most
often, a subchapter is created for the unique waste and
the studies are arranged chronologically (when they
were published in the same year, they are arranged
alphabetically). At the very end, the book also contains
appendix, where all the original studies covered in the
book are arranged by the potential application of the
recycled material in the form of table, so that
application-oriented researchers might immediately
find the field into which they are interested in and see
what kind of waste subjected to mechanochemical
treatment can be used for it.
Sometimes, it was difficult to distinguish whether
the discussed material is a waste or not. In most cases,
the waste materials are not directly used for the high-
energy ball milling treatment in their as-received state,
but are pretreated (e.g., washed, sintered at low
temperature, some components might be separated,
etc.). These details are usually not mentioned in the
book, as the main ideas of each reviewed study could
be lost in the unnecessary details then. This
information can be found in each reviewed study. In
order to structure this book and create a virtual
borderline which studies fall within the scope of the
book, subjective decision needed to be made.
Nevertheless, the environmental benefits of
mechanochemistry span far beyond the treatment of
waste. For example, the studies of mechanochemical
synthesis of powerful and cheap adsorbents of
pollutants from wastewaters, remediation of polluted
soils, or those showing the environmental benefit on
model chemicals/solutions with a clear message
related to waste treatment were not included into this
book because the scope would be too broad then.
My aim was to provide an overview for all
specialists, researchers, teachers/students and
technologists working with mechanochemistry
(applying tools of high-energy ball milling) and waste
treatment to share already acquired knowledge in the
field. My dream is that based on this book, new
collaborations combining these two scientific areas will
start.
Matej Baláž
Košice, Slovakia
Acknowledgements
This book could not be completed without the support
of colleagues from my professional life. I wish to thank
to the heads of our department (former one and recent
one, respectively) Zdenka Luká čová Bujň á ková and
Marcela Achimovičová , who respected my mission and
agreed on devoting my time rather to the finishing of
the book than to the regular tasks in the department.
I am also grateful to people from the Department of
General and Inorganic Chemistry form Al-Farabi
Kazakh National University in Almaty, Kazakhstan, for
letting me work on the book despite the fact that my
mission was of different purpose.
I would like to thank the people from
mechanochemical community for showing me how far
one can go when there is a desire. I have seen this in
some people from the core group of the COST action
CA18112: Mechanochemistry for Sustainable Industry.
Personally, I would like to thank Evelina Colacino for
devoting the vast majority of her time working for the
mechanochemical community, instead of preferring her
own interests.
Writing of this book was supported by the financial
support of Slovak Literary Fund. The support of the
Slovak Grant Agency VEGA (2/0044/18) and Slovak
Research and Development Agency (APVV-18-0357) is
also gratefully acknowledged. The support of COST
Action CA18112 MechSustInd (www.​mechsustind.​eu),
supported by the COST Association (European
Cooperation in Science and Technology, www.​cost.​eu)
is also acknowledged.
In addition to professional life, this book would not
be completed without the patience and tolerance of my
loving wife Ľudka. In addition to tolerating a lot of late
working hours, she also helped me to collect all the
permissions necessary to reproduce material from
reviewed articles and adding proper credit lines to
figure and table captions. A big hug goes to my kids
Jakubko and Dorotka for smiling at me all the time and
sometimes saying that they will also be
mechanochemists one day. Both of them can now
correctly answer the question: “What does your father
work on?”. And they both reply: “Mechanochemistry”.
A big “thank you” also goes to my mother Ela, who
always shows me motivation to continue what I am
doing, whatever the circumstances are, to reach the
final goal. She also offered me a shelter where I could
concentrate for many hours absorbed in quiet and
patient work on this book, without being interrupted.
The last words in this preface I would like to devote
to the person who I dedicated this book to and that is
my great father Peter. He has been a great example for
me for my whole life. He has made a great contribution
to the mechanochemical field and has moved the
research in this area in Slovakia to a new level during
his long scientific career. I can just write: “Thank you
for showing me the beauties of mechanochemistry. It is
a great honour for me to be your son and continue in
the mechanochemical steps you have taken”.
My father, the first mechanochemist I have ever known (left) and me,
the author of this book (right) in 1990
Contents
1 Mechanochemistry​
1.​1 Brief History
1.​2 High-Energy Milling as the Main
Mechanochemical Tool
1.​2.​1 Conventional Ball Milling Versus High-
Energy Ball Milling
1.​2.​2 Historical Development of Milling
Devices
1.​2.​3 Description of the Mostly Used High-
Energy Ball Mills
1.​2.​4 Regimes Used During High-Energy Ball
Milling Treatment and Energy Requirements
1.​2.​5 Milling Conditions
1.​2.​6 Effects Usually Observed During Milling
1.​3 Models Used in Mechanochemistry​
1.​4 Physico-Chemical Phenomena
1.​4.​1 Mechanical Activation
1.​4.​2 Kinetics and Thermodynamics in
Mechanochemistry​
1.​4.​3 Amorphization
 1.​4.​4 Agglomeration and Aggregation
1.​5 Characterization​
1.​6 Mechanochemistry​Nowadays
1.​7 Application of Mechanochemistry​for
Environmental Issues and Overview of Already
Published Literature
References
Part I Consumer Waste
2 Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment
(WEEE)
2.​1 Cathode-Ray Tubes (CRTs)
2.​2 Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs)
2.​3 Waste Displays
2.​3.​1 Plasma Display Panels (PDPs)
2.​3.​2 Liquid-Crystal Display (LCD) Panels
2.​4 Batteries
2.​4.​1 Lithium-Ion Batteries
2.​4.​2 Other Batteries
2.​5 Fluorescent Lamps
2.​6 The Rest of WEEs
 2.​6.​1 Light-Emitting Diodes (LED)
2.​6.​2 Electrical Cables
References
3 Metallic Waste
3.​1 Aluminium-Based Waste
3.​1.​1 Aluminium Foil
3.​1.​2 Other Al-Based Waste
3.​2 Magnesium-Based Waste
3.​3 Iron-Based Waste (Mainly from Steel
Production)
3.​3.​1 Mill Scale
3.​4 Tungsten-Based Waste
3.​5 The Rest of Metallic Chips
3.​6 Others
References
4 Polymeric Waste
4.​1 Dehalogenation of Pollutants
4.​2 Rubber Waste from Scrap Tires
4.​3 Acrylic Fibrous Waste
4.​4 Other Polymer-Based Waste
 References
5 Other Consumer Waste
5.​1 Automobile Waste
5.​2 Glass Waste
5.​3 Magnets
5.​4 Last Examples
References
Part II Technogenic Waste
6 Coal Combustion Fly Ash
6.​1 Applications in Cement and Building
Industry
6.​2 Micronization/​Nanoization and
Characterization​
6.​3 Adsorption
6.​4 Composites
6.​5 Geopolymerizatio​n
6.​6 Other Applications
6.​7 Fly Ash Cenospheres
References
7 Miscellaneous Ash/​Combustion By-products
 7.​1 Coal Bottom Ash
7.​2 Municipal Waste Solid Incinerator Fly Ash
7.​2.​1 Medical Solid Waste Incineration Fly
Ash
7.​3 Incineration Bottom Ash
7.​4 Palm Oil Fuel Ash
7.​5 Miscellaneous Ash
References
8 Metallurgical Waste
8.​1 Metallurgical Slags
8.​2 Mine Tailings
8.​3 Other Waste Related to Metallurgical
Operations
References
9 Sludge
9.​1 Sewage Sludge
9.​2 Alum Sludge (Water Treatment Residuals)
9.​3 Si Sludge
9.​4 Other Sludge
References
10 Other Technogenic Waste
10.​1 Silicon-Based Waste
10.​1.​1 Si Kerf Loss
10.​1.​2 Si Wafers
10.​1.​3 Si-Based Waste from Organosilane
Industry
10.​1.​4 The Rest of Si-Based Waste
10.​2 Red Mud
10.​3 Construction and Demolition Waste
10.​4 Minerals
10.​4.​1 Asbestos
10.​4.​2 Other Minerals
10.​5 Petroleum Coke
10.​6 Phosphogypsum
10.​7 Sulphite Liquor
References
Part III Agricultural Waste
11 Biomass
11.​1 Background
11.​2 Wheat Straw
 11.​3 Sugarcane Bagasse
11.​4 Rice Husk
11.​5 Rice Straw
11.​6 Other Straws
11.​7 Fibrous Biomass
11.​8 Rest of Studies
References
12 Shells and Other Calcium Carbonate-Based
Waste
12.​1 Eggshell
12.​2 Oyster Shells
12.​3 Shrimp Shells
12.​4 Other Shells
12.​5 Bones
References
Summary
Appendix
Authors Index
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
M. Baláž , Environmental Mechanochemistry
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75224-8_1

1. Mechanochemistry
Matej Balá ž 1
(1) Institute of Geotechnics, Slovak Academy of
Sciences, Košice, Slovakia

Matej Baláž
Email: balazm@saske.sk

1.1 Brief History

The solid-state processing of different materials using
mechanical forces has its roots in the time immemorial
(Lynch and Rowland 2005). There are couple of review
articles by Lá szló Takacs († 2019), who devoted a lot of
time to researching the historical development of this
research field during his lifetime (Takacs 2013, 2018).
Without his contribution, mechanochemical history
would still be blurred. I have decided to use the main
information from his article published in a special issue
of the journal Chemical Society Reviews devoted to
mechanochemistry in 2013 (Takacs 2013) and I have
complementarily added some further information from
the book of my father (Balá ž 2008a). This has created a
chronological list of the most important hallmarks of
the history of mechanochemistry (Figs. 1.1 and 1.3).

Fig. 1.1 Hallmarks in the history of mechanochemistry from the

beginning until 1920 in chronological order
It is often mentioned that the beginnings of
mechanochemistry date back to the time when people
wanted to make fire by banging two stones together or
shearing them. In ancient Indian Sanskrit literature
coming from fifth-century BC or earlier, there is
mention of pounding/grinding (in Sanskrit language
pesam), grind (pis), grinding dry (suska-or ruksa),
grinding to powder (curna), grinding by means of
liquid (snehana), grinding with water (udpesam) and
grinding with oil (tailapesam) (Biswas and Biswas
1996). General opinion is the first mechanochemical
reaction was realized by Theophrastus from Eresus
(described already in fourth century BC), who managed
to obtain mercury and covellite (CuS) from cinnabar
(HgS) using a copper mortar and pestle in the presence
of vinegar (Takacs 2000). During mediaeval times,
there were also few important scholars who performed
solid state reactions (e. g. a world-renowned German
scholar, mineralogist and metallurgist Georgius
Agricola) (Agricola 1546, 1556). There is a huge gap
without any new information until seventeenth century
when Bacon referred to milling as one of the four
treatments which are necessary to prepare active
solids (Bacon 1658). The crucial role of specific surface
area of reacting solids on the yield of heterogeneous
reactions has been emphasized by Wenzel in
eighteenth century (Wenzel 1777).
A significant step forward came in nineteenth
century. Faraday was able to reduce silver chloride into
elemental silver using various metals by purely solid-
state approach in 1820 (Faraday 1820). About 65 years
later, Spring has shown the possibility to perform the
metathesis reaction of poorly soluble BaSO4 with
Na2CO3 induced by repeated compression and
pulverization (Spring 1885), thus showing the
unexplored potential to perform the reactions
impossible in the solution by mechanochemistry, which
is being widely used namely by organic
mechanochemists today. One of the most influencing
scholars in mechanochemical history is Matthew Carey
Lea. He is also often referred to as the first
mechanochemist (Takacs 2004). He found that it really
matters in what form the energy is supplied to reacting
materials. Namely, upon the introduction of heating to
silver chloride, only sublimation of solid was observed,
whereas the decomposition to elements took place
under pressure (Carey Lea 1892). However, as clarified
in (Takacs 2004), the decomposition proceeded only to
a very small extent, whereas the bulk chlorides
remained unaffected. More-or-less at the same time,
Ling and Baker successfully synthesized halogen
derivatives of quinhydrone by a set of methods, among
which also trituarition of dry mixtures is mentioned
(Ling and Baker 1893). This might be considered also
as the beginning of organic mechanochemistry.
At the beginning of twentieth century, the
preliminary mechanochemical initiatives continued.
Namely, the works of Russian scientist Flavitsky on
couple of solid-state reactions induced by grinding are
of interest for mechanochemists (Flavitsky 1902,
1909). Another important milestone is the inclusion of
mechanochemistry into chemical systematics, on the
same level with thermochemistry or electrochemistry
(Ostwald 1919). The important events of
mechanochemical history until 1920 are shown in
Fig. 1.1, and the photographs of the most important
scholars from this period are shown in Fig. 1.2.
Fig. 1.2 Photographs of the most influencing scholars in the
beginnings of mechanochemistry. Reprinted by permission from
Springer Nature Customer Service Centre GmbH: Springer Nature
(Balá ž 2008a), COPYRIGHT (2008)
Fig. 1.3 Hallmarks in the history of mechanochemistry from 1920 in
chronological order
 The efforts in organic mechanochemistry connected
with pulp and paper industry were continued by
Wanetig et al. (1921, 1927). In 1929, Tamman found
out that 5–15% of the energy supplied to the material
remains in its structure, which increases its
thermodynamic potential (Tamman 1929). The
oxidation reactions of metals under the action of rolling
and sliding friction were investigated in this period
(Fink and Hoffmann 1932, 1933). Milling results in the
formation of tarnishing layers on the surface, which
need about 1017 years to be grown under normal
conditions (under stress-free environment). The
chemical conversions caused by mechanical forces have
been also used for the production of liquid fuel in this
period (Peters and Cremer 1934). The phase
transformations occurring as a result of milling were
also studied at the end of first half of twentieth century.
As an example, the one of lead oxide PbO (massicot–
litharge) studied by Clark and Rowan can be mentioned
(Clark and Rowan 1941). Rehbinder and his colleagues
discovered that surface-active liquids, brought into
contact with the surface of metals, markedly diminish
their mechanical strength (see, e. g. (Rehbinder and
Logghinov 1941; Rehbinder and Kalinovskaja 1932)).
There were some problems with the reproducibility of
this discovery (Andrade and Randall 1949), but the
Rehbinder effect is now accepted phenomenon and
was studied in relation to grinding additives during
milling process (Rehbinder 1958). A very important
milestone was the introduction of the term “mechanical
activation”, which was used to describe the increased
reactivity of solids due to mechanical deformation by
Smékal in 1942 (Smékal 1942). The Second World War
has interrupted the scientific initiatives; however, the
mechanistic aspects of solids with military relevance
were studied intensively (Bowden and Yoffe 1958).
In the second half of the twentieth century, the
activity in mechanochemistry has been renewed with
higher intensity. Bowden and Tabor found out that the
temperatures over 700 °C (lasting for a very short
time) can occur at the contact points of solid subjected
to friction (Bowden and Tabor 1958). The efforts on
the mechanochemistry of polymers have been
reviewed in 1964 by Baramboin (Baramboin
1964).After 1960; more research groups with the focus
primarily on mechanochemistry were established in
the USSR and Eastern Europe. In Eastern Germany
(Berlin), Thiessen started to work on tribochemistry
(Thiessen et al. 1967). Heinicke, one of his
collaborators formulated the widely accepted
definition of mechanochemistry later on (Heinicke
1984). In the Soviet Union, being a cradle of
mechanochemical research, this branch of science was
simultaneously developing in more cities: Novosibirsk
(Boldyrev and Avvakumov 1971) , Leningrad (Zhurkov
1984) and Moscow (Butyagin 1971). In Eastern
Europe, the mechanochemical school with the focus on
mineral processing was established by Tká čová in
Slovakia (Tká čová 1989) and the effect of mechanical
activation on silicates was intensively investigated by
Juhá sz and Opoczky in Hungary (Juhá sz and Opoczky
1990). Mechanochemistry began to develop also in
Japan and Israel due to the works of Kubo (Kubo 1978)
and Lin (Lin and Nadiv 1979), respectively. The
successors of the mentioned pioneers have spread
mechanochemistry all around the world (also behind
the Great Lake). The International Mechanochemical
Association has been created in 1988 (www.​
imamechanochemic​al.​com/​) and the first International
Conference of Mechanochemistry has been held in
1993 in Košice, Slovakia. The important moments from
the mechanochemical history from 1920 are
summarized in Fig. 1.3.

1.2 High-Energy Milling as the Main

Mechanochemical Tool
The terms mechanochemistry and high-energy ball
milling are very closely interconnected and sometimes
interchanged. In brief, the latter is a tool for the former.
As already mentioned in the preface of this publication,
the power of ball milling is often underestimated in the
technologically oriented studies, where much more
attention should be paid to optimizing the milling
conditions than just to use them without any know-
how. Although the desired effect is most often achieved
also without proper optimization, it is highly probable
that it could be done in much more energetically
favourable fashion. Therefore the mechanochemical
community needs to share the knowledge and improve
the know-how. This book aims to contribute to this
goal.
1.2.1 Conventional Ball Milling Versus High-Energy
Ball Milling
High-energy ball milling would not have been
discovered without the invention of ball milling process
itself. It has been used for a long time to reduce the
particle size of the treated material to make it suitable
for further processing. This process is vastly used in
industry, most often for comminution of raw materials.
A ball mill consists of a hollow cylindrical shell rotating
around its axis (Fig. 1.4). The axis of the shell is directly
in or very close to the horizontal position. The mill is
partially filled with balls, which can be of various
materials, most often steel, ceramic or rubber. The
inner surface of the cylindrical shell is usually lined
with an abrasion-resistant material such as manganese
steel or rubber lining. Less wear takes place in rubber-
lined mills. The length of the device is approximately
equal to its diameter.

Fig. 1.4 Schematic representation of a ball mill showing also the inside
(yellow powder is to-be-ground material and white spheres represent
the milling balls) (en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball_mill)
In order to be applied in industry, the mill has of
course to operate under the continuous conditions.
Usually, the material to be ground is fed from the left
through a 60° cone and the product is discharged
through a 30° cone to the right. As the shell rotates, the
balls are lifted up on the rising side of the shell and
then they cascade down (or drop down on to the feed)
from near the top of the shell. Most probably the first
efficient ball mill has been built after the industrial
revolution and the invention of steam
power for grinding flint for pottery in 1870 (Lynch and
Rowland 2005).
On the contrary to the conventional ball milling, the
high-energy one (often abbreviated as HEM or HEBM)
has been invented in 1966 by Benjamin irrelevantly of
the development of mechanochemistry (Benjamin
1970). This invention enabled the preparation of
nanoscale materials, mechanical alloying and
performance of mechanochemical reactions using this
technique (Suryanarayana 2001).
In Table 1.1, the main differences between the
conventional ball milling and the high-energy one are
listed. The most important thing is the energy input,
which is around 1000 times higher in HEBM. Due to
high rotation speed of the milling chamber in HEBM,
also the milling mode is changed from rolling to impact
and much more energy-demanding processes can be
achieved (in addition to conventional ball milling,
where just fracturing and particle size reduction is
usually observed, also plastic deformation and welding
can take place during HEBM). Very often, the
submicron particles can be prepared by HEBM,
whereas the dimensions of the treated powder in the
conventional ball milling stay just in the
micrometre range. Further development of HEBM
process (see next chapter) brought about the
possibility of milling in a given atmosphere or under
vacuum, or milling at the temperature of liquid
nitrogen.
Table 1.1 Comparison of conventional ball milling and high-energy
ball milling. Reprinted from (Chen 2006), Copyright (2006), with
permission from Elsevier
Conventional ball High-energy ball milling
milling
Milling time <1 h 20–200 h
Milling mode Rolling Impact
Milling events Fracturing fracturing, plastic
deformation, welding

Impact energy (Wg−1 0.001 0.2

ball−1)
Particle/cluster size range μm Sub-μm
Changes of crystalline No Yes
structures
Chemical reactions No Yes
Milling atmosphere Air Vacuum, gases
Milling temperature Ambient temperature Liquid nitrogen −700 °C

When writing this book, the focus was mostly on

the papers applying high-energy ball milling process.
However, the authors very often do not state the
conditions of ball milling treatment, and thus, it is very
difficult to judge whether the process can be
considered HEBM or not, so it is possible that also
works applying conventional ball milling are included.
Nevertheless, interesting results for waste recycling
can be reported also in conventional ball milling
studies. This book might serve also as an impulse for
further researchers to investigate the particular
process, with potentially even better outcome, using
HEBM.

1.2.2 Historical Development of Milling Devices

The very first mechanochemical equipment consisted
of mortar and pestle, as documented in the earliest
mechanochemical works (Carey Lea 1892; Flavitsky
1902, 1909). According to the information in (Balá ž
2008a), the first mechanochemical reactor was
proposed by Parker in 1914 (Parker 1914), which was
composed also of mortar and pestle, but contained also
additional components. Mortar was fixed in an iron
collar and pestle was connected with the handle
covered with rubber tubbing. The whole apparatus was
closed (Fig. 1.5). In Germany, the motorized device
imitating grinding in a mortar was developed in 1923.
Fig. 1.5 First mechanochemical reactor: A- mortar, B- iron collar, C-
pestle, D- handle, E- rubber tubing. Republished with permission of
Royal Society of Chemistry, from (Parker 1914); permission conveyed
through
Copyright Clearance Centre, Inc
However, using mortar and pestle to produce the
desired outcome takes a lot of time and is impossible in
industrial applications. Therefore, tumbling mills were
developed around 1870 and are still being used for a
large-scale application for the comminution processes
nowadays (Lynch and Rowland 2005). The key was in
dropping the balls from the large height.
Another type of mill suitable for industrial
applications is the stirred ball attrition mill. It was
invented in 1922 by Szegvari
(unionprocess.com/pdfs/up-corporate-brochure.pdf)
who founded the Union Process company. From now
on, it was possible to apply high energies by milling, so
the rest of the mills mentioned here are actually a high-
energy ball mills (Sopicka-Lizer 2010). The idea of
attrition milling has been also used by other
companies, e. g. Netzsch (www.​netzsch.​com/​en/​
company/​history/​). Towards the end of twentieth
century, the energetic horizontal analogues of attritor,
entitled Simoloyer series, were developed by the Zoz
company (Zoz et al. 1997).
A vibration mill as another alternative for industrial
applications was developed in Germany around 1930
(Lynch and Rowland 2005). The theory behind
vibration mills was elaborated by Bachmann in 1940
(Bachman 1940).
The large dimensions of the mill occupy a lot of
space, and also, the material necessary for its
construction becomes costly. A good milling efficiency
without the necessity of large dimensions was
overcome by putting a milling chamber on a disc and
rotating both components in the opposite directions,
thus creating large centrifugal forces. By this
methodology, the planetary ball mill was developed
and patented by the Fritsch company in 1962 (https://​
www.​fritsch-international.​com/​about-us/​history/​).
Their very efficient analogues—AGO mills were
developed in Novosibirsk, Russia, later on (Avvakumov
1986).
For the basic science, the work on small scale is
very important. For these purposes, shaker mills based
on the principle of fast horizontal shaking of small
milling vials with balls and powder have been
developed. The first shaker mills were SPEX 8000
(1957) (Takacs 2013) and WIG-L-BUG (around 1960)
(Dachille and Roy 1960). The SPEX series is being used
mainly among organic mechanochemists until now.
Upon using other phenomena like magnetism or
electrical discharge, the efficiency of the milling
process can be further broadened. A small tumbling
mill utilizing magnets (Uni-Ball-Mill) was developed in
1991 by Calka and Radlinski (Calka and Radlinski
1991) and later on the same group started to apply
Electrical Discharge Assisted Mechanical Milling
(EDAMM) process (Calka and Wexler 2002).
Further information on the historical development
of the milling devices can be also traced in (Takacs
2013; Lynch and Rowland 2005; Balá ž 2008a).

1.2.3 Description of the Mostly Used High-Energy

Ball Mills
Like chemists have their own reactors, flasks, etc.,
mechanochemists also have their playground. In the
past, it was just mortar and pestle, and with time, the
mills have been developed to bring about more
efficient grinding action. This chapter summarizes
some basic information about the most often used
mills.
During the years, planetary ball mills and shaker
mills became the two most common ways of high-
energy milling on a laboratory scale. For the larger-
scale processing, the continuous set-up of attrition or
vibration ball mills and twin-screw extrusion seems to
be the most suitable. The working principles of the
mentioned selected devices demonstrating the
mechanochemical effect are schematically shown in
Fig. 1.6.
Fig. 1.6 Working principles of selected mechanochemical devices: a
planetary ball mill, b shaker/vibratory mill, c attrition mill, d
continuous twin-screw extruder. Part (a–c) are reprinted from
(Turanicová 2009), originally
adapted from (Boldyrev 1986). Part (d) is reprinted with
permission from ref. (Balá ž et al. 2019b)
A planetary ball mill has been given such a name
because the motion of milling chambers is similar to
that of planets, as they rotate both around their own
axes, but simultaneously rotate around the “sun”, which
is the middle of the rotation disc. As the disc and the
milling chambers rotate in opposite directions, a large
centrifugal force is being created, so the centrifugual
acceleration is used instead of gravitational one. The
possibility to achieve acceleration of 50-100 g can be
achieved in planetary ball mills (Fokina et al. 2004).
The optimum filling degree of these types of mills is
around 30% (www.​fritsch-international.​com/​sample-
preparation/​milling/​planetary-mills/​). The maximum
rotation speed is usually up to 20 Hz. Depending on the
milling conditions used, three different motion types
have been observed for milling balls, namely cascading,
cataracting and rolling (Fig. 1.7). In the cascading
regime (Fig. 1.7a), the milling balls are taken along by
the pot wall and unroll upon each other from the bulk
top to its base while in the cataracting regime
(Fig. 1.7b), they detach from the wall and impact
the treated material or the opposite wall with high
intensity. Rolling or centrifuging balls (Fig. 1.7c) align
to the wall rotation with almost no relative velocity,
and milling thus becomes less efficient (Rosenkranz et
al. 2011; Burmeister and Kwade 2013).

Fig. 1.7 Scheme of a ball motion pattern in a single pot of a planetary

ball mill—a cascading, b cataracting and c rolling. Republished with
permission of Royal Society of Chemistry, from (Burmeister and Kwade
2013); permission conveyed through
 Copyright Clearance Centre, Inc
The problems with scalability of this type of mill
hamper its industrial application, and there are
different techniques more suitable for the scale-up of
ball milling. Nevertheless, according to the available
information, a successful effort to produce a planetary
ball mill working in continuous mode capable of
producing 3–5 tons of powder per hour has been
developed in Russia (Kochnev 1992; Kochnev and
Simakin 1994).
In a shaker (mixer) mill widely used mainly for
small-scale experiments in organic mechanochemistry,
a cylindrical milling chamber is secured in a clump and
swung energetically back and forth. In some devices,
also lateral movements are possible in addition to
shaking. The milling frequencies of this type of mill are
usually up to 20 Hz.
Vibratory (or vibration) mill offers a scalable
alternative for mechanochemical processing. The
cylindrical milling chamber is moving along a circular
or elliptic trajectory by the rotation of out-of-balance
weights. Four factors contribute to its final motion:
speed of vibration, horizontal amplitude, vertical
amplitude and phase angle (Klimpel 1997). Lab-scale
alternatives operate at high frequencies (up to 25 Hz)
and low amplitude (2–4 mm), whereas the industrial
mills usually work at lower frequencies (16–19 Hz) and
amplitudes up to 6 mm. In comparison with planetary
ball mills, the maximum acceleration reaches 10 g.
Interestingly, the filling degree of vibration mills is very
high/usually 70–80% (Schubert 1989). The main
disadvantage of vibration mills is their low output and
not so efficient transfer of energy to the milled powder
(a significant amount of the supplied energy is
transformed into heat). A specific alternative of
vibration mills called eccentric vibration mill has been
developed by Gock et al. in Germany (Beenken et al.
1996; Gock and Kurrer 1999, 1996, 1998). This mill
performs linear, circular and elliptical vibrations, which
results into an increase of the amplitude and rotation
speed of milling media leading to a more efficient
milling in comparison with classical vibration mill.
Attrition mill consists of cylindrical milling
chamber with a drive shaft having more impeller types
(e.g. flat discs, concentric rings or discs with various
openings). In comparison with the previously
mentioned types of mills, finer milling media (with
diameter ranging usually from 0.5 to 4 mm) are used.
This is different from the mills mentioned so far,
where the balls with diameters larger than 10 mm are
usually used. The shaft sets those balls, together with
the milled powder or slurry into the stirring motion.
The main advantage of the attritors over the other
types of mills is that the powder input is used directly
for the agitation of media to achieve the milling effect
Another random document with
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 20. M. de Bougainville, 1766-1769.
21. The Endeavour sloop, captain Cooke, which sailed in August,
1768, to observe the transit of Venus, came to Batavia the latter end
of 1770, and returned to England in July 1771.
From this list, it appears that the English have undertaken the
greatest number of voyages, with a design to make discoveries,
unattended by that selfishness with which most of the Dutch voyages
were entered upon, merely with a view to promote the knowledge of
geography, to make navigation more safe, and likewise to throw
further lights on the study of nature. F.
4. The author is very solicitous to exclude le Gentil de la Barbinais
from the honour of being the first circumnavigator of the French
nation, in order to secure it to himself; though it is a real
circumnavigation. The famous Italian, Giovan Francisco Gemelli
Carreri, cannot with propriety be called a circumnavigator, though he
made the tour of the globe in the years 1693-1698, for he landed in
Mexico, and crossed America by land, and went again to the
Manillas by sea, and from thence to China and Europe on board of
other ships. F.
5. Not from the discoverer, but from the ship Eendraght (Concord).
6. The mistakes and omissions of our author in regard to these
navigators of the South Seas, who did not sail round the world, are
various and multifarious; but it would take up too much time to point
them all out; and as there is a very complete list of all the navigators
of the Pacific Ocean, in the Historical Collection of the several
Voyages and Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean, published by
Alex. Dalrymple, Esq. we refer our readers to it. F.
7. The officers on board the frigate la Boudeuse, were M. de
Bougainville, captain of the ship; Duclos Guyot, captain of a fire-ship;
chevalier de Bournand, chevalier d’Oraison, chevalier du Bouchage,
under-lieutenants (enseignes de vaisseau); chevalier de Suzannet,
chevalier de Kué, midshipmen acting as officers; le Corre, super-
cargo (officier-marchand); Saint-Germain, ship’s-clerk; la Veze, the
chaplain; la Porte, surgeon.
The officers of the store-ship l’Etoile, consisted of M. M. Chenard
de la Giraudais, captain of a fire-ship; Caro, lieutenant in an India-
man; Donat, Landais, Fontaine, and Lavary-le-Roi, officiers
marchands; Michaud, ship’s-clerk; Vivez, surgeon.
There were likewise M. M. de Commerçon, a physician; Verron, an
astronomer, and de Romainville, an engineer.
8. It would be improper to derogate from the merit of any nation,
unless that same nation intends to obtain it by destroying the
character of another. Had Mr. de Bougainville bestowed some
encomiums upon the zeal and courage of the officers under his
command, it would be thought that he were willing to do them justice:
but since he, without the least necessity, casts a reflection upon the
English officers in commodore Byron’s expedition, it is no more but
justice to retort the argument. It is an undeniable proof of the
badness of the constitution, and of the arbitrary government of a
country, when a set of worthy men, who have braved the most
imminent danger, with an undaunted courage, for the welfare of their
fellow-citizens, remain without any reward whatsoever, except that
philosophical one, the consciousness of good and laudable actions.
But it is likewise the best proof of the happiness of the government
and constitution of a country, when merit and virtue is rewarded.
These propositions are so evidently founded on truth, that they want
no further confirmation: and every true Englishman will congratulate
himself on the happiness to live under a government which thinks it a
necessary duty to reward zeal, courage, and virtue, in a set of men
who go through their duty with spirit and chearfulness; and what
honour must not redound on an administration which forces, even a
rival nation, to give an honourable testimony to its attention in justly
and conspicuously rewarding merit in its fellow-citizens, at the same
time that these rivals endeavour to quiet the uneasy minds of their
poor dissatisfied officers, with a vain and empty compliment. F.
9. La flûte.
10. Though the name of this circumnavigator is frequently spelled
Magellan, it is, however, right to spell proper names as they are
written in their original language; according to this rule we shall
always write Magalhaens. F.
11. Land-fall, atterage, the first land a ship makes after a sea-
voyage. See Falconer’s Marine Dictionary. F.
 12. It is now certain, that the animal, here called tyger, is the
Couguara or Brown (tyger) Cat, of Penn. Syn. quad. p. 179. a very
large animal, and very fierce in hot countries. F.
13. These balls are two round stones, of the size of a two-pound
ball, both enchased in a strap of leather, and fastened to the
extremities of a thong, six or seven feet long. The Indians, when on
horseback, use this weapon as a sling, and often hit the animal they
are pursuing, at the distance of three hundred yards.
14. The Paulists are another race of robbers, who left Brasil, and
formed a republic, towards the end of the sixteenth century.
15. Maté, or Paraguay-tea, or South-sea-tea, are pounded dry
leaves of a plant growing in South America, and chiefly in Paraguay.
The Jesuits, when in possession of the interior parts of the provinces
of Paraguay, got by a manœuvre similar to that of the Dutch, in
regard to the spice-trade, the exclusive commerce of this commodity.
They cultivated this plant in enclosures, upon the rivers Uraguai and
Parana, and wherever it grew wild, it was destroyed; and after the
space of nineteen years they became the sole masters of this trade,
which was very lucrative; for as this plant is thought to be an
excellent restorative, and a good paregoric, and therefore of
indispensible necessity to the workmen in the famous Peruvian
mines, it is carried constantly to Peru and Chili; the whole
consumption of it being yearly upon an average of 160,000 arrobas,
of 25 pounds Spanish weight each; and the price is, at a medium,
thirty-six piasters per arroba, so that this plant was worth to the
Jesuits 5,760,300 piastres per ann. the tenth part of which sum must
be deducted out of the whole, for instruments of agriculture, the
erection and repairing of buildings necessary for manufacturing this
plant, feeding and cloathing of about 300,000 Indians and Negroes:
so that still above five millions of piastres were the clear yearly profit
of the pious fathers. These cunning men sold these leaves in powder
on purpose that no botanist might get a sight of them, and thus be
enabled to find out the plant to which the leaves belong, in case
some plants should have escaped their selfish destruction of them.
Some writers call this plant Maté, which is, I believe, the name of the
vessel it is drank out of. Others call it Caa, and make this the generic
name of it, and its species are Caa-cuys, Caa-mini, and Caa-guaz,
the last of which is the coarsest sort prepared, with the stalks left to
it, for which reason it is likewise called Yerva de Palos; but the Caa-
mini or Yerva de Caamini is the best sort and sold dearer; the Caa-
cuys will not keep so long as the other two sorts. This plant is
thought to be the Ilex Cassine, Linn. Sp. pl. p. 181. or the Dahoon-
holly. Forster’s Flora Americ. Septentr. p. 7. and Catesby car. i. t. 31.
F.
16. When I delivered the settlement to the Spaniards, all the
expences, whatsoever, which it had cost till the first of April 1767,
amounted to 603,000 livres, including the interest of five per cent. on
the sums expended since the first equipment. France having
acknowledged the catholic king’s right to the Malouines, he, by a
principle of the law of nations, owed no reimbursement to these
costs. However, as his majesty took all the ships, boats, goods,
arms, ammunition, and provisions that belonged to our settlement,
he being equally just and generous, desired that we should be
reimbursed for what we had laid out; and the above sum was
remitted to us by his treasurers; part at Paris, and the rest at Buenos
Ayres.
17. The inscription on this medal was as follows.
Settlement of the Isles Malouines, situated in 51° 30′ of S. latitude,
60° 50′ W. long. from the meridian of Paris, by the Eagle frigate,
captain P. Duclos Guyot, captain of a fire ship, and the sphinx sloop;
captain F. Chenard de la Giraudais, lieutenant of a frigate, equipped
by Louis Antoine de Bougainville, colonel of infantry, captain of a
ship, chief of the expedition, G. de Nerville, captain of infantry, and P.
d’ Arboulin, post-master general of France: construction of a fort, and
an obelisk, decorated with a medallion of his majesty Louis XV. after
the plans of A. L’Huillier, engineer and geographer of the field and
army, serving on this expedition; during the administration of E. de
Choiseul, duke of Stainville, in February, 1764.
And the exergue. Conamur tenues grandia.
18. An officer who has the care of the stores.
19. The author has on purpose omitted to mention, that the
English are the first discoverers of these isles. Captain Davis, in the
expedition of 1592, under the command of Sir Thomas Cavendish,
saw them; and so did Sir Richard Hawkins two years after in 1594,
and called them Hawkins’s Maiden Land. In the year 1598 they were
seen by the Dutchman Sebald de Waert, and called Sebald’s isles,
and with that name they were put in all Dutch charts. Dampier
discovered them likewise in 1683, but suspected they had no water.
Strong gave these isles, in the year 1689, the name of Falkland-
Islands, which was adopted by the celebrated astronomer Halley,
and is now become of universal use in all our maps and charts. The
privateers in the times of the wars of king William and queen Mary
frequently saw these isles, and no sooner than in 1699-1700 they
were seen for the first time by a Frenchman called Beauchesne
Gouin. It is pretty evident from this account, that the English have an
undoubted prior claim to these barren rocks and marshes, situated in
a cold climate, subject to the severest rigours of winter, without the
benefit of woods to alleviate them; and on which, was it not for the
wretched fuel of turf, all the French, English, and Spanish
settlements would have been starved with cold. F.
20. The work which I now publish was already finished, when the
History of a Voyage to the Malouines, by Dom Pernetty, appeared,
otherwise I should have omitted the following accounts.
21. As M. de Bougainville’s map of the Malouines or Falkland’s
isles, is a mere inaccurate out-line; we refer our readers to the more
exact plans of these islands, published in England. F.
22. Euphorbia Linn. Tithymalus Tournef. F.
23. Ceterae Asplenium, Linn. F.
24. Lepas Linn.
25. Buccinum Linn.
26. Ostreæ Pectines Linn.
27. Mya Linn. F.
28. For a navigator, of Mr. Bougainville’s experience and abilities,
this query is very extraordinary; and, still more so, for a man who has
spent so many years in Canada, near the coasts of Labrador; and
who certainly must have read accounts from Greenland, where often
land-animals, on large masses of ice fixed to the shore, and broke
loose by the sea, are driven into the ocean; and again landed on the
shores of countries, very distant from their native home. F.
29. In the northern parts of America is a kind of wild goose, which
was called by the French, when in possession of Canada, Outarde,
or Bustard; the English call it the Canada-goose; it has been
represented by Catesby, I.t. 92. Edward t. 151. and the Planches
Enluminées, t. 346. Perhaps this may be the same species. F.
30. This bird, though the author calls it a Diver, seems, according
to the description of it, to be rather the Grebe; which is so plentiful on
the lake of Geneva, whose beautiful skins are drest, and made into
muffs and tippets. Br. Zool. 2. p. 396. 8vo. Ed. F.
31. This species seems to be the white and dusky grebe. Br. Zool.
2. p. 397, and vol. 4. f. 17. F.
32. Becs-scies.
33. As far as we can guess, from this very imperfect description,
the birds here mentioned seem to be of the kind called Guillemot. Br.
Zool. vol. 2. p. 410. and vol. 4. t. 20. F.
34. The Quebrantahuessos is a bird belonging to the genus called
by Dr. Linnæus, Procellaria, or petrel; some of the sailors call it
Albatross, but then we must take care not to confound the common
albatross, represented by Mr. Edwards, tab. 88, which is not this
Quebrantahuessos, but I believe the bird described by our author to
be not yet well known by our ornithologists; and the imperfect
account of Bougainville and Dom Pernetty are far from being
satisfactory to natural historians. Our late great circumnavigators and
philosophers will probably oblige the literary world with a drawing
and account of this bird. F.
35. Nenuphars, Nymphæa Linn, F.
36. The place referred to here in Lord Anson’s Voyage is book I.
chap. vii. p. 92. edit. 14th, in 8vo. 1769; but from thence, as well as
from our author’s account, it is impossible to determine which
species of the penguin is meant. F.
37. The first of these penguins seems to be that described by Mr.
Pennant in the Philos. Trans. vol. lix. and represented in an accurate
drawing. F.
38. Aigrette, a species of heron.
39. This last species of penguin, or auk, seems to be the same
with the alca cirrhata of Dr. Pallas, Spicileg. Zool. Fasc. v. p. 7. tab. i.
& v. fig. 1-3. F.
40. The author certainly has the noted fable of the antients in view,
according to which, the alcyons had a swimming nest, and brooded
at sea at a time in winter, when the weather was calm. The few calm
days during which these birds were employed in brooding, were
therefore called alcyonia. F.
41. The two petrels here mentioned seem to be the little, and the
sea-swallow or frigat; the first of which is described, Br. Zool, vol. ii.
p. 434, and represented, vol. iv. t. 82. The second, or swallow petrel,
or frigat, is to be met with in Rochefort’s Voyage, t. 135. Dr. Linnæus
calls the first procellaria pelagica, the latter the fregatta, and, if I am
not mistaken, the third kind here mentioned, is, the fulmar, Br. Zool,
vol. ii. p. 431. and vol. iv. t. 82. Dr. Linnæus’s Procellaria glacialis. F.
42. The sea-pie is sometimes called oyster-catcher, because this
bird forces the shells open with its bill, which are left bare on the
shore, at the recession of the tide. Br. Zool, vol. iv. p. 376, Dr.
Linnæus’s Hæmatopus Ostralegus. F.
43. This seems to be the American red-breast, or turdus
migratorius, Linn. and Kalm’s Voyage, vol. ii. p. 90, where likewise a
figure of it is given. F.
44. Glayeuls.
45. The animal here mentioned as the true sea-lion exceeds the
sea-lion described in Lord Anson’s Voyage; for this is twenty-five feet
long, and that in the isle of Juan Fernandes only twenty. See Voyage
aux Isles Malouines, par Dom Pernetty. F.
46. Muge ou mulet.
47. Brochet transparent.
48. This kind of trout has been likewise mentioned in a pamphlet
published last winter about the Falkland isles. F.
49. Debouché.
50. Intendant.
51. Capitainie.
52. Upwards of 450,000 pounds sterling; at 4 s. and 6 d. per dollar.
53. Buccarelli.
54. Virer en quille.
55. Chambekin.
56. Chambekins.
57. The Jesuits in Paraguay have been so much the object of
private conversation, and of public contest, that it is a wonder the
public is still at a loss, in regard to the real situation of their affairs.
The account published here by Mr. Bougainville, must, no doubt,
greatly contribute to throw a light on the transactions in Paraguay, of
which so little is known with any degree of certainty. A few remarks
taken from the ingenious Marquis de Pau’s Recherches sur les
Americains, will, we hope, not be disagreeable to the readers.
In the year 1731, the Audiença of Chuquisaca, in the province of
los Charcas, found it necessary to empower the Protector of the
Indians, i. e. the solicitor general for them, and a member of their
body, to visit the famous Paraguay missions, and to inquire into the
truth of the various unfavourable reports spread about them. Don
Joseph de Antequera, a man of abilities, great integrity, and superior
courage, was then invested with the dignity of Protector of the
Indians. Accompanied only by one Alguazil Mayor, called Joseph de
Mena; and with the deed, impowering him with the visitation of the
missions, he went with spirit on his business; and after his arrival at
the city of Assumption, he acquainted the Jesuits with the
commission. The reverend fathers told him, that he had taken in vain
the pains of coming to their missions, where he would never get
admittance; and if he should attempt to force his way, he would
repent of it. Antequera did neither know the bad character of these
people, nor did he fear their threats, and went therefore on his
intended journey. But he was soon surrounded by a large
detachment of armed Indians, with Jesuits at their head, who fell
upon him; and he escaped by a sudden flight only.
The unfortunate Alguazil, being willing to encounter a German
Jesuit, was dangerously wounded. The Jesuits, not contented with
this inconsiderate step, accused Antequera, as an adventurer, who
had attempted to assume the dignity of a king of Paraguay, at the
city of Assumption; but that the reverend fathers, as faithful subjects
to his Catholic Majesty, had driven him out by main force; and they
requested, therefore, to be recompensed for this signal service to
their sovereign.
Don Armendariz, Marquis de Castel Fuerte, thirty-third viceroy of
Peru, entirely devoted to the Jesuits, sent Don Joseph de Antequera,
in consequence of this accusation, immediately to a dungeon. He
was examined; and though his counsellors had written five thousand
sheets in his defence, he was, however, hanged for the crime of
revolting against his sovereign, the fifth of June, together with his
assistant Joseph de Mena, who was still very ill from the wound
received at Assumption.
Lima and all Peru revolted against their viceroy, on the account of
so shocking and tyrannical an action. The troops were sent to quell
the riots. The blood of thousands flowed in the streets of Lima, and
stained the vallies of Peru. All the men of integrity and honour at
Lima, Cusco, Cuença, and Chuquisaca took up mourning for
Antequera, the innocent victim of the revenge of the pious fathers,
and of the despotism of the arbitrary viceroy, their tool. This
transaction ruined the credit of the Jesuits in Peru.
The reverend missionaries found means to settle extensive
establishments on the Uraguay, and the interior parts of Paraguay,
upon the Pilco Mayo, and other rivers. They collected first, by gentle
means, some of the Indian tribes into small settlements, taught them
husbandry, and the most necessary arts; and afterwards, music,
painting, and sculpture; all were instructed in the use of arms. By the
help of these first colonies, they often forced the free rambling tribes
of interior America, under the holy yoke of the gospel, and into
subjection to these zealous missionaries. The poor wretches were
then cloathed with a callico shirt, and got their allowance of meat,
maize, and caamini; but they were in return obliged to drudge for the
good fathers, in planting the Paraguay tea, cotton, tobacco, and
sugar. Every ounce of cotton and caamini raised by these slaves
must be delivered into the society’s storehouses, from whence they
were transported and sold for the benefit of the missionaries: those
who concealed any of the above articles, got twelve lashes, in
honour of the twelve apostles, and were confined to fasting during
three days in the public work-house. Benedict XIV. the head of the
Romish church, a man, whose humanity and extensive learning is so
universally known, published two bulls against the Jesuits, wherein
he excommunicates them, for the practice of enslaving the poor
proselytes, and keeping them no better than animals; (whom men
deprive of their liberty, and domesticate them with a view of making
use of them in the most laborious employments) and for using
religion as a cloak to oppression, despotism, and tyranny; in order to
deprive free-born beings and their fellow-creatures of liberty, the first
and most precious of all their enjoyments and privileges in this
present life. These bulls will be for ever the strongest proofs of the
truth of these assertions, and of the specious tyranny of the Jesuits.
The iniquitous practices in regard to the trade of the Paraguay-tea,
are so well dated, that whole tribes of Indians were brought to the
dilemma either to enlist as bondmen to the Jesuits, or to be starved;
the complaints of so many Indian plantations of South-Sea tea
destroyed by the Jesuits, were always heard, examined, and
reported to the court of Spain; but the influence of the Jesuits
prevented the council of the Indies from taking any steps for the
punishment of the pious fathers; and they would still remain
unknown and unpunished, had not this society been so suddenly
involved in their ruin, by the precaution of the court of Spain. F.
58. Chaines de haubans.
59. Cap des Vierges, called Cape Virgin Mary by Lord Anson and
Sir John Narborough. F.
60. 74° 25′; Paris being 2° 25′ E. from London: vide Ferguson’s
Tables. F.
61. From Cape Virgin, till to the entrance of the first goulet, we
may reckon 14 or 15 leagues; and the straits are in every part of this
interval, between five and seven leagues wide. The north coast, as
far as Cape Possession, is uniform, but little elevated, and very
healthy. From this cape onward, one must be careful to avoid the
rocks, which are situated in a part of the bay of the same name.
When the hillocks, which I have named the Quatre fils Aymond,[62]
only offer two to sight, in form of a gate, you are then opposite the
said rocks.
62. These rocks are called Ass’s Ears, by Sir John Narborough. F.
63. When one intends to enter the first gut, or narrow passage in
the straits, it is proper to coast within a league of Cape Possession;
then to steer S. by W. taking care not to fall off too much to the
south, on account of the rocks which extend N. N. E. and S. S. W.
from Cape Orange, more than three leagues.
64. The first gut lies N. N. E. and S. S. W. and is not above three
leagues long. Its breadth varies from a league, to a league and a
half. I have already given notice of the ledge of rocks at Cape
Orange. At coming out of the first gut, you meet with two lesser
rocks, extended on each of its extremities. They both project to S. W.
There is a great depth of water in the gut.
65. This is to be understood in French measure, in which the
French foot exceeds the English by ,788 of an inch; accordingly, in
French measure, 5 feet 6 inches = 5 feet, 10,334, inches English;
and French 5 feet 10 inches are = 6 feet, 2,5704, inches English. F.
66. A mer étale.
67. The distance between the W. point or end of the first gut, and
the entrance of the second, is about six or seven leagues, and the
breadth of the straits there is likewise about seven leagues. The
second gut lies N. E. by E. and S. W. by W. it is about a league and
a half broad, and three or four long.
68. In passing the second gut, it is necessary to keep along the
coast of Patagonia, because, when you come out of the gut, the
titles run southward, and you must be careful to avoid a low point,
projecting below the head-land of St George’s isle, and though this
apparent cape is high and steep, the low land advances far to W. N.
W.
69. The isle of Elizabeth[70] lies N. N. E. and S. S. W. with the west
point of the second gut, on the Patagonian side. The isles of St.
Barthelemi (St. Bartholomew) and of Lions likewise, lie N. N. E. and
S. S. W. between them and the west point of the second gut on St.
George’s island.
70. The French call it Sainte Elizabeth. F.
71. The isles of St. Barthelemi and of Lions, are connected
together by a shoal. There are likewise two shoals; one S. S. W. of
the isle of Lions, and the other W. N. W. of St. Barthelemi, one or two
leagues distant; so that these three shoals, and the two isles form a
chain; between which, to E. S. E. and the isle of St. Elizabeth to W.
N. W. is the channel through which you advance into the straits. This
channel runs N. N. E. and S. S. W.
I do not think it practicable to sail on the south side of the isles of
St. Barthelemi and of Lions, nor between the isle of Elizabeth and
the main land.
72. From the end of the second gut, to the N. E. point of the isle of
Elizabeth, the distance is about four leagues. Elizabeth island
extends S. S. W. and N. N. E. for the length of about three leagues
and a half. It is necessary to keep this shore on board, in passing
through the above channel.
From the S. W. point of Elizabeth island, to Cape Noir, the
distance is not above a league[73].
73. This Cape Noir is not mentioned in M. de B’s. map; but should
be carefully distinguished from Cape Noir, or Cabo Negro, seen by
lord Anson upon Terra del Fuego, in about 54° S. lat. F.
74. From Cape Noir the coast runs S. S. E. to the northern point of
Bay Duclos; which is about seven leagues distant from it.
Opposite Bay Duclos, there is a prodigious inlet in Terra del
Fuego; which I suspect to be a channel, disemboguing eastward of
Cape Horn. Cape Monmouth forms the north point of it.
75. Perruches, probably sea-parrots, or auks. F.
76. The distance from Bay Duclos to Point St. Anne, is about five
leagues; and the bearing being S. E. by S. there is nearly the same
distance from Point St. Anne to Cape Round, which bear
respectively N. N. E. and S. S. W.
77. From the second gut to Cape Round, the breadth of the straits
varies from seven to five leagues; they grow narrow at Cape Round,
where their breadth does not exceed three leagues.
78. From Cape Round, to the Isle of the Observatory, the distance
is about four leagues; and the coast runs W. S. W. In this distance
there are three good anchoring-places.
79. A French toise is six feet Paris measure. F.
80. A mi-canal.
81. From the isle of the Observatory, Cape Forward is about six
leagues distant, and the coast runs nearly W. S. W. The strait is
there between three and four leagues broad.
82. In the space of about five leagues, which are between Cape
Forward and Cape Holland, there are two other capes, and three
creeks, of little depth. I know of no anchorage there. The breadth of
the straits varies from three to four leagues.
83. Cape Holland and Cape Galant bear among themselves E. 2°
S. and W. 2° N. and the distance is about eight leagues. Between
these two capes there is one, less projecting, called Cape Coventry.
They likewise place several bays there, of which we have only seen
Bay Verte, or Green Bay, or Bay De Cordes, which has been visited
by land. It is great and deep, but there seem to be several shallows
in it.
84. Bay Fortescue is about two miles broad from one point to the
other, and not quite so deep, from its entrance, till to a peninsula,
which, coming from the west-side of the bay, extends E. S. E. and
covers a port, well sheltered from all the winds. This is Port Galant,
which is a mile deep towards the W. N. W. Its breadth is from four
hundred to five hundred yards. There is a river at the bottom of the
port, and two more on the N. E. side. In the middle of the port there
is four or five fathoms of water, bottom of ooze and shells.
85. Sir John Narborough. F.
86. Laurier-epice, spice-laurel is probably the famous Winters-
bark, mentioned by Sir John Narborough, and afterwards well drawn
and described by Sir Hans Sloane, in his History of Jamaica, vol. ii.
p. 87. t. 19. f. 2. and Plukenet. Almagest. 89. t. 81. f. 1. and t. 160. f.
7. F.
87. From Cape Galant to Bay Elizabeth, the coast runs nearly W.
N. W. and the distance from the one to the other, is about four
leagues. In this space there is no anchoring-place on the main-land.
The depth is too great, even close to the shore. Bay Elizabeth is
open to the S. W. Its breadth between the points is three quarters of
a league; and its depth pretty near the same. The shore in the
bottom of the bay is sandy; and so is the S. E. shore. In its northern
part lies a ledge, stretching a good way to the offing. The good
anchoring in this bay is nine fathom, bottom of sand, gravel, and
coral; and has the following marks: the E. point of the bay bears S.
S. E. ½E. its W. point, W. b. N. The E. point of the isle of Louis le
Grand, S.S. W. ½S. the ledge N. W. b. N.
88. This complaint of our author is applicable only to the French
publications, for it is well known that the English voyages, chiefly
when published by authority, are remarkable both for the fine
language, and the strict keeping of the marine phrases, so
necessary to make these publications useful to future navigators,
and which are understood by the greater part of this nation, so much
used to the sea and its phrases, that our romances and plays are full
of them, and that they have even a run in common life. F.
89. It must be supposed, that the author means South America. F.
 90. Mr. Bougainville writes David: indeed, he and most writers of
his nation, mutilate all foreign names; not only inadvertently, but
often on purpose, through mere caprice. F.
91. A Mecklenburger, who, with his father, had been in the Dutch
service. F.
92. A kind of sea-fowl; probably of the gull or tern kind. F.
93. Isle of Lancebearers.
94. Rester en travers.
95. The continent, which the geographers place in these parts,
ought to have been laid down only as a sign of land, which Quiros
says he met with the 27th of January 1606. But these signs of
continent Quiros found before he came to the isle of Sagittaria,
which is the first he landed at, after sailing from Peru. See Mr.
Dalrymple’s Historical Collection of Voyages in the South Pacific
Ocean, part i. 107, 108, and the chart of the South Seas annexed. F.
96. Reaumur’s.
97. The people of Otahitee, or as our author wrongly calls it, Taiti,
are not idolaters, according to the last published account, and
therefore it is certain, that Mr. de B. took some ornamental figures for
those of their divinities. Had this circumnavigator made a longer stay
in this island, had he thoroughly studied the language of the country,
and looked upon many things with a more philosophical, or less
prejudiced eye, his account would have proved less subject to the
mistakes it abounds with. The English, more used to philosophical
enquiries, will give more faithful accounts in the work that is going to
be published, of the great discoveries made by the British nation in
those seas. F.
98. Rayés.
99. The cocoa-nuts, or the fruit of the cocos nucifera, Linn. is too
well known to want any description. The plantains, or fruit of the
musa paradisiaca, Linn. is likewise well known to all navigators, as
the produce of hot countries. The bread-fruit is a production of a tree
not yet described by Dr. Linnæus; Lord Anson found it upon the isle
of Tinian; Dampier and the great Ray take notice of this very useful
and curious tree. Yams are the roots of a plant known under the
name of dioscorea alata. The okra is the fruit of the hibiscus
esculentus, Linn. The curassol is one of the annonas or custard-
apples. In general it must be observed that the botanical knowledge
of our author is very superficial, and though he enumerates these
fruits as the growth of the isle of Otahitee, it cannot be ascertained
with any degree of precision, whether our author is right or wrong;
and the new light in which, by the indefatigable industry of our
philosophers, the natural history of these countries will be placed,
makes us the more ardently wish for the publication of their great
discoveries. F.
100. This assertion of Mr. de B. proves him to be little acquainted
with mining; since our best writers on that subject give a gently
sloping ridge of mountains, with a fine turf, covered with groves of
trees, and well supplied with water, amongst many more, as the
characteristics of a place where it is probable to find minerals in: See
Lehman’s Art des Mines Metalliques, vol. i. p. 17. But the whole isle
of Otahitee seems to be produced by a Volcano, and the rocks on it
are chiefly lava, consequently there are very little hopes of finding
any regular veins with minerals on it, except some iron-stone, which
has been liberally scattered by the benevolent hand of nature all
over the various parts of the globe. F.
101. Supposed to be the marquis de Pau. F.
102. Lune en état de Guerre.
103. The stone employed by the inhabitants of Otahitee for
chissels and other tools, and even for ornaments to be hung in the
ears, is by all appearances a kind of lapis nephriticus, which when
transparent is pale-green, very soft, and employed for the latter
purpose; but when opaque, it is of a deeper hue and harder. In South
America the same kind of stone is employed by the natives for
ornaments; and is much valued among the Topayos, or Tapuyas, a
nation in the interior parts of Brasil, living along the river of that
name, which falls into the river of Amazons. This stone is called
tapuravas by the Galibis, a nation in Guiana; the Europeans settled
in these parts of the world, call it the Amazon’s-stone; the European
jewellers think it to be jade, a kind of precious stone of the same
colour brought from the east. It is said that stones of this kind are
found near the river St. Jago, forty miles from Quito, in the province
of las Esmeraldas, in Peru. They grow more and more scarce, being
much coveted by the nations of Guiana, the Tapuyas, and some
other Indian nations, and likewise frequently bought up by the
Europeans. Barrere Nouvelle Relation de la France equinoxiale,
Paris 1743, and Condamine Relation abregée d’un Voyage fait en
descendant la Riviere des Amazones, Paris 1746. F.
104. Though our author has strongly pleaded in this paragraph in
behalf of Aotourou, it cannot, however, be denied that he was one of
the most stupid fellows; which not only has been found by
Englishmen who saw him at Paris, during his stay there, and whose
testimony would be decisive with the public, were I at liberty to name
them; but the very countrymen of Aotourou were, without exception,
all of the same opinion, that he had very moderate parts, if any at all.
F.
105. In the French theatre there is, in the door of each box, a small
window or hole, where people may peep through, which made it
possible to Aotourou to enjoy even in the galleries the sight of the
dancers. F.
106. Arbre du Grand Seigneur.
107. The contrary, of the last mentioned circumstance, has been
observed by our English navigators; and it is therefore highly
probable Mr. de B. picked up his vocabulary of words from Aotourou,
who had an impediment in his speech. F.
108. Pilotes-côtiers.
109. Pilote-pratique de la côte de France.
110. Pilotes, Aide-pilotes, ou Pilotins.
111. Aides-pilotes.
112. Valentyn and others say Heemskirk. See Dalrymple’s
Historical Collection of Voyages in the South Pacific Ocean, p. 83.
113. Tobia, the man who went away from Otahitee, on board the
Endeavour, according to the published Journal of a Voyage round
the World, gave our circumnavigators accounts of many more
islands in these seas, some of which were really found by our
people; but many more were known only from his narrative of an
expedition of these islanders to the west. As the number of these
isles seems to be so considerable, it would certainly deserve another
expedition to discover them all; and though at present the
advantages seem to be of no great consequence, which might be
reaped from an intercourse with these islanders; it is however
certain, that the same objection might have been made to the first
discoverers of America; and every body is at present sensible of the
benefit accruing to these kingdoms from its American settlements. F.
114. Enseigne de la Marine.
115. Cornets are a species of shell-fish. F.
116. Ouessant.
117. Raz (or rat, a race or whirlpool) is a place in the sea where
there is some rapid and dangerous current, or where there are
different tides. Such a rat is commonly to be met with in a strait or
channel, but sometimes likewise in the high seas. See the
Dictionnaire Militaire portatif, 12mo. 3 vols. 1758. Paris. F.
118. Enseigne de Vaisseau.
119. This bird is a native of the Isle of Banda, one of the Moluccas,
and is called by the Dutch Kroon-Vogel. Mr. Loten presented one,
some years ago, alive to the late princess royal of England and of
Orange. Mr. Brisson, in his Ornithology, vol. i. p. 279. t. 26. f. 1. very
improperly calls it a crowned Indian pheasant (Faisan couronné des
Indes); and Mr. Buffon, in his Planches Enluminées, tab. 118. follows
Brisson, though everyone will be convinced that it is a pigeon, at the
very first examination of its bill. Mr. Edwards has described and
figured it, p. 269. t. 338. of the third volume of his Gleanings. Its
plumage is blue, or lead-coloured; the size, that of a turkey. In that
noble repository of natural history and learning, the British Museum,
there is a fine specimen of it. F.
120. They were found in a creek of the great isle, which forms this
bay; and which for that reason has been called Hammer Island, (Isle
aux Marteaux).
121. It is not known to what genus this plant belongs; a general,
but not systematical, description of it may be found in Mr. Valmont de
Bomare’s Dictionnaire d’ Histoire Naturelle, article Monbain. F.
122. M. de B. it seems can never sufficiently elevate the courage
and perseverance of his countrymen; on all occasions he praises
their disinterestedness, and endeavours to depreciate the merits of
the British sailors, by balancing their sufferings with the rewards
which an equitable government distributed to them. I have already
said something on this subject in a note to our author’s Introduction
(placed at the head of this work) and shall only add, that I should be
apt to suspect M. de B. to envy the British circumnavigators those
very rewards which he seems so much to despise, if I could combine
such base sentiments with his otherwise generous way of thinking. F.
123. M. de Buffon has denied the existence of the Opossum or
Didelphis, Linn. in East India, though Piso, Valentyn, and Le Brun
have seen it in the Moluccas and in Java: M. de Buffon’s own
countryman, M. de Bougainville, now likewise asserts their being
upon Boero, in a manner so little equivocal, that there can be no
doubt of the Opossum genus inhabiting the East Indies, though the
particular species is unknown. F.
124. This is the great Bat of Ternate, Penn. Syn. Quad. p. 359.
and Linnæus’s Vespertilio Vampyrus. F.
125. Sous-Marchand.
126. Galere tentée: we suppose M. de Bougainville means a
galley, with her awnings spread. F.
127. Of six feet French measure each.
128. The word Sultan is not of Arabic, but of Tartarian origin; but
early introduced into the Arabian language by the Turks that were in
the service of the Caliphs. F.
129. This name is wretchedly disfigured from the Dutch, Schout-
by-Nacht, which signifies Rear Admiral. F.
130. Salawati. F.
131. Lord Sandwich’s son never was in any of these expeditions; it
therefore is evident, that M. de Bougainville has been misinformed in
regard to this particular. F.
132. Mr. Dalrymple never was at Batavia, nor Bencoolen; he left
China in January 1765, and arrived in England in July 1765, since
when he has never been out of the kingdom. From whence it must
be obvious, M. de Bougainville is entirely mistaken in what he says
concerning M. Dalrymple.
133. Diego Rays. F.
134. Equal to our midshipman. F.
135. We are very ready to do justice to Mr. Bougainville, when he
presents us with a new and interesting observation; but when he,
without the least necessity, becomes the advocate of tyranny and
oppression, we cannot let these sentiments pass unnoticed. It would
have appeared to us impossible, that such an idea as this could
enter into any man’s head who is in his right senses: he wrote down
this strange assertion, either being carried away by the itch to say
something extraordinary and paradoxical, or in order to make slavery
more tolerable to his fellow Frenchmen—Slavery endeavours to
extirpate and to smother all sentiments of honour, which only can
operate in the breast of a really free man; true honour, therefore, and
slavery, are in direct opposition, and can be combined as little as fire
and water. If Mr. B. threw this sentence out, in order to alleviate the
yoke of tyranny his country groans under, we think we could excuse
it in some measure, as he would then act from principles of
humanity. But if the irresistible desire of saying something new was
the prevalent motive with him, it has much the appearance as if he
were willing to insult the poor victims of despotism. The generous
and amiable character which M. B. from other instances appears in,
prompts us to wish, that this sentence had been omitted by him. F.
136. I must here observe, that I have not altered the spelling of the
words at all; and the reader will therefore take notice, that they
should be pronounced according to the rules of the French
language. F.
 Transcriber’s Note
The Taitian Vocabulary at the end of the text was
printed in two columns, which are presented here as a
single continuous table, interspersed with notes.
Given the age of the text, any corrections to spelling is
problematic. Corrections have only been made when
there are ample examples of our modern spelling.
In the quotation from Virgil at the opening of Part II on
p. 199, the English word ‘and’ was (no doubt) mistakenly
used rather than the Latin ‘et’. It is given correctly in the
French original.
The name of the marquis de Buccarelli (appearing as
such ten times) is given three times (pp. 113-117) as
‘Bucarelli’. These have been corrected to facilitate text
searches.
On p. 429, the translation is missing the word ‘time’,
which has been established based on the French
original. See below.
Errors deemed most likely to be the printer’s have
been corrected, and are noted here. The references are
to the page and line in the original.
10.5 the varia[tia]tions N. which Removed.
we met with.
14.18 is insuf[fi]cient to encourage Inserted.
43.25 the wars of king Will[i]am> Inserted.
46.12 The map w[h]ich> we give Inserted.
91.6 Navigation from Inserted.
Montevid[e]o to Baragan.
92.17 goes to be repa[ri/ired there Transposed.
98.11 upon this [carrier/career] Mistranslation.
113.17 the marquis de Buc[c]arelli Inserted.
113.22 upon the Ur[a/u]guay Replaced.
115.6 the marquis de Buc[c]arelli Inserted.
117.7 Don Francisco Buc[c]arelli y Inserted.