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W ITH

William C. Ober, M.D.

ART COOR DINATOR
AN D ­I LLUSTR ATOR

Claire E. Ober, R.N.

ILLUSTR ATOR

Kathleen Welch, M.D.

C LINICAL CONSULTANT

Kevin Petti Ph.D.

C ONTR IB UTOR
 DEDICATION

To Kitty, P.K., Ivy, and Kate: We couldn’t have done this without you.
Thank you for your encouragement, patience, and understanding

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Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology, 8th Edition,
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Spotlight Figures Visually Summarize
Difficult Physiological Processes, Making
Them Easier to Understand

These highly visual one- and two-page presentations of tough

topics provide a bridge between readings and related figures and
photos to communicate information in a student-friendly, visually
effective format.

Figure 8-9
SPOTLIGHT PROPAGATION OF AN ACTION POTENTIAL

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256 257

M08_MART3804_08_SE_C08.indd 256 24/10/2018 21:06 M08_MART3804_08_SE_C08.indd 257 24/10/2018 21:06

NEW Spotlight Figure Videos Bring This
Effective Text Feature to Life

NEW! 10 Spotlight
Videos bring the popular
in-text feature to life, with
narrated, annotated guidance
that walks students through
some of toughest topics in
A&P. Spotlight Video topics
include: Inflammation and
Regeneration, Synovial
Joints, The Contraction Cycle,
Refractive Problems, The
Composition of Whole Blood,
The Heart: Internal Anatomy
and Blood Flow, Pulmonary
Ventilation, Chemical Events
in Digestion, A Summary
of Kidney Function, and
Regulation of Female
Reproduction.

SmartArt Video: Endochondral Ossification

Watch the SmartArt Video for chapter 6, and then complete the question at right. Part A

A hard ossified bone in an adult actually begins within the embryo

as a miniature version composed of ____________.

elastic cartilage

hyaline cartilage

dense regular connective tissue

dense irregular connective tissue

fibrocartilage

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Coaching Activities in Mastering A&P™ allow instructors to assign

the videos to ensure students view them.
Build Your Knowledge Integration Figures
Emphasize That the Body Systems Work
Together, Not in Isolation
Build Your Knowledge Integration features show students how body systems affect each
other and work together to maintain homeostasis.
636 URINARY SYSTEM
Build Your Knowledge
How the URINARY SYSTEM integrates with the other body systems presented so far
Integumentary System
• The Integumentary System prevents
excessive fluid loss through skin surface;
produces vitamin D3, important for the
renal production of calcitriol; sweat glands
assist in elimination of water and solutes
• The urinary system eliminates nitrogenous
wastes; maintains fluid, electrolyte, and
acid-base balance of blood that nourishes
the skin
Respiratory System
• The Respiratory System assists in the
regulation of pH by eliminating carbon
dioxide
• The urinary system assists in the elimination
of carbon dioxide; provides bicarbonate
buffers that assist in pH regulation
Cardiovascular System
• The Cardiovascular System delivers blood to
glomerular capillaries, where filtration
occurs; accepts fluids and solutes
reabsorbed during urine production
• The urinary system releases renin
to elevate blood pressure and
erythropoietin (EPO) to accelerate
red blood cell production
Skeletal System
• The Skeletal System provides some
protection for kidneys and ureters with its
axial divison; pelvis protects urinary
bladder and proximal portion of urethra
• The urinary system conserves calcium and
phosphate needed for bone growth
Muscular System
• The Muscular System controls urination
by closing urethral sphincters. Muscle
layers of trunk provide some protection
for urinary organs
• The urinary system excretes waste
18 products of muscle and protein
metabolism; assists in regulation of
calcium and phosphate concentrations
M18_MART3804_08_SE_C18.indd 636
Nervous System
• The Nervous System adjusts renal blood
pressure; monitors distension of urinary
bladder and controls urination
• The urinary system eliminates nitrogenous
wastes; maintains fluid, electrolyte, and
acid-base balance of blood, which is critical
for neural function
Endocrine System
• The Endocrine System produces aldosterone
and ADH, which adjust rates of fluid and
electrolyte reabsorption by kidneys
• The urinary system releases renin when local
blood pressure drops and erythropoietin
(EPO) when renal oxygen levels fall
Lymphatic System
• The Lymphatic System provides adaptive
(specific) defense against urinary tract
infections
• The urinary system eliminates toxins and
wastes generated by cellular activities; acid
pH of urine provides innate (nonspecific)
defense against urinary tract infections
Digestive System
• The Digestive System absorbs water needed
to excrete wastes at kidneys; absorbs ions
needed to maintain normal body fluid
concentrations; liver removes bilirubin
• The urinary system excretes toxins absorbed
by the digestive epithelium; excretes
bilirubin and nitrogenous wastes from the
liver; calcitriol production by kidneys aids
calcium and phosphate absorption
Urinary System
The urinary system excretes metabolic waste
and maintains normal body fluid pH and ion
composition.
It:
• regulates blood volume and blood pressure
• regulates plasma concentrations of sodium,
potassium, chloride, and other ions
• helps to stabilize blood pH
• conserves valuable nutrients
9/6/18 2:57 PM
NEW Interactive Versions of These Figures Allow
Students to Explore at Their Own Pace

Build Your Knowledge

Coaching Activities are
assignable in Mastering A&P and
provide hints and wrong answer-
specific feedback to ensure
mastery of the concepts.
The Most Affordable and Efficient
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Students can stop randomly searching online for study tools and flashcards that may not be credible or applicable
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personalize a study notebook with the highlights and notes they take during reading, as well as the ones
instructors share with the class, effectively creating a study guide.
Mastering A&P™ Is So Much More
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NEW! PAL 3.1 Mobile,

Customizable Flashcards allow
students to create a personalized,
mobile-friendly deck of flashcards
and quizzes using images from the
virtual Practice Anatomy Lab 3.1.
Students can use the checklist to filter
down to the images referenced in the
course. For optimal viewing, access
the flashcards on a mobile device
using Mastering login credentials.

Dynamic Study Modules (DSMs) continue to

be the most favored study tool of surveyed students in
the Mastering learning tools suite. Using a flashcard,
­gaming style, students figure out what they know and
don‘t know, building confidence before a test. DSMs
are available to students with a Mastering subscription
and allow ­students to study the structures instructors
want them to learn.
Continue Learning the Toughest Topics
in Mastering A&P and the eText

Interactive Physiology 2.0 are based

on the award-winning tutorial program that
helps students understand the most difficult
physiological concepts. Updated and delivered in
two formats for use with today‘s wide range of
mobile devices and browsers.

A&P Flix are high-quality animations that remain

trusted and among the most favored learning tools
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Pearson eText is available within Mastering when packaged with a new book, as an upgrade students can
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organize their notes, highlights and notes from their instructor.
Text and Illustration Team
FREDERIC (RIC) MARTINI, PH.D. (author)
received his Ph.D. from Cornell University. In
addition to his technical and journal publica-
tions, he has been the lead author of ten un-
dergraduate texts on anatomy and physiology
or anatomy. Dr. Martini is currently affiliated
with the University of Hawaii at Manoa and
has a long-standing bond with the Shoals Marine Laboratory, a
joint venture between Cornell University and the University of
New Hampshire. He has been active in the Human Anatomy and
Physiology Society (HAPS) for 26 years and is a President Emeri-
tus of HAPS. He is also a member of the American Physiological
Society, the American Association of Anatomists, the Society for
Integrative and Comparative Biology, the Australia/New Zealand
Association of Clinical Anatomists, and the International Society
of Vertebrate Morphologists.
EDWIN F. BARTHOLOMEW, M.S. (author)
received his undergraduate degree from Bowl-
ing Green State University in Ohio and his M.S.
from the University of Hawaii. His interests range
widely, from human anatomy and physiology
to the marine environment, “backyard” aqua-
culture, and oil and watercolor painting. Mr. Bartholomew has
taught human anatomy and physiology at both the secondary
and undergraduate levels. In addition, he has taught a range of
other science courses (from botany to zoology) at Maui Commu-
nity College (now the University of Hawaii Maui College). For
many years, he taught at historic Lahainaluna High School, the
oldest high school west of the Rockies, where he assisted in estab-
lishing an LHS Health Occupations Students of America (HOSA)
chapter. He has written journal articles, a weekly newspaper col-
umn, and many magazine articles. Working with Dr. Martini, he
coauthored Structure & Function of the Human Body and The Human
Body in Health and Disease (Pearson). Along with Dr. Martini and
Dr. Judi Nath, he coauthored Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology,
11th edition. He also coauthored Visual Anatomy & Physiology, 3rd
edition, with Dr. Martini, Dr. William Ober, Dr. Judi Nath, and Dr.
Kevin Petti. Mr. Bartholomew is a member of the Human Anatomy
and Physiology Society, National Science Teachers Association,
and the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
WILLIAM C. OBER, M.D. (art coordinator and
illustrator) received his undergraduate degree
from Washington and Lee University and his M.D.
from the University of Virginia. While in medical
school, he also studied in the Department of Art
as Applied to Medicine at Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity. After graduation, Dr. Ober completed a residency in Family
Practice and later was on the faculty at the University of Virginia
10
in the Department of Family Medicine. He was Chief of Medicine
at Martha Jefferson Hospital and was an Instructor in the Division
of Sports Medicine at UVA. He also was part of the Core Faculty at
Shoals Marine Laboratory for 22 years, where he taught Biological
Illustration every summer. He is currently a visiting professor of
Biology at Washington and Lee University. The textbooks illus-
trated by his company Medical & Scientific Illustration have won
numerous design and illustration awards.
CLAIRE E. OBER, R.N. (illustrator) practiced pediatric and ob-
stetric nursing before turning to medical illustra-
tion as a full-time career. She received her degree
at Mary Baldwin College with distinction in
studio art. Following a five-year apprenticeship,
she has worked as Dr. Ober’s partner in Medical
& Scientific Illustration since 1986. She was on
the Core Faculty at Shoals Marine Laboratory and co-taught the
Biological Illustration course.
KATHLEEN WELCH, M.D. (clinical consultant) received her
M.D. from the University of ­Washington in Se-
attle and did her residency at the University of
North Carolina in Chapel Hill. For two years, she
served as Director of Maternal and Child Health
at the LBJ Tropical Medical Center in American
Samoa and subsequently was a member of the
Department of Family Practice at the Kaiser Permanente Clinic
in Lahaina, Hawaii. She was in private practice from 1987 until her
retirement in 2012. Dr. Welch has been the Clinical Consultant for
nine textbooks and the coauthor of one textbook and several clini-
cal supplements. Dr. Welch is a Fellow of the American Academy
of Family Practice and a member of the Hawaii Medical Associa-
tion, the Maui County Medical Association, the American Medical
Association, and the Human Anatomy and Physiology Society.
KEVIN PETTI, Ph.D. (contributor) Dr. Petti is
a professor at San Diego State Miramar College,
where he teaches courses in human anatomy
and physiology, human dissection, and health
education. He is President Emeritus of the Hu-
man Anatomy and Physiology Society (HAPS)
and holds a doctorate from the University of San Diego. As a dual
U.S./Italian citizen, he also teaches courses in Italy that focus on
the genesis of anatomy as a science and its influence on the Re-
naissance masters, a story unique to the Italian Peninsula. His
students range from anatomy professors pursuing continuing
education to undergraduates in study-abroad programs. Dr. Petti
is often invited to speak about the connection between art and
anatomy in medieval and Renaissance Italy at museums, confer-
ences, and universities.
Preface
Welcome to the Eighth Edition of Essentials of Anatomy &
Physiology! This textbook introduces the essential concepts
needed for an understanding of the human body and helps
students place information in a meaningful context, develop
their problem-solving skills, and prepare for a career in a medi-
cal or allied health field. In this edition, we continue to build
on this text’s hallmark quality: a clear, effective visual and nar-
rative presentation of anatomy and physiology. During the
revision process, the author and illustrator team drew upon
their combined content knowledge, research skills, artistic
talents, and 50-plus years of classroom experience to make
this the best edition yet.
The broad changes to this edition are presented in the New to
the Eighth Edition section below. Also below are the sections
Learning Outcomes and Chapter-by-Chapter Changes in
the Eighth Edition.
New to the Eighth Edition
In addition to the technical changes in this edition, such as
updated statistics and anatomy and physiology descriptions,
we have simplified the presentations to make the narrative
easier to read. We have also focused on improving the inte-
gration of illustrations with the narrative. These are the key
changes in this new edition:
⦁⦁ Improved readability uses simpler, shorter, more active
sentences to make reading and studying easier for stu-
dents. In all chapters, the Flesch/Kincaid reading levels
have been decreased.
⦁⦁ Improved text-art integration throughout the illustra-
tion program enhances the readability of figures. Tabular
information is now integrated into the figures so that the
relevant text is located immediately next to each part of a
figure. Increased color saturation was also applied to the
art throughout the text.
⦁⦁ Terminology has been updated based on Terminologia
Anatomica and Terminologia Histologica, our references for
anatomical and tissue terms. We continue to use posses-
sive forms of diseases when the proposed alternative has
not been widely accepted, e.g., Parkinson’s disease and
Huntington’s disease.
⦁⦁ Mastering A&P®, Pearson’s online learning and assessment
system, contains new assignable activities tied to features
in the book, including 10 narrated, annotated Spotlight
Videos that walk students through these popular features
to explain core concepts, and a Build Your Knowledge in-
teractive widget that allows them to see how body systems
work together to maintain homeostasis . In addition, many
Spotlight figures have Coaching Activities in Mastering,
and the Body System figures correspond to Concept Map
Coaching Activities that will bring home the concept of
body system integration. Instructors can assign homework
from proven media programs such as Practice Anatomy
Lab™ (PAL™) 3.1 and Interactive ­Physiology®—all organized
by chapter—and have assignments automatically graded.
Mobile friendly Dynamic Study Module questions help
students study effectively and efficiently by allowing them
to quiz themselves anytime, anywhere. In the Mastering
A&P Study Area, students can access a full suite of self-study
tools, including Bone and Dissection videos and A&P Flix.
Learning Outcomes
The chapters of the Eighth Edition are organized around spe-
cific Learning Outcomes that indicate what students should
be able to do after studying the chapter.
⦁⦁ Learning Outcomes appear in chapter-opening num-
bered lists, as well as directly below each relevant chapter
section heading.
⦁⦁ Full-sentence chapter headings do more than introduce
new topics; they state the core fact or concept that will
be presented in the section. There is a one-to-one corre-
spondence between the Learning Outcomes and the full-
sentence section headings in every chapter.
⦁⦁ Checkpoints are located at the close of each section
and ask students to pause and check their understand-
ing of facts and concepts. The Checkpoints reinforce the
Learning Outcomes presented on the chapter-opening
page and below chapter section headings, resulting in a
systematic integration of the Learning Outcomes over
the course of the chapter. Answers are located in the blue
Answers tab at the back of the book. All the Checkpoints
have been reviewed, and questions were added or revised
to reflect our improved readability.
All assessments in Mastering A&P are organized by the
Learning Outcomes, making it easy for instructors to organize
their courses and demonstrate results against goals for student
achievement.
11
12  Preface
Chapter-by-Chapter Changes in the
Eighth Edition
This annotated Table of Contents provides select examples
of revision highlights in each chapter of the Eighth Edition.
Chapter 1 An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
⦁⦁ Section 1-1 revised (cellular differentiation replaces differen-
tiation; the same kind of organisms replaces similar, but not
identical, organisms; Organisms exhibit movement. replaces
Organisms can move.)
⦁⦁ Figure 1-4 Negative Feedback: Control of Body Tempera-
ture revised (new title)
⦁⦁ Figure 1-10 Relationships among the Subdivisions of the
Body Cavities of the Trunk revised (visceral layer of serous
pericardium replaces visceral pericardium, parietal layer of
serous pericardium replaces parietal pericardium)
⦁⦁ Related Clinical Terms revised (acute and chronic terms
added; injury added to definition of radiology)
Chapter 2 The Chemical Level of Organization
⦁⦁ Section 2-1 revised (clarified definition of radiation)
⦁⦁ Spotlight Figure 2-7 Chemical Notation revised
­(simplified introduction and replaced spelled out
­numbers with numerals to better integrate the
Visual Representation and Chemical Notation
columns)
⦁⦁ Section 2-8 revised (clarified that, in physiology, the term
electrolyte applies to both the ionizable substance and its
ions)
⦁⦁ New Clinical Note (Too Sweet on Sugar replaces Fatty Acids
and Health)
Chapter 3 Cell Structure and Function
⦁⦁ Section 3-7 Learning Outcome revised (sequence of
interphase and mitosis now correlates with section
discussion)
⦁⦁ Table 3-1 revised (propagation of nerve impulses replaces
conduction of nerve impulses)
⦁⦁ Figure 3-5 Diffusion Across the Plasma Membrane revised
(color of water molecules now matches those in Chapter
2 figures)
⦁⦁ Figure 3-9 The Sodium-Potassium Exchange Pump
revised (corrected relative sizes of sodium and
potassium ions)
⦁⦁ Spotlight Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis, Processing, and
Packaging revised (added magnification of TEM illustrat-
ing exocytosis)
⦁⦁ Section 3-10 revised (cellular differentiation replaces
differentiation)
Chapter 4 The Tissue Level of Organization
⦁⦁ Figure 4-1 An Orientation to the Body’s Tissues revised
(nervous tissue replaces neural tissue)
⦁⦁ Figure 4-2 Cell Junctions revised (basal lamina replaces
clear layer and reticular lamina replaces dense layer)
⦁⦁ Figure 4-3 The Surfaces of Epithelial Cells (added Lateral
surfaces and Basal surface labels)
⦁⦁ Figure 4-4 Simple Epithelia revised (moved part letters to
highlight tissue types and enhance text-art integration)
⦁⦁ Figure 4-5 Stratified Epithelia revised (moved part letters to
highlight tissue types and enhance text-art integration)
⦁⦁ Figure 4-6 Methods of Glandular Secretion revised
(Modes changed to Methods in figure title and letters
added to different parts of the figure to enhance text-art
integration)
⦁⦁ Table 4-2 revised (Method of Secretion replaces Mode of
Secretion)
⦁⦁ Clinical Note Marfan’s Syndrome revised (Marfan replaces
Marfan’s)
⦁⦁ Figure 4-9 Loose Connective Tissue revised (moved part
letters to highlight tissue types and enhance text-art
integration)
⦁⦁ Figure 4-10 Dense Connective Tissue revised (moved
part letters to highlight tissue types and enhance text-art
integration)
⦁⦁ Figure 4-11 Types of Cartilage revised (moved part let-
ters to highlight tissue types and enhance text-art
integration)
⦁⦁ Figure 4-14 Muscle Tissue revised (moved part letters to
highlight tissue types and enhance text-art integration)
⦁⦁ Figure 4-15 Nervous Tissue revised (new title Nervous Tis-
sue replaces Neural Tissue)
Chapter 5 The Integumentary System
⦁⦁ The text now uses subcutaneous layer as the primary term
and hypodermis as the secondary term.
⦁⦁ Figure 5-1 The General Structure of the Integumentary
System revised (Subcutaneous layer replaces Hypodermis)
⦁⦁ Spotlight Figure 5-2 revised (part labels added to better
align text and art)
⦁⦁ Section 5-2 heading revised (shortened to Epidermal pig-
mentation and dermal circulation influence skin color)
⦁⦁ Figure 5-5 Hair Follicles and Hairs revised (Subcutaneous
layer replaces Hypodermis in part b)
⦁⦁ Figure 5-6 Sebaceous Glands and Their Relationship
to Hair Follicles revised (Subcutaneous layer replaces
Hypodermis)
⦁⦁ Figure 5-7 Sweat Glands revised (Eccrine sweat gland
replaces Merocrine sweat gland as primary term,
Subcutaneous layer replaces Hypodermis)

⦁⦁ Build Your Knowledge revised (added in females, special-
ized integumentary glands secrete milk to Integumentary
System functions)
Chapter 6 The Skeletal System
⦁⦁ Figure 6-1 A Classification of Bones by Shape revised
(bone art enlarged, added Sectional view label to part c)
⦁⦁ Clinical Note: Types of Fractures and Steps in Repair
revised (replaced x-rays of Displaced fracture and Spiral
fracture)
⦁⦁ Figure 6-8 The Skeleton revised (enlarged figure and in-
creased color and contrast; added Sternum label)
⦁⦁ Figure 6-9 The Axial and Appendicular Divisions of the
Skeleton revised (Rib cage replaced Thoracic cage to corre-
late with the Axial Skeleton bone count; coxal bone deleted
from Hip bone box)
⦁⦁ Figure 6-10 The Adult Skull, Part I revised (added leader
dots to leader lines of Coronal suture, Squamous suture, and
Lambdoid suture)
⦁⦁ Figure 6-12 Sectional Anatomy of the Skull revised (added
forked leader to Frontal sinuses label)
⦁⦁ Figure 6-13 The Paranasal Sinuses revised (Ethmoidal cells
replaces Ethmoidal sinuses)
⦁⦁ Figure 6-16 The Vertebral Column revised (color coded
Vertebral regions to match art in later chapters)
⦁⦁ Figure 6-17 Typical Vertebrae of the Cervical, Thoracic,
and Lumbar Regions revised (changed color in icon art to
match Figure 6-18 icon art)
⦁⦁ Figure 6-19 The Sacrum and Coccyx revised (adjusted po-
sition of Lateral sacral crest leader line in part b)
⦁⦁ Figure 6-20 The Thoracic Cage revised (added thoracic
cage definition)
⦁⦁ Figure 6-24 The Right Radius and Ulna revised (RADIUS
and ULNA labels changed to Radius and Ulna to match use
in other figures in chapter)
⦁⦁ Figure 6-25 The Bones of the Wrist and Hand revised
(rearranged terms in Proximal Carpals box to match se-
quence as discussed in the text)
⦁⦁ Section 6-10 revised (Plane movement replaces Gliding
movement)
⦁⦁ Figure 6-26 The Hip Bones and the Pelvis revised (Sacro-
iliac joint replaces Sacroiliac joint)
⦁⦁ Figure 6-33 Rotational Movements revised (added a red
dot to mark the location of the joint involved in rota-
tional movements of the head)
⦁⦁ Section 6-11 heading and Learning Outcome revised
(joints replaces articulations)
⦁⦁ Spotlight Figure 6-35 Synovial Joints revised (Plane joint
replaces Gliding joint; gliding inserted into Plane joint
Movement text)
Preface  13
⦁⦁ Figure 6-40 The Knee Joint revised (added PCL abbrevia-
tion after Posterior cruciate ligament and ACL abbreviation
after Anterior cruciate ligament labels)
Chapter 7 The Muscular System
⦁⦁ Figure 7-1 The Organization of Skeletal Muscles revised
(added part letters to enhance text–art integration)
⦁⦁ Figure 7-2 The Organization of a Skeletal Muscle Fiber re-
vised (enhanced art)
⦁⦁ Figure 7-3 Changes in the Appearance of a Sarcomere
during Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle Fiber (added Re-
laxed myofibril label in part a and Relaxed myofibril label
in part b)
⦁⦁ Spotlight Figure 7-4 Events at the Neuromuscular Junc-
tion revised (updated ACh receptor membrane channel
art and added text to step 5)
⦁⦁ Figure 7-6 Steps Involved in Skeletal Muscle Contrac-
tion and Relaxation revised (updated ACh receptor
membrane channel and T tubule/Sarcoplasmic reticu-
lum art)
⦁⦁ Figure 7-10 Muscle Metabolism revised (in part c, the hy-
drolysis of ATP replaces pyruvate as the source of hydrogen
ions at peak activity)
⦁⦁ Table 7-12 Muscle Terminology revised (Terms Indicating
Specific Regions of the Body moved to left column to bet-
ter correlate with anatomical terminology introduced in
Chapter 1)
⦁⦁ Figure 7-17 Muscles of the Pelvic Floor revised (in part b,
transverse perineal replaces transverse perineus)
Chapter 8 The Nervous System
⦁⦁ Section 8-1 revised (recognized the enteric nervous sys-
tem (ENS) as a third division of the peripheral nervous
system)
⦁⦁ Figure 8-5 Schwann Cells and Peripheral Axons revised
(added neurolemmocytes as a secondary term for Schwann
cells; neurolemma replaces neurilemma)
⦁⦁ Figure 8-14 Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord revised
(lumbosacral enlargement replaces lumbar enlargement; ven-
tral roots replaces anterior roots; dorsal roots replaces poste-
rior roots; spinal ganglion replaces dorsal root ganglion)
⦁⦁ Figure 8-15 Sectional Anatomy of the Spinal Cord revised
(spinal ganglion replaces dorsal root ganglion)
⦁⦁ Figure 8-16c The Brain revised (Medial view replaces Sagit-
tal section, Brainstem replaces Brain stem)
⦁⦁ Section 8-8 The PNS connects the CNS with the body’s
external and internal environments, Cranial Nerves revi-
sion (added sentence: If the full name of the cranial nerve is
14  Preface
given, then only the Roman numeral is needed, such as optic
nerve (II)).This addition affects cranial nerves figure labels
and text narrative.
⦁⦁ Figure 8-22 The Basal Nuclei revised (removed amygdaloid
body from Basal Nuclei box since it is considered a compo-
nent of the limbic system)
⦁⦁ Figure 8-25 The Cranial Nerves, parts a and b revised
(N preceding Roman numeral of named optic nerves is
deleted)
⦁⦁ Figure 8-26 Peripheral Nerves and Nerve Plexuses revised
(leader line from Femoral nerve corrected)
⦁⦁ Figure 8-27 Dermatomes revised (CN V replaces N V)
⦁⦁ Figure 8-29 A Stretch Reflex revised (quadriceps muscles re-
places muscles in second line of caption)
⦁⦁ Figure 8-31 The Posterior Column Pathway revised (Pri-
mary Sensory Cortex changed to Primary Somatosensory
Cortex; Dorsal root ganglion changed to Spinal ganglion)
⦁⦁ Figure 8-32 The Corticospinal Pathway revised (brainstem
replaces brain stem)
⦁⦁ Figure 8-35 The Parasympathetic Division revised
(N changed to CN; added postganglionic neuron on rec-
tum art)
⦁⦁ Table 8-2 The Effects of the Sympathetic and Parasympa-
thetic Divisions of the ANS on Various Body Structures re-
vised (EYE: Sympathetic Effects - Focusing for distance vision
replaces Focusing for near vision; Parasympathetic Effects -
Focusing for close vision replaces Focusing for distance vision)
Chapter 9 The General and Special Senses
⦁⦁ Figure 9-3 Tactile Receptors in the Skin revised (added
myelin sheath to afferent nerve fiber in Tactile Discs box;
bulbous corpuscle replaces Ruffini corpuscle; lamellar [pacin-
ian] corpuscle replaces lamellated [pacinian] corpuscle)
⦁⦁ Figure 9-4 Baroreceptors and the Regulation of Auto-
nomic Functions revised (changed carotid sinus to carotid
sinuses and added a second leader; aortic arch replaces aor-
tic sinus and corrected position of leader line)
⦁⦁ Figure 9-6 The Olfactory Organs revised (in part a,
changed Olfactory nerve fibers (N I) to Olfactory nerve
fibers (I); in part b, dendritic bulb replaces knob)
⦁⦁ Figure 9-7 Taste Buds and Gustatory Epithelial Cells
revised (new title; in part a, eliminated line spacing be-
tween the four primary taste sensations to indicate that
all portions of the tongue provide sweet, salty, sour, and
bitter sensations; in part b, gustatory epithelial cell replaces
gustatory cell)
⦁⦁ Figure 9-8 The Accessory Structures of the Eye revised (lat-
eral angle replaces lateral canthus and medial angle replaces
medial canthus)
⦁⦁ Figure 9-10 The Sectional Anatomy of the Eye revised (in
parts a and c, fovea centralis replaces fovea; in part b, neural
layer replaces neural part and pigmented layer replaces pig-
mented part; part c caption revised [Superior view of dissection
of the right eye replaces Horizontal dissection of the right eye])
⦁⦁ Figure 9-11 Retinal Organization revised (pigmented layer
of retina replaces pigmented part of retina and neural layer of
retina replaces neural part of retina; fovea centralis replaces
fovea)
⦁⦁ Figure 9-14 Focal Point, Focal Distance, and Visual Ac-
commodation revised (in part a, text in art changed to
”Light rays from a distant source (object) are parallel”, and
caption revised by adding “the greater the angle of arriving
light rays and”; art in parts d and e exchanged to better
match art in parts a, b, and c)
⦁⦁ Spotlight Figure 9-16 Refractive Problems revised (added
“a process called accommodation” to the end of introduc-
tory paragraph)
⦁⦁ Figure 9-18 The Structure of Rods and Cones revised (pig-
mented epithelium replaces pigment epithelium)
⦁⦁ Figure 9-20 The Visual Pathways revised (Optic nerves [II]
replaces Optic nerves [N II])
⦁⦁ Figure 9-21 The Anatomy of the Ear revised (Facial nerve
[VII] replaces Facial nerve [N VII] and Vestibulocochlear
nerve [N VIII] replaces Vestibulocochlear nerve [N VIII])
⦁⦁ Figure 9-23 The Internal Ear revised (ampullary crests re-
places cristae)
⦁⦁ Figure 9-24 The Semicircular Ducts revised (ampullary crest
replaces crista ampullaris; ampullary cupula replaces cupula;
Vestibular nerve replaces Vestibular branch)
⦁⦁ Figure 9-25 The Utricla and Saccule revised (macula of
utricle replaces macula)
⦁⦁ Figure 9-27 Sound and Hearing revised (Cochlear nerve re-
places Cochlear branch of cranial nerve VIII)
⦁⦁ Figure 9-28 Pathways for Auditory Sensations revised
(Vestibular nerve replaces Vestibular branch; Vestibuloco-
chlear nerve [VIII] replaces Vestibulocochlear nerve [N VIII];
in step 5, auditory replaces acoustic)
Chapter 10 The Endocrine System
⦁⦁ Figure 10-1 Organs and Tissues of the Endocrine System
revised (deleted Secretes from the examples of Organs with
Secondary Endocrine Functions)
⦁⦁ Figure 10-2 The Role of Target Cell Receptors in Hormone
Action revised (neurons replaces neural tissue; skeletal mus-
cle fiber replaces skeletal muscle tissue)
⦁⦁ Figure 10-4 Hypothalamic Control over Endocrine Func-
tion revised (added color coding to boxed text to enhance
links between hypothalamic structures and functions)

⦁⦁ Figure 10-8 Pituitary Hormones and Their Targets revised
(changed color of adrenal gland secretion oval to en-
hance link with revised boxed text color in Figure 10-4)
⦁⦁ Section 10-4 Title revised (The thyroid gland synthesizes
thyroid hormones that affect the rate of metabolism replaces
The thyroid gland lies inferior to the larynx and requires io-
dine for hormone synthesis)
⦁⦁ Table 10-1 The Pituitary Hormones revised (under Target
column, Interstitial endocrine cells of testes replaces Intersti-
tial cells of testes)
⦁⦁ Figure 10-10 The Homeostatic Regulation of the Blood
Calcium Ion Concentration revised (clarified that figure
discusses calcium ion concentration in blood and calcito-
nin’s limited role in bone deposition)
⦁⦁ Table 10-2 Hormones of the Thyroid Gland and Parathy-
roid Glands revised (principal cells replaces chief cells)
⦁⦁ Figure 10-13 The Endocrine Pancreas revised (bile duct re-
places common bile duct)
⦁⦁ Figure 10-14 The Homeostatic Regulation of the Blood Glu-
cose Concentration revised (added Homeostatic to figure
title and clarified normal blood glucose levels is a range)
⦁⦁ Clinical Note Diabetes Mellitus revised (updated estimated
number of people in the U.S. with some form of diabetes)
⦁⦁ Clinical Note Endocrine Disorders revised (congenital hypo-
thyroidism replaces cretinism and infantile hypothyroidism)
⦁⦁ Build Your Knowledge revised (clarified that vitamin D3
is a precursor to calcitriol production in the Integumentary
System box)
Chapter 11 The Cardiovascular System: Blood
⦁⦁ Spotlight Figure 11-1 The Composition of Whole Blood
revised (clarified definition of hematocrit; updated nor-
mal hematocrit range for adult males and adult females)
⦁⦁ Section 11-3 Abundance of Red Blood Cells section re-
vised (described the composition of the three layers ob-
served after centrifugation of whole blood)
⦁⦁ Section 11-3 Structure of RBCs section revised (clarified
that a flexible cell membrane accounts for ability of RBCs
bend and squeeze through capillaries)
⦁⦁ Section 11-3 Sex and Iron Reserves revised (Sex and Iron
Reserves replaces Gender and Iron Reserves)
⦁⦁ Figure 11-3 Recycling of Hemoglobin revised (clarified
that Fe 2+ is an iron ion; added label to large intestine)
⦁⦁ Clinical Note Abnormal Hemoglobin revised (sickle cell
disease [SCD] replaces sickle cell anemia [SCA])
⦁⦁ Figure 11-6 Blood Types and Cross-Reactions revised (cor-
rected shapes of anti-A and anti-B antibodies)
⦁⦁ Figure 11-7 Blood Typing Testing revised (added “clump-
ing” or “no clumping” under test results for clarification)
Preface  15
⦁⦁ Figure 11-9 The Vascular, Platelet, and Coagulation
Phases of Hemostasis revised (added Endothelium label for
clarification)
Chapter 12 The Cardiovascular System: The Heart
⦁⦁ Section 12-1 revised (clarified that pericardium includes an
outer fibrous pericardium and an inner serous pericardium)
⦁⦁ Figure 12-1 The Location of the Heart in Thoracic Cavity
revised (parietal layer of serous pericardium replaces parietal
pericardium, visceral layer of serous pericardium replaces vis-
ceral pericardium)
⦁⦁ Figure 12-3 The Position and Anatomy of the Heart re-
vised (parts are rearranged; part a art now shows the posi-
tion of the heart)
⦁⦁ Figure 12-4 The Heart Wall and Cardiac Muscle Tissue
revised (parietal layer of serous pericardium replaces parietal
pericardium, visceral layer of serous pericardium replaces vis-
ceral pericardium)
⦁⦁ Spotlight Figure 12-5 The Heart: Internal Anatomy and
Blood Flow revised (tricuspid valve replaces right atrioven-
tricular valve, mitral valve replaces left atrioventricular valve)
⦁⦁ Figure 12-6 The Valves of the Heart revised (tricuspid re-
places right AV [tricuspid] valve, mitral valve replaces left AV
[bicuspid] valve)
⦁⦁ Figure 12-8 Action Potentials in Cardiac Contractile
Cells and Skeletal Muscle Fibers revised (new figure title;
cardiac contractile cell replaces cardiac muscle cell, skeletal
muscle fiber replaces skeletal muscle)
⦁⦁ Figure 12-11 The Cardiac Cycle revised (Changed color of
central Cardiac cycle to enhance text and art)
⦁⦁ Figure 12-12 Heart Sounds revised (new part a art avoids
crossing of leader lines)
⦁⦁ Figure 12-13 Autonomic Innervation of the Heart revised
(Vagus nerve [X] replaces Vagus [N X])
Chapter 13 The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels
and Circulation
⦁⦁ Figure 13-2 The Structure of the Various Types of Blood
Vessels revised (clarified internal, or lumen, diameters of
blood vessels)
⦁⦁ Figure 13-8 The Baroreceptor Reflexes of the Carotid Si-
nuses and Aortic Arch revised (new Figure title; Barorecep-
tors in carotid sinuses and aortic arch replaces Baroreceptors
in aortic and carotid sinuses)
⦁⦁ Figure 13-18 The Venous Drainage of the Abdomen and
Chest revised (hemi-azygos replaces hemiazygos)
⦁⦁ Figure 13-19 A Flowchart of the Tributaries of the Superior
and Inferior Venae Cavae revised (Hemi-azygos replaces
Hemiazygos)
16  Preface
⦁⦁ Figure 13-20 The Hepatic Portal System revised (clarified
drainage of left and right gastroepiploic veins)
⦁⦁ BYK Integrator (lactate replaces lactic acid)
Chapter 14 The Lymphatic System and Immunity
⦁⦁ Definition of the term “immune response” revised from
“a defense against specific antigens” to “the body’s reac-
tion to infectious agents and abnormal substances” )
⦁⦁ Figure 14-1 The Components of the Lymphatic System
revised (added CNS lymphatic vessels to the art; Other
Lymphoid Tissues and Organs heading replaces Lym-
phoid Tissues and Organs heading because lymph nodes
are organs)
⦁⦁ Spotlight Figure 14-4 Origin and Distribution of Lympho-
cytes revised (hemocytoblasts replaces hematopoietic
stem cells)
⦁⦁ Figure 14-6 The Structure of a Lymph Node revised (cortex
replaces outer cortex; paracortex replaces deep cortex)
⦁⦁ Figure 14-9 The Body’s Innate Defenses revised (clarifies
the roles of complement)
⦁⦁ Figure 14-11 Forms of Immunity revised (artificially ac-
quired replaces artificially induced)
⦁⦁ Figure 14-12 An Overview of Adaptive Immunity revised
(former title “An Overview of the Immune Response”;
new title emphasizes that adaptive immunity is part of
the “immune response”)
⦁⦁ Figure 14-17 An Integrated Summary of the Immune Re-
sponse (new title corresponds with broadened definition
of the term “immune response”; regulatory T cells replaces
suppressor T cells)
Chapter 15 The Respiratory System
⦁⦁ Figure 15-1 The Structures of the Respiratory System re-
vised (Respiratory bronchioles replaces Smallest bronchioles)
⦁⦁ Figure 15-2 The Respiratory Mucosa revised (mucus re-
places mucus layer)
⦁⦁ Figure 15-3 The Nose, Nasal Cavity, and Pharynx revised
(posterior internal apertures replaces internal nares, and nos-
trils replaces external nares)
⦁⦁ Clinical Note Cystic Fibrosis revised (added text to clarify
that cystic fibrosis affects not only the respiratory system,
but also the digestive and reproductive systems)
⦁⦁ Figure 15-4 The Anatomy of the Larynx and Vocal Cords
revised (glottis in the open position art and photomicro-
graph now positioned next to each other)
⦁⦁ Figure 15-5 The Anatomy of the Trachea revised (main
bronchi replaces primary bronchi and lobar bronchi replaces
secondary bronchi)
⦁⦁ Figure 15-6 Bronchial Branching and a Lobule of the
Lung revised (new figure title; segmental bronchi replaces
tertiary bronchi)
⦁⦁ Figure 15-7 Alveolar Organization revised (pneumocyte
type I replaces type I pneumocyte, and pneumocyte type II
replaces type II pneumocyte; blood air barrier replaces respi-
ratory membrane)
⦁⦁ Figure 15-8 The Gross Anatomy of the Lungs revised
(added caption “The lobes are shown as though transparent
to make the main branching of the bronchial tree visible”)
⦁⦁ Spotlight Figure 15-10 Pulmonary Ventilation revised
(clarified rib cage structures and that accessory respiratory
muscles are only active in forced breathing)
⦁⦁ Figure 15-11 Pulmonary Volumes and Capacities revised
(TV replaces VT as abbreviation for tidal volume; clarified
table describing sex differences)
⦁⦁ Spotlight Figure 15-16 The Control of Respiration revised
(CN replaces N)
⦁⦁ BYK Integrator revised (deleted nourish from Integumen-
tary System description)
Chapter 16 The Digestive System
⦁⦁ Section 16-1 revised under Secretion, added salts to the
substances released into the digestive tract
⦁⦁ Section 16-1 revised (clarified that the enteric nervous system
[ENS} consists of the myenteric plexus and submucosal plexus)
⦁⦁ Figure 16-1 The Components of the Digestive System re-
vised (mechanical digestion replaces mechanical processing,
chemical digestion replaces chemical breakdown)
⦁⦁ Figure 16-2 The Structure of the Digestive Tract revised
(included muscularis mucosae within the Mucosa box,
muscular layer replaces muscularis externa)
⦁⦁ Figure 16-4 The Oral Cavity revised (frenulum of tongue re-
places lingual frenulum)
⦁⦁ Figure 16-6 Teeth: Structural Components and Dental
Succession revised (cement replaces cementum, alveolar
process replaces bone of alveolus, deciduous teeth replaces
primary teeth, permanent teeth replaces adult teeth)
⦁⦁ Figure 16-8 The Anatomy of the Stomach revised (muscu-
lar layer replaces muscularis externa; added gastrin-produc-
ing G cells to part d caption)
⦁⦁ Spotlight Figure 16-9 Regulation of Gastric Activity revised
(muscular layer replaces muscularis externa; neural inhibition
and hormonal inhibition added to Intestinal Phase KEY)
⦁⦁ Figure 16-11 The Intestinal Wall revised (muscular layer
replaces muscularis externa; Goblet cells [intestinal mucous
cells] replaces Mucous cells)
⦁⦁ Figure 16-13 The Pancreas revised (bile duct replaces com-
mon bile duct)
⦁⦁ Figure 16-14 The Surface Anatomy of the Liver revised
(bile duct replaces common bile duct)
⦁⦁ Figure 16-15 Liver Histology revised (portal triad replaces
portal area; interlobular bile duct replaces bile duct, inter-
lobular artery replaces branch of the hepatic artery proper,

interlobular vein replaces branch of hepatic portal vein; stel-
late macrophages replaces Kupffer cells)
⦁⦁ Figure 16-16 The Gallbladder revised (bile duct replaces
common bile duct)
⦁⦁ Figure 16-17 The Large Intestine revised (teniae coli re-
places tenia coli because there is no singular form to refer
to one of the longitudinal smooth muscle bands)
⦁⦁ Spotlight Figure 16-18 Chemical Events in Digestion (clar-
ified large organic molecules are chemically broken down
before absorption)
⦁⦁ BYK Integrator revised (clarified mechanical and chemi-
cal digestion functions in Digestive System box)
Chapter 17 Metabolism and Energetics
⦁⦁ Figure 17-2 Nutrient Use in Cellular Metabolism revised
(electron transport chain replaces electron transport system)
⦁⦁ Figure 17-4 The Citric Acid Cycle revised (electron transport
chain replaces electron transport system)
⦁⦁ Spotlight Figure 17-5 Electron Transport Chain and ATP
Formation revised (new figure title and clarified the role
of chemiosmosis in ATP formation)
⦁⦁ Figure 17-6 A Summary of the Energy Yield of Aerobic Me-
tabolism revised (electron transport chain replaces electron
transport system)
⦁⦁ Figure 17-7 Carbohydrate Metabolism revised (clarified
that gluconeogenesis only involves noncarbohydrates;
deleted Other carbohydrates box from art)
Chapter 18 The Urinary System
⦁⦁ Section 18-1 revised (metabolic wastes replaces organic wastes)
⦁⦁ Figure 18-2 The Position of the Kidneys revised (clarified
locations of last thoracic and third lumbar vertebrae to bet-
ter correlate with text)
⦁⦁ Figure 18-4 The Blood Supply to the Kidneys revised (part
a, added segmental artery label; part b, renal pyramid re-
places medulla, and added interlobar artery and interlobar
vein labels to better correlate with part a)
⦁⦁ Figure 18-5 A Representative Nephron and the Collect-
ing System revised (highlighted general functions of
descending limb and ascending limb in the Nephron Loop
box with bullet points; descending thin limb replaces thin
descending limb)
⦁⦁ Figure 18-6 The Renal Corpuscle revised (in part a, capsular
outer layer replaces parietal epithelium, visceral layer replaces
visceral epithelium; in part b, fenestrated capillary endothelium
replaces capillary epithelium, foot processes of podocytes re-
places filtration slits; in part c, foot processes replaces pedicels)
⦁⦁ Figure 18-10 The Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
and Regulation of GFR revised (new figure title; systemic
veins replaces venous reservoirs)
Preface  17
⦁⦁ Figure 18-11 Organs for Conducting and Storing Urine revised
(new figure title; ureteral orifices replaces ureteral openings)
⦁⦁ NEW Figure 18-12 The Control of Urination
⦁⦁ Figure 18-14 Ions in Body Fluids revised (caption revised
to emphasize electrical neutrality within each fluid
compartment)
⦁⦁ BYK Integrator Urinary System revised (excretes replaces
removes)
Chapter 19 The Reproductive System
⦁⦁ Section 19-1 revised (sperm replaces
spermatozoa/spermatozoon as the primary term)
⦁⦁ Figure 19-2 The Scrotum, Testes, and Seminiferous Tu-
bules revised (sperm replaces spermatozoa)
⦁⦁ Section 19-2 revised (dartos muscle replaces dartos; sustenocytes
replaces sustentacular cells; prostate replaces prostate gland)
⦁⦁ Figure 19-3 Spermatogenesis revised (sperm replaces
spermatozoa/spermatozoon)
⦁⦁ Figure 19-6 The Penis revised (foreskin replaces prepuce)
⦁⦁ Spotlight Figure 19-7 Regulation of Male Reproduction
revised (interstitial endocrine cells replaces interstitial cells;
sperm replaces spermatozoa)
⦁⦁ Figure 19-10 Ovarian Follicle Development and the
Ovarian Cycle revised (ovarian follicle replaces follicle; in
caption, clarified that ovarian follicles enter the 28-day
ovarian cycle as tertiary ovarian follicles)
⦁⦁ Section 19-3 revised (functional layer of endometrium re-
places functional zone of endometrium, and basal layer of
endometrium replaces basilar layer of endometrium)
⦁⦁ Figure 19-12 The Female External Genitalia revised (bulb
of vestibule replaces vestibular bulb)
⦁⦁ Spotlight Figure 19-14 Regulation of Female Reproduction
revised (ovarian follicle replaces follicle; temperature ranges
added for both Celsius and Fahrenheit scales; and Menses
label changed to Menstrual Phase)
⦁⦁ BYK Integrator Reproductive System revised (kidneys
excrete replaces kidneys remove in Urinary System box)
Chapter 20 Development and Inheritance
⦁⦁ Figure 20-1 Fertilization revised (in part b, changed step 2
title and text in steps 3 and 4; clarified when DNA synthe-
sis occurs, sperm replaces spermatozoon)
⦁⦁ Figure 20-3 Events in Implantation revised (cytotropho-
blast replaces cellular trophoblast, syncytiotrophoblast re-
places syncytial trophoblast)
⦁⦁ Figure 20-4 The Inner Cell Mass revised (extra-embryonic
replaces extraembryonic, changed Gastrulation from day 12
to day 15)
⦁⦁ Spotlight Figure 20-5 Extra-Embryonic Membranes and
Placenta Formation revised (added mucus plug to week 10/
step 5 art)
18  Preface
⦁⦁ Figure 20-6 The Placenta and Placental Circulation
revised (Mucus plug replaces Cervical (mucous) plug)
⦁⦁ Figure 20-7 Development during the First Trimester
revised (new part a Week 3 art and new Week 4, 8, and
fiberoptic photographs)
⦁⦁ Figure 20-8 Fetal Development in the Second and Third
Trimesters revised (new photograph of 6-month-old
fetus)
⦁⦁ Figure 20-16 The Milk Ejection Reflex (new title replaces
The Milk Let-Down Reflex)
⦁⦁ Figure 20-16 A Map of Human Chromosomes revised
(Down Syndrome replaces Down’s Syndrome; Marfan’s
Syndrome replaces Marfan Syndrome; Sickle Cell Disease re-
places Sickle Cell Anemia)
⦁⦁ Section 20-8 The Human Genome revised (new title;
added description of gene-editing technique CRISPR/
Cas9)
Acknowledgments
Every textbook represents a group effort. Foremost on the list are
the faculty and reviewers whose advice, comments, and collec-
tive wisdom helped shape this edition. Their interest in the sub-
ject, their concern for the accuracy and method of presentation,
and their experience with students of widely varying abilities and
backgrounds made the review process an educational experience.
To these individuals, who carefully recorded their comments,
opinions, and sources, we express our sincere appreciation and
best wishes.
We thank them for their participation and list their names
and affiliations below.
Reviewers for the Eighth Edition
Meghan Andrikanich, Lorain County Community College
Jaysen Arno, Pitt Community College
Nick Butkevich, Schoolcraft College
Kristin Jacobson Flex, Illinois Central College
Deborah Furbish, Wake Technical Community College
Layla Khatib, Moraine Valley Community College
Brian Kipp, Grand Valley State University
Tara Leszczewicz, College of DuPage
Geralyne Lopez-de-Victoria, Midlands Technical College
Sudeep Majumdar, Temple College
Gary McIlvain, Marshall University
Angela Porta, Kean University
April Rottman, Rock Valley College
John Senter, Austin Community College
George Spiegel, College of Southern Maryland
Ashley Spring, Eastern Florida State College
Our gratitude is also extended to the many faculty and stu-
dents at campuses across the United States (and out of the
country) who made suggestions and comments that helped
us improve this edition of Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology.
A textbook has two components: narrative and visual.
Virtually without exception, reviewers stressed the impor-
tance of accurate, integrated, and visually attractive illustrations
in helping students understand essential material. The creative
talents brought to this project by our artist team, ­William Ober,
M.D. and Claire Ober, R.N., are inspiring and very much appre-
ciated. Bill and Claire worked closely and tirelessly with us, im-
parting a unity of vision to the book as a whole while making it
both clear and beautiful. The superb art program is also greatly
enhanced by the incomparable bone and cadaver photographs
of Ralph T. Hutchings, formerly of The Royal College of Surgeons
in England.
We are deeply indebted to the Pearson staff and SPi Global,
whose efforts were so vital to the creation of this edition. Special
thanks are due to Norine Strang for her skillful management of
the project through the entire production process. We appreciate
the excellent design contributions of Jerilyn Bockorick, Design
Manager, Mark Ong, cover designer, and Alisha Webber, interior
text designer.
We must also express our appreciation to Lauren Chen and
Kimberly Twardochleb for their work on the media supplements
that accompany this title, and to our colleague Kevin Petti, for
his outstanding efforts to script and record the new Spotlight
Videos.
Thanks also to Wendy Mears, Product Marketing Manager,
Derek Perrigo, Field Marketing Manager, and the entire Pearson
Science sales team for keeping their fingers on the pulse of the
market and helping us meet the needs of our users.
Above all, thanks to Jessica Picone for her patience in nur-
turing this project, and to Cheryl Cechvala, Senior Acquisitions
Editor, for her dedication to the success of this book.
Finally, we would like to thank our families for their love and
support during the revision process.
No two people could expect to produce a flawless textbook of
this scope and complexity. Any errors or oversights are strictly
our own rather than those of the reviewers, artists, or editors.
In an effort to improve future editions, we ask that readers with
pertinent information, suggestions, or comments concerning
the organization or content of this textbook e-mail us directly
at the e-mail address below. Any and all comments and sugges-
tions will be deeply appreciated and carefully considered in the
preparation of the next edition.
martini@pearson.com
 Preface  19

Acknowledgments for the Global Edition

Pearson would like to thank and acknowledge the following people for their work on this Global Edition.

Contributors
Liana Maree, University of the Western Cape
George Yip Wai Cheong, National University of Singapore
Reviewers
Flora Gröning, University of Aberdeen
Snezana Kusljic, The University of Melbourne
Puspha Sinnayah, Victoria University
Eva Strandell, Halmstad University
Chapters Spotlights Build Your Knowledge
1 An Introduction to Anatomy 1-1 Levels of Organization
and Physiology 31

2 The Chemical Level of Organization 55 2-7 Chemical Notation

3 Cell Structure and Function 85 3-2 Anatomy of a Model Cell

3-15 Protein Synthesis, Processing,
and Packaging

4 The Tissue Level of Organization 120 4-16 Inflammation and

Regeneration *Spotlight Video

5 The Integumentary System 151 5-2 The Epidermis How the INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM integrates
with the other body systems presented so far

6 The Skeletal System 172 6-35 Synovial Joints *Spotlight Video How the SKELETAL SYSTEM integrates
with the other body systems presented so far

7 The Muscular System 221 7-4 Events at the Neuromuscular How the MUSCULAR SYSTEM integrates
Junction  7-5 The Contraction with the other body systems presented so far
Cycle *Spotlight Video

8 The Nervous System 273 8-8 The Generation of an Action How the NERVOUS SYSTEM integrates with
Potential  8-9 Propagation of an the other body systems presented so far
Action Potential

9 The General and Special Senses 335 9-16 

Refractive Problems
*Spotlight Video

10 The Endocrine System 374 10-15 The General Adaptation How the ENDOCRINE SYSTEM integrates
Syndrome with the other body systems presented so far

11 The Cardiovascular System: Blood 409 11-1 The Composition of Whole

Blood *Spotlight Video

12 The Cardiovascular System: 12-5 The Heart: Internal Anatomy and

The Heart 434 Blood Flow *Spotlight Video

13 The Cardiovascular System: 13-13 Major Vessels of the Systemic How the CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Blood Vessels and Circulation 459 Circuit integrates with the other body systems
presented so far

14 The Lymphatic System 14-4 Origin and Distribution of How the LYMPHATIC SYSTEM integrates
and Immunity 501 Lymphocytes with the other body systems presented so far

15 The Respiratory System 535 15-10 Pulmonary Ventilation How the RESPIRATORY SYSTEM integrates
    *Spotlight Video with the other body systems presented so far
15-16 The Control of Respiration

16 The Digestive System 568 16-9 Regulation of Gastric How the DIGESTIVE SYSTEM integrates
Activity  16-18 Chemical Events with the other body systems presented so far
in Digestion *Spotlight Video

17 Metabolism and Energetics 607 17-5 Electron Transport Chain and

ATP Formation

18 The Urinary System 634 18-9 

A Summary of Kidney Function How the URINARY SYSTEM integrates with
*Spotlight Video the other body systems presented so far

19 The Reproductive System 672 19-7 Regulation of Male How the REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM integrates
Reproduction  19-14 Regulation with the other body systems presented so far
of Female Reproduction *Spotlight Video

20 Development and Inheritance 705 20-5 Extra-Embryonic Membranes

and Placenta Formation
Contents
2-4 Enzymes catalyze specific biochemical reactions by

1  An Introduction to Anatomy lowering a reaction’s activation energy 64

2-5 Inorganic compounds usually lack carbon, and
and Physiology 31
organic compounds always contain carbon 64
An Introduction to Studying the Human Body 32 2-6 Physiological systems depend on water 65
1-1 All living things display responsiveness, growth, 2-7 Body fluid pH is vital for homeostasis 66
reproduction, movement, and metabolism 32
2-8 Acids, bases, and salts have important physiological
1-2 Anatomy is structure, and physiology is roles 67
function 33
Salts • Buffers and pH
Anatomy • Physiology
2-9 Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and
1-3 Levels of organization progress from atoms and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio 68
molecules to a complete organism 34
Monosaccharides • Disaccharides and Polysaccharides
1-4 The human body consists of 11 organ systems 36
2-10 Lipids contain a carbon-to-hydrogen ratio
1-5 Homeostasis is the state of internal balance 36 of 1:2 70
1-6 Negative feedback opposes variations from normal, Fatty Acids • Fats • Steroids • Phospholipids
whereas positive feedback exaggerates them 40 2-11 Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
Negative Feedback • Positive Feedback nitrogen and are formed from amino acids 73
1-7 Anatomical terms describe body regions, anatomical Protein Function • Protein Structure • Enzyme Function
positions and directions, and body sections 43 2-12 DNA and RNA are nucleic acids 76
Surface Anatomy • Sectional Anatomy Structure of Nucleic Acids
1-8 Body cavities of the trunk protect internal organs 2-13 ATP is a high-energy compound used by cells 78
and allow them to change shape 45
2-14 Chemicals form functional units called cells 80
The Thoracic Cavity • The Abdominopelvic Cavity
SPOTLIGHT
SPOTLIGHT
Chemical Notation 62
Levels of Organization 35
CLINICAL NOTE
CLINICAL NOTES
Too Sweet on Sugar? 71
Homeostasis and Disease 36
Imaging Techniques 50 Chapter Review 81
Chapter Review 52

2  The Chemical Level

of Organization 55
3  Cell Structure
and Function 85
An Introduction to Cell Structure and Function 86
An Introduction to the Chemical Level of Organization 56
3-1 The study of cells provides the foundation for
2-1 Atoms are the basic particles of matter 56 understanding human physiology 86
Atomic Structure • Isotopes • Atomic Weight • The Study of Cells • An Overview of Cell Anatomy
Electron Shells
3-2 The plasma membrane separates the cell from its
2-2 Chemical bonds are forces formed by interactions surrounding environment and performs various
between atoms 58 functions 87
Ionic Bonds • Covalent Bonds • Hydrogen Bonds Membrane Lipids • Membrane Proteins • Membrane
2-3 Decomposition, synthesis, and exchange reactions Carbohydrates
are important chemical reactions in physiology 61 3-3 Diffusion is a passive transport process that assists
Basic Energy Concepts • Types of Reactions • membrane passage 91
Reversible Reactions Diffusion

21
22  Contents
3-4 Carrier-mediated and vesicular transport processes
assist membrane passage 95
Carrier-Mediated Transport • Vesicular Transport
3-5 Organelles within the cytoplasm perform specific
functions 99
The Cytosol • The Organelles
3-6 The nucleus contains DNA and enzymes essential
for controlling cellular activities 106
Nuclear Structure and Contents • Information Storage
in the Nucleus
3-7 DNA controls protein synthesis, cell structure, and
cell function 108
Transcription • Translation
3-8 Stages of a cell’s life cycle include interphase,
mitosis, and cytokinesis 111
Interphase • Mitosis • Cytokinesis
3-9 Tumors and cancers are c­ haracterized by abnormal
cell growth and division 114
3-10 Cellular differentiation is c­ ellular specialization as
a result of gene a
­ ctivation or repression 115
SPOTLIGHT
Anatomy of a Model Cell 88
Protein Synthesis, Processing, and ­Packaging 104
CLINICAL NOTES
Inheritable Mitochondrial Disorders 103
DNA Fingerprinting 108
Mutations and Mosaicism 112
Chapter Review 116
4
 The Tissue Level
of Organization 120
An Introduction to the Tissue Level of Organization
4-1 The four tissue types are epithelial, connective,
muscle, and nervous 121
4-2 Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces, lines cavities
and tubular structures, and serves essential
functions 121
Functions of Epithelia • Intercellular Connections •
The Epithelial Surface • The Basement Membrane •
Epithelial Renewal and Repair
4-3 Cell shape and number of layers determine the
classification of epithelia 125
Cell Layers • Cell Shapes • Classification of
Epithelia • Glandular Epithelia
4-4 Connective tissue provides a protective structural
framework for other tissue types 131
Connective Tissue Proper • Types of Connective Tissue
Proper • Fluid Connective Tissues • Supporting
Connective Tissues
4-5 Tissue membranes are physical barriers of four types:
mucous, serous, cutaneous, and synovial 140
Mucous Membranes • Serous Membranes • The
Cutaneous Membrane • Synovial Membranes
4-6 The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal,
cardiac, and smooth 141
Skeletal Muscle Tissue • Cardiac Muscle
Tissue • Smooth Muscle Tissue
4-7 Nervous tissue responds to stimuli and propagates
electrical impulses throughout the body 143
4-8 The response to tissue injury involves inflammation
and regeneration 144
4-9 With advancing age, tissue repair declines and
cancer rates increase 145
Aging and Tissue Structure • Aging and Cancer Rates
SPOTLIGHT
Inflammation and Regeneration 146
CLINICAL NOTES
Exfoliative Cytology 131
Marfan Syndrome 134
Adipose Tissue and Weight Control 136
Cartilages and Joint Injuries 137
Chapter Review 147
5
 The Integumentary
System 151
An Introduction to the Integumentary System 152
5-1 The epidermis is composed of strata (layers) with
various functions 153
Stratum Basale • Intermediate Strata •
Stratum Corneum
121 5-2 Epidermal pigmentation and dermal circulation
influence skin color 156
The Role of Pigmentation • The Role of Dermal
Circulation
5-3 Sunlight has beneficial and d
­ etrimental effects on
the skin 157
The Epidermis and Vitamin D3 • Skin Cancers
5-4 The dermis is the tissue layer that supports the
epidermis 158
5-5 The subcutaneous layer connects the dermis to
underlying tissues 159
5-6 Hair is composed of dead, ­keratinized cells that
have been pushed to the skin surface 159
The Structure of Hair and Hair Follicles • Functions of
Hair • Hair Color
5-7 Sebaceous glands and sweat glands are exocrine
glands found in the skin 162
Sebaceous (Oil) Glands • Sweat Glands

5-8 Nails are keratinized epidermal cells that protect
the tips of fingers and toes 163
5-9 After an injury, the integument is repaired in
several phases 164
Repair of Skin Injuries • Effects of Burns
5-10 Effects of aging include d
­ ermal thinning,
wrinkling, and reduced melanocyte activity 167
SPOTLIGHT
The Epidermis 154
CLINICAL NOTES
Drug Administration through the Skin 155
Disorders of Keratin Production 156
Dermatitis 158
Hair Loss 161
Burns 166
Chapter Review 169
6  The Skeletal
System 172
An Introduction to the Skeletal System 173
6-1 The skeletal system has five major functions 173
6-2 Bones are classified according to shape and
structure 173
Macroscopic Features of Bone • Microscopic Features
of Bone
6-3 Ossification and appositional growth are processes
of bone formation and enlargement 176
Intramembranous Ossification • Endochondral
Ossification • Bone Growth and Body Proportions •
Requirements for Normal Bone Growth
6-4 Bone growth and development depend on a balance
between bone formation and resorption, and on
calcium availability 179
The Role of Remodeling in Support • The Skeleton as a
Calcium Reserve • Repair of Fractures
6-5 Osteopenia has a widespread effect on aging
skeletal tissue 182
6-6 The bones of the skeleton are distinguished by
bone markings and grouped into two skeletal
divisions 182
Bone Markings (Surface Features) • Skeletal Divisions
6-7 The bones of the skull, vertebral column, and
thoracic cage make up the axial skeleton 186
The Skull • The Vertebral Column and Thoracic Cage
6-8 The pectoral girdles and upper limb bones, and the
pelvic girdle and lower limb bones, make up the
appendicular skeleton 196
The Pectoral Girdles • The Upper Limb • The Pelvic
Girdle • The Lower Limb
Contents  23
6-9 Joints are categorized according to their range of
motion or anatomical organization 204
Immovable Joints (Synarthroses) • Slightly Movable
Joints (Amphiarthroses) • Freely Movable Joints
(Diarthroses)
6-10 The structure and functions of synovial joints
enable various skeletal movements 206
Types of Movements at Synovial Joints • Types of
Synovial Joints
6-11 Intervertebral joints and appendicular joints
demonstrate functional differences in support
and mobility 209
Intervertebral Joints • Joints of the Upper Limb •
Joints of the Lower Limb
6-12 The skeletal system supports and stores energy
and minerals for other body systems 214
SPOTLIGHT
Synovial Joints 210
CLINICAL NOTES
Types of Fractures and Steps in Repair 180
Osteoporosis 182
Rheumatism and Arthritis 206
Hip Fractures 214
Chapter Review 216
7
 The Muscular
System 221
An Introduction to Muscle Tissue 222
7-1 Skeletal muscle performs five primary functions 222
7-2 A skeletal muscle contains muscle tissue, connective
tissues, blood vessels, and nerves 222
Connective Tissue Organization • Blood Vessels and
Nerves
7-3 Skeletal muscle fibers have d
­ istinctive features 224
The Sarcolemma and Transverse Tubules • Myofibrils •
The Sarcoplasmic Reticulum • Sarcomeres
7-4 The nervous system and skeletal muscles
communicate at neuromuscular junctions 227
The Neuromuscular Junction • The Contraction Cycle
7-5 Sarcomere shortening and muscle fiber stimulation
produce tension 230
Frequency of Muscle Fiber Stimulation • Number
of Muscle Fibers Activated • Isotonic and Isometric
Contractions • Muscle Elongation Following Contraction
7-6 ATP is the energy source for muscle
contraction 237
ATP and CP Reserves • ATP Generation • Energy
Use and the Level of Muscle Activity • Muscle
Fatigue • The Recovery Period
24  Contents
7-7 Muscle performance depends on muscle fiber type
and physical conditioning 240
Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers • Physical Conditioning
7-8 Cardiac and smooth muscle tissues differ in structure
and function from skeletal muscle tissue 241
Cardiac Muscle Tissue • Smooth Muscle Tissue
7-9 Descriptive terms are used to name skeletal
muscles 243
Origins, Insertions, and Actions • Names of Skeletal
Muscles
7-10 Axial muscles are muscles of the head and neck,
vertebral column, trunk, and pelvic floor 247
Muscles of the Head and Neck • Muscles of the
Spine • The Axial Muscles of the Trunk • Muscles of
the Pelvic Floor
7-11 Appendicular muscles are muscles of the shoulders,
upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower limbs 255
Muscles of the Shoulders and Upper Limbs • Muscles
of the Pelvis and Lower Limbs
7-12 The size and power of muscle tissue decrease with
advancing age 266
7-13 Exercise produces responses in multiple body
systems 267
SPOTLIGHTS
Events at the Neuromuscular Junction 228
The Contraction Cycle 232
CLINICAL NOTES
Interference at the NMJ and Muscular Paralysis 230
Rigor Mortis 230
Tetanus 231
Hernias 250
Intramuscular Injections 253
Chapter Review 269
8  The Nervous
System 273
An Introduction to the Nervous System 274
8-1 The nervous system has anatomical and functional
divisions 274
8-2 Neurons are specialized for intercellular
communication and are supported by cells called
neuroglia 275
Neurons • Neuroglia • Organization of Neurons in
the Nervous System
8-3 In neurons, a change in the plasma membrane’s
electrical potential may result in an action
potential (nerve impulse) 281
The Membrane Potential • Propagation of an Action
Potential
8-4 At synapses, communication takes place among
neurons or between neurons and other cells 288
Structure of a Synapse • Synaptic Function and
Neurotransmitters • Neuronal Pools
8-5 The brain and spinal cord are surrounded by three
layers of membranes called the meninges 291
The Dura Mater • The Arachnoid • The Pia Mater
8-6 The spinal cord contains gray matter surrounded
by white matter and connects to 31 pairs of spinal
nerves 292
Gross Anatomy • Sectional Anatomy
8-7 The brain has several principal structures, each
with specific functions 296
The Major Regions of the Brain • The Ventricles
of the Brain • The Cerebrum • The Diencephalon •
The Midbrain • The Pons • The Cerebellum •
The Medulla Oblongata
8-8 The PNS connects the CNS with the body’s external
and internal environments 308
The Cranial Nerves • The Spinal Nerves • Nerve
Plexuses
8-9 Reflexes are rapid, automatic responses to
stimuli 313
Simple Reflexes • Complex Reflexes • Integration and
Control of Spinal Reflexes
8-10 Separate pathways carry sensory information and
motor commands 316
Sensory Pathways • Motor Pathways
8-11 The autonomic nervous system, composed of the
sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, is
involved in the unconscious regulation of body
functions 319
The Sympathetic Division • The Parasympathetic
Division • Relationships between the Sympathetic
and Parasympathetic Divisions
8-12 Aging produces various structural and functional
changes in the nervous system 324
8-13 The nervous system is closely integrated with other
body systems 326
SPOTLIGHTS
The Generation of an Action Potential 284
Propagation of an Action Potential 286
CLINICAL NOTES
Demyelination Disorders 281
Epidural and Subdural Hemorrhages 292
Spinal Cord Injuries 294
Aphasia and Dyslexia 304
Seizures 305
Cerebral Palsy 319
Alzheimer’s Disease 326
Chapter Review 328

9
 The General and Special
Senses 335
An Introduction to General and Special Senses 336
9-1 Sensory receptors connect our internal and external
environments with the nervous system 336
9-2 General sensory receptors are classified by the type
of stimulus that excites them 337
Pain • Temperature • Touch, Pressure, and
Position • Chemical Detection
9-3 Olfaction, the sense of smell, involves olfactory
receptors responding to chemical stimuli 341
The Olfactory Pathways
9-4 Gustation, the sense of taste, involves taste
receptors responding to chemical stimuli 343
The Taste Pathways
9-5 Internal eye structures contribute to vision, while
accessory eye structures provide protection 344
The Accessory Structures of the Eye • The Eye
9-6 Photoreceptors respond to light and change
it into electrical signals essential to visual
physiology 353
Rods and Cones • Photoreceptor Structure •
Photoreception • The Visual Pathways
9-7 Equilibrium sensations originate within the
internal ear, while hearing involves the detection
and interpretation of sound waves 358
Anatomy of the Ear • Equilibrium • Hearing
9-8 Aging is accompanied by a ­noticeable decline in the
special senses 368
Smell and Aging • Taste and Aging • Vision and
Aging • Equilibrium and Aging • Hearing and Aging
SPOTLIGHT
Refractive Problems 354
CLINICAL NOTES
Cataracts 351
Visual Acuity 356
Night Blindness 357
Hearing Deficits 366
Chapter Review 369
10
 The Endocrine
System 374
An Introduction to the Endocrine System 375
10-1 Homeostasis is preserved through intercellular
communication 375
Contents  25
10-2 The endocrine system regulates physiological
processes through the binding of hormones to
receptors 376
The Structure of Hormones • Hormone Action •
The Secretion and Distribution of Hormones •
The Control of Endocrine Activity
10-3 The bilobed pituitary gland is an endocrine organ
that releases nine ­peptide hormones 381
The Anterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland • The
Posterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland
10-4 The thyroid gland synthesizes thyroid hormones
that affect the rate of metabolism 386
Thyroid Follicles and Thyroid Hormones • The C Cells
of the Thyroid Gland and Calcitonin
10-5 The four parathyroid glands, embedded in the
posterior surfaces of the thyroid gland, secrete
parathyroid hormone to elevate blood calcium
levels 390
10-6 The adrenal glands, ­consisting of a cortex and
a medulla, cap each ­kidney and secrete several
hormones 390
The Adrenal Cortex • The Adrenal Medulla
10-7 The pineal gland, attached to the third ventricle,
secretes melatonin 393
10-8 The endocrine pancreas p
­ roduces insulin and
glucagon, hormones that regulate blood glucose
levels 393
Diabetes Mellitus
10-9 Many organs have secondary endocrine
functions 395
The Intestines • The Kidneys • The Heart •
The Thymus • The Gonads • Adipose Tissue
10-10 Hormones interact to produce coordinated
physiological responses 398
Hormones and Growth • Hormones and
Stress • Hormones and Behavior • Hormones and
Aging
10-11 Extensive integration occurs between the endocrine
system and other body systems 403
SPOTLIGHT
The General Adaptation Syndrome 401
CLINICAL NOTES
Diabetes Insipidus 385
Diabetes Mellitus 396
Hormones and Athletic Performance 399
Endocrine Disorders 402
Chapter Review 405
26  Contents
11
 The Cardiovascular ­System:
Blood 409
An Introduction to the Cardiovascular System 410
11-1 Blood has several ­important functions and unique
physical characteristics 410
Composition of Blood • Blood Collection and Analysis
11-2 Plasma, the fluid portion of blood, contains
significant quantities of plasma proteins 411
Plasma Proteins
11-3 Red blood cells, formed by erythropoiesis, contain
hemoglobin that can be recycled 414
Abundance of Red Blood Cells • Structure of
RBCs • Hemoglobin Structure and Function • RBC
Life Span and Circulation • RBC Formation
11-4 The ABO blood types and Rh system are based on
antigen–antibody responses 420
Cross-Reactions in Transfusions • Testing for Blood
Compatibility
11-5 The various types of white blood cells contribute to
the body’s defenses 423
WBC Circulation and Movement • Types of
WBCs • The Differential Count and Changes in WBC
Abundance • WBC Formation
11-6 Platelets, disc-shaped structures formed from
megakaryocytes, function in the clotting
process 427
11-7 Hemostasis involves vascular spasm, platelet plug
formation, and blood coagulation 427
Phases of Hemostasis • The Clotting Process • Clot
Retraction and Removal
SPOTLIGHT
The Composition of Whole Blood 412
CLINICAL NOTES
Abnormal Hemoglobin 416
Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn 422
Abnormal Hemostasis 429
Chapter Review 431
12
 The Cardiovascular ­System:
The Heart 434
The Heart’s Role in the Cardiovascular System 435
12-1 The heart is a four-chambered organ, supplied by
coronary circulation, that pumps oxygen-poor
blood to the lungs and oxygen-rich blood to the rest
of the body 435
The Surface Anatomy of the Heart • The Heart
Wall • Internal Anatomy and Organization
12-2 Contractile cells and the ­conducting system
produce each h­ eartbeat, and an electrocardiogram
records the associated electrical events 445
Contractile Cells • The Conducting System • The
Electrocardiogram
12-3 Events during a complete h ­ eartbeat make up a
cardiac cycle 450
Phases of the Cardiac Cycle • Heart Sounds
12-4 Heart dynamics examines the factors that affect
cardiac output 452
Blood Volume Reflexes • Autonomic
Innervation • Hormones
SPOTLIGHT
The Heart: Internal Anatomy and Blood Flow 441
CLINICAL NOTES
Heart Valve Disorders 442
Abnormal Conditions Affecting Cardiac
Output 453
Chapter Review 455
13
 The Cardiovascular ­
System: Blood Vessels
and Circulation 459
An Introduction to Blood Vessels and Circulation 460
13-1 Arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins
differ in size, structure, and function 460
The Structure of Vessel Walls • Arteries •
Capillaries • Veins
13-2 Pressure and resistance d ­ etermine blood flow and
affect rates of capillary exchange 465
Factors Affecting Blood Flow • Cardiovascular
Pressures within the ­Systemic Circuit
13-3 Cardiovascular regulation involves autoregulation,
neural processes, and endocrine responses 471
Autoregulation of Blood Flow within Tissues • Neural
Control of Blood Pressure and Blood Flow • Hormones
and Cardiovascular Regulation
13-4 The cardiovascular system adapts to physiological
stress 477
Exercise and the Cardiovascular System • The
Cardiovascular Response to Hemorrhage
13-5 The pulmonary and systemic c ­ ircuits of the
cardiovascular system exhibit three general
functional patterns 479
13-6 In the pulmonary circuit, ­deoxygenated blood
enters the lungs in arteries, and oxygenated blood
leaves the lungs in veins 480

13-7 The systemic circuit carries ­oxygenated blood from
the left ventricle to tissues other than the lungs’
exchange surfaces, and returns deoxygenated blood
to the right atrium 481
Systemic Arteries • Systemic Veins
13-8 Modifications of fetal and ­maternal cardiovascular
systems promote the exchange of materials until
birth 492
Placental Blood Supply • Fetal Circulation in the Heart
and Great Vessels • Circulatory Changes at Birth
13-9 Aging affects the blood, heart, and blood
vessels 493
13-10 The cardiovascular system is both structurally and
functionally linked to all other systems 494
SPOTLIGHT
Major Vessels of the Systemic Circuit 482
CLINICAL NOTES
Arteriosclerosis 463
Capillary Dynamics and Blood ­Volume and
Pressure 469
Checking the Pulse and Blood ­Pressure 470
Exercise, Cardiovascular Fitness, and Health 477
Shock 478
Chapter Review 496
14  The Lymphatic System
and Immunity 501
An Introduction to the Lymphatic System and
Immunity 502
14-1 Anatomical barriers and defense processes make
up nonspecific defense, and lymphocytes provide
specific defense 502
14-2 Lymphatic v ­ essels, lymphocytes, lymphoid
­tissues, and lymphoid organs function in body
defenses 503
Functions of the Lymphatic System • Lymphatic
Vessels • Lymphocytes • Lymphoid Tissues •
Lymphoid Organs
14-3 Innate (nonspecific) defenses respond in a
characteristic way r­ egardless of the potential
threat 511
Physical Barriers • Phagocytes • Immune
Surveillance • Interferons • The Complement
System • Inflammation • Fever
14-4 Adaptive (specific) defenses respond to specific
threats and are either cell mediated or antibody
mediated 515
Forms of Immunity • An Overview of Adaptive
Immunity
Contents  27
14-5 T cells play a role in starting and controlling
adaptive immunity 517
Antigen Presentation • T Cell Activation
14-6 B cells respond to antigens by producing specific
antibodies 519
B Cell Sensitization and Activation • Antibody
Structure • Antibody Function • Primary and
Secondary Responses to Antigen Exposure • Summary
of the Immune Response • Hormones of the Immune
System
14-7 Abnormal immune responses result in immune
disorders 526
Autoimmune Disorders • Immunodeficiency
Diseases • Allergies
14-8 The immune response diminishes as we age 527
14-9 For all body systems, the l­ ymphatic system provides
defenses against infection and returns tissue fluid
to the circulation 528
SPOTLIGHT
Origin and Distribution of Lymphocytes 507
CLINICAL NOTES
“Swollen Glands” 509
Injury to the Spleen 511
AIDS 523
Stress and the Immune Response 527
Manipulating the Immune Response 528
Chapter Review 530
15
 The Respiratory
System 535
An Introduction to the Respiratory System 536
15-1 The respiratory system, c­ omposed of air-conducting
and ­respiratory portions, has several basic
functions 536
Functions of the Respiratory System • Structures of the
Respiratory System
15-2 The nose, pharynx, larynx, t­ rachea, bronchi, and
larger bronchioles conduct air into the lungs 538
The Nose • The Pharynx • The Larynx • The
Trachea • The Bronchi
15-3 The smallest bronchioles and the alveoli within
the lungs make up the respiratory portion of the
respiratory tract 544
The Bronchioles • The Blood Air Barrier • The
Lungs • The Pleural Cavities
15-4 External respiration and internal respiration allow
gas exchange within the body 548
28  Contents

15-5 Pulmonary ventilation—the exchange of air 16-3 The pharynx is a p

­ assageway between the oral
between the ­atmosphere and the lungs—involves cavity and the esophagus 576
pressure changes and muscle movement 549 The Pharynx • The Esophagus • Swallowing
Pressure and Airflow to the Lungs • Compliance • 16-4 The J-shaped stomach receives food from the
Modes of Breathing • Lung Volumes and Capacities esophagus and aids in chemical and mechanical
15-6 Gas exchange depends on the partial pressures of digestion 577
gases and the d
­ iffusion of molecules 552 The Gastric Wall • The Regulation of Gastric
Mixed Gases and Partial Pressures • Partial Pressures in Activity • Digestion in the Stomach
the Pulmonary and Systemic Circuits 16-5 The small intestine chemically digests and absorbs
15-7 In gas transport, most oxygen is transported nutrients 582
bound to hemoglobin, whereas carbon dioxide is The Intestinal Wall • Intestinal Movements •
transported in three ways 554 Intestinal Secretions • Intestinal Hormones •
Oxygen Transport • Carbon Dioxide Transport Digestion in the Small Intestine
15-8 Neurons in the medulla o ­ blongata and pons, along 16-6 The pancreas, liver, and g
­ allbladder are accessory
with r­ espiratory reflexes, control respiration 557 organs that assist with chemical digestion in the
The Local Control of Respiration • Control by small intestine 586
the Respiratory Centers of the Brain • The Reflex The Pancreas • The Liver • The Gallbladder
Control of Respiration • Control by Higher 16-7 The large intestine is divided into three parts with
Centers • Respiratory Changes at Birth regional specialization 592
15-9 Respiratory performance declines with age 562 The Cecum • The Colon • The Rectum • The
15-10 The respiratory system p
­ rovides oxygen to, Functions of the Large Intestine
and removes carbon dioxide from, other organ 16-8 Chemical digestion is the a
­ lteration of food that
systems 562 allows the ­absorption and use of nutrients 596
SPOTLIGHTS The Processing and Absorption of Nutrients • Water
Pulmonary Ventilation 550 and Electrolyte Absorption • Absorption of Vitamins
The Control of Respiration 560 16-9 Many age-related changes affect digestion and
CLINICAL NOTES absorption 599
Cystic Fibrosis 539 16-10 The digestive system is ­extensively integrated with
Tracheal Blockage 542 other body systems 600
Pneumonia 546
SPOTLIGHTS
Tuberculosis 547
Regulation of Gastric Activity 580
Decompression Sickness 553
Chemical Events in Digestion 597
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning 555
Emphysema and Lung Cancer 561 CLINICAL NOTES
Gastritis and Peptic Ulcers 581
Chapter Review 564 Stomach Cancer 581
Vomiting 585
Pancreatitis 588

16
Liver Disease 591
 The Digestive Colorectal Cancer 594
System 568 Diverticulosis 595
Diarrhea and Constipation 595
An Introduction to the Digestive System 569
Lactose Intolerance 598
16-1 The digestive system—the digestive tract and
accessory organs—performs various food-­ Chapter Review 602
processing functions 569
Functions of the Digestive System • Histological

17
Organization of the Digestive Tract • The Movement
of Digestive Materials
 Metabolism and
16-2 The oral cavity contains the tongue, salivary
Energetics 607
glands, and teeth, each with specific An Introduction to Nutrition and Metabolism 608
functions 573
17-1 Metabolism refers to all the chemical reactions
The Tongue • Salivary Glands • Teeth in the body, and ­energetics refers to the flow and
­transformation of energy 608

17-2 Carbohydrate metabolism involves glycolysis, ATP
production, and gluconeogenesis 610
Glycolysis • Energy Production Within
Mitochondria • Energy Yield of Glycolysis and
Cellular Respiration • Gluconeogenesis (Glucose
Synthesis) • Alternate Catabolic Pathways
17-3 Lipid metabolism involves ­lipolysis, beta-oxidation,
and the ­transport and distribution of lipids as
lipoproteins and free fatty acids 617
Lipid Catabolism • Lipids and Energy
Production • Lipid Synthesis • Lipid Transport and
Distribution
17-4 Protein catabolism involves transamination and
deamination, and protein synthesis involves
amination and transamination 619
Amino Acid Catabolism • Amino Acids and Protein
Synthesis
17-5 Nucleic acid catabolism involves RNA, but not
DNA 621
RNA Catabolism • Nucleic Acid Synthesis
17-6 Adequate nutrition is necessary to prevent
deficiency disorders and maintain
homeostasis 622
Food Groups and a Balanced Diet • Minerals,
Vitamins, and Water • Diet and Disease
17-7 Metabolic rate is the average caloric expenditure,
and thermoregulation involves balancing heat-
producing and heat-losing processes 626
The Energy Content of Food • Energy Expenditure:
Metabolic Rate • Thermoregulation
17-8 Caloric needs decline with advancing age 629
SPOTLIGHT
Electron Transport Chain and ATP ­Formation 613
CLINICAL NOTES
Carbohydrate Loading 615
Dietary Fats and Cholesterol 617
Ketoacidosis 620
Chapter Review 630
18  The Urinary
System 634
An Introduction to the Reproductive System
An Introduction to the Urinary System 635
18-1 The urinary system—made up of the kidneys,
ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra—has three
major functions 635
18-2 The kidneys are highly v ­ ascular organs containing
functional units called nephrons, which perform
filtration, ­reabsorption, and secretion 636
Superficial and Sectional Anatomy of the Kidneys • The
Blood Supply to the Kidneys • The Nephron
Contents  29
18-3 Different portions of the n­ ephron form urine by
filtration, reabsorption, and secretion 643
Nephron Processes • Filtration at the Glomerulus •
Reabsorption and Secretion along the Renal Tubule •
Normal Urine
18-4 Normal kidney function depends on a stable GFR 650
The Local Regulation of Kidney Function • The
Hormonal Control of Kidney Function
18-5 Urine is transported by the ureters, stored in the
bladder, and eliminated through the urethra, aided
by u
­ rinary reflexes 653
The Ureters • The Urinary Bladder • The Urethra •
The Control of Urination
18-6 Fluid balance, electrolyte balance, and acid-base
balance are interrelated and essential to
homeostasis 656
The ECF and the ICF
18-7 Blood pressure and osmosis are involved in
maintaining fluid and ­electrolyte balance 658
Fluid Balance • Electrolyte Balance
18-8 In acid-base balance, regulation of hydrogen ions in
body fluids involves buffer systems and compensation
by respiratory and renal processes 660
Acids in the Body • Buffers and Buffer Systems •
Maintaining Acid-Base Balance • Acid-Base Disorders
18-9 Age-related changes affect ­k idney function and the
control of urination 664
18-10 The urinary system is one of several body systems
involved in waste excretion 665
SPOTLIGHT
A Summary of Kidney Function 648
CLINICAL NOTES
Kidney Failure 652
Urinary Tract Infections 654
Incontinence 655
Disturbances of Acid-Base Balance 663
Chapter Review 667
19  The Reproductive
System 672
673
19-1 Basic reproductive system structures are gonads,
ducts, accessory glands and organs, and external
genitalia 673
19-2 Sperm formation (spermatogenesis) occurs in the
testes, and hormones from the hypothalamus,
pituitary gland, and testes control male
reproductive functions 674
The Testes • Spermatogenesis • The Male Reproductive
Tract • The Accessory Glands • The External Genitalia •
Hormones and Male Reproductive Function
30  Contents
19-3 Ovum production (oogenesis) occurs in the ovaries,
and hormones from the pituitary gland and ovaries
­control female reproductive functions 683
The Ovaries • The Uterine Tubes • The Uterus • The
Vagina • The External Genitalia • The Mammary
Glands • Hormones and the Female Reproductive
Cycle
19-4 The autonomic nervous ­system influences male and
female ­sexual function 695
Male Sexual Function • Female Sexual Function
19-5 With age, decreasing l­ evels of reproductive
hormones cause ­f unctional changes 696
Menopause • The Male Climacteric
19-6 The reproductive system secretes hormones affecting
growth and metabolism of all body systems 697
SPOTLIGHTS
Regulation of Male Reproduction 682
Regulation of Female Reproduction 692
CLINICAL NOTES
Cryptorchidism 676
Prostatitis 680
Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) 688
Amenorrhea 689
Breast Cancer 691
Infertility 694
Sexually Transmitted Diseases 695
Birth Control Strategies 698
Chapter Review 701
20  Development and
Inheritance 705
An Introduction to Development and Inheritance 706
20-1 Development is a continuous process that occurs
from fertilization to maturity 706
20-2 Fertilization—the fusion of a secondary oocyte and
a ­sperm—forms a zygote 707
An Overview of Fertilization • Ovulation and Oocyte
Activation
20-3 Gestation consists of three stages of prenatal
development: the first, second, and third
trimesters 709
20-4 Critical events of the first ­trimester are
cleavage, implantation, p ­ lacentation, and
embryogenesis 709
Cleavage and Blastocyst Formation • Implantation •
Placentation • Embryogenesis
20-5 During the second and third t­ rimesters, maternal
organ ­systems s­ upport the developing fetus, and
the uterus undergoes structural and f­ unctional
changes 717
The Effects of Pregnancy on Maternal Systems •
Structural and Functional Changes in the Uterus
20-6 Labor consists of the dilation, expulsion, and
placental stages 724
The Stages of Labor • Premature Labor • Multiple
Births
20-7 Postnatal stages are the ­neonatal period, infancy,
childhood, adolescence, and maturity, followed by
senescence 726
The Neonatal Period, Infancy, and Childhood •
Adolescence and Maturity
20-8 Genes and chromosomes d ­ etermine patterns of
inheritance 728
Patterns of Inheritance • The Human Genome
SPOTLIGHT
Extra-Embryonic Membranes and Placenta
Formation 714
CLINICAL NOTES
Abortion 728
Chromosomal Abnormalities and Genetic
Analysis 734
Chapter Review 735
Answers Answers to Checkpoints and Review
Questions  ANS-1
Appendix Normal Physiological Values  APP-1
Glossary/Index  G-1
Credits  CR-1
An Introduction to
Anatomy and Physiology
1
Learning Outcomes
These Learning Outcomes tell you what you should be able to do
after completing the chapter. They correspond by number to this
chapter’s sections.

1-1 Describe the basic functions of living organisms.

1-2 Explain the relationship between anatomy and physiol-
ogy, and describe various specialties of each discipline.
1-3 Identify the major levels of organization in organisms,
from the simplest to the most complex.
1-4 Identify the 11 organ systems of the human body and
contrast their major functions.
1-5 Explain the concept of homeostasis.
1-6 Describe how negative feedback and positive feedback
are involved in homeostatic regulation.
1-7 Use anatomical terms to describe body regions, body
sections, and relative positions.
1-8 Identify the major body cavities of the trunk and the
subdivisions of each.

Clinical Notes Spotlight

Homeostasis and Disease, p. 36 Levels of Organization, p. 35
Imaging Techniques, pp. 50–51

31
 32 F O U N DAT I O N S
1
An Introduction to Studying the Human Body
In this textbook we will introduce you to the essential, inner
workings of your body—giving information about its struc-
ture (anatomy) and function (physiology). As a human, you
are most likely very curious, and few subjects arouse so much
curiosity as our own bodies. You will discover how your body
Build Your Knowledge
Throughout each chapter, you will find Build Your Knowl-
edge boxes that will coach you through anatomy and physi-
ology concepts. This feature will help you connect new
material with what you already know. At the end of each
chapter that closes a body system, you will see a “capstone”
1-1 All living things display
responsiveness, growth, reproduction,
movement, and metabolism
Learning Outcome Describe the basic functions of living organisms.
We live in a world containing an amazing diversity of living
organisms that vary widely in appearance and lifestyle. One
aim of biology—the study of life—is to discover the common
patterns that underlie this diversity. Such discoveries show
that all living things share these common functions:
⦁⦁ Responsiveness. Organisms respond to changes in
their immediate environment. This property is also
called irritability. You move your hand away from a hot
stove, your dog barks at approaching strangers, fish
are alarmed by loud noises, and tiny amoebas glide
toward potential prey. Organisms also make longer-
term changes as they adjust to their environments. For
example, an ­animal may grow a heavier coat of fur as
winter approaches, or it may migrate to a warmer cli-
mate. The capacity to make such adjustments is termed
adaptability.
⦁⦁ Growth. Organisms increase in size through the growth
or addition of cells, the simplest units of life. Single-
celled creatures grow by getting larger. More complex
organisms grow primarily by increasing the number of
cells. Familiar organisms, such as dogs, cats, and humans,
are made up of trillions of cells. As such multicellular
> Go to Mastering A&P > Study Area > Menu > Chapter Pre-Test
works under normal and abnormal conditions and how it
maintains an internal state of balance. As we proceed, you
will see how your body deals with injury, disease, or any-
thing that threatens that crucial balance in a changing
environment.
Build Your Knowledge page that will illustrate the integra-
tion of the body system with the other body systems pre-
sented up to that point in the book. Be sure to read every
Build Your Knowledge box or page so that you can build
your knowledge—and confidence!
organisms develop, individual cells become specialized to
perform particular functions. This specialization is called
cellular differentiation.
⦁⦁ Reproduction. Organisms reproduce, creating new
­generations of the same kind of organisms.
⦁⦁ Movement. Organisms exhibit movement. The movement
may be internal (transporting food, blood, or other
materials within the body) or external (moving through
the environment).
⦁⦁ Metabolism. Organisms rely on complex chemical reac-
tions to provide the energy required for responsiveness,
growth, reproduction, and movement. They also build
complex chemicals, such as proteins. Metabolism refers to
all the chemical operations in the body.
For normal metabolic operations, organisms must absorb
materials from the environment. To generate energy efficiently,
most cells require various nutrients they obtain in food, as well
as oxygen, a gas. Respiration refers to the absorption, transport,
and use of oxygen by cells. Metabolic operations often generate
unneeded or potentially harmful waste products that must be
eliminated through the process of excretion.
For very small organisms, absorption, respiration, and
excretion involve the movement of materials across exposed
surfaces. But creatures larger than a few millimeters across
seldom absorb nutrients directly from their environment.
For example, humans cannot absorb steaks, apples, or ice
cream without processing them first. That processing, called

­ igestion, takes place in specialized structures in which com-
d make human life possible. The information will help you to
plex foods are broken down into simpler components that can
be transported and absorbed easily.
Respiration and excretion are also more complicated for
large organisms. Humans have specialized structures for gas
exchange (lungs) and excretion (kidneys). Digestion, respira-
tion, and excretion occur in different parts of the body, but
the cells of the body cannot travel to one place for nutrients,
another for oxygen, and a third to get rid of waste products.
Instead, individual cells remain where they are but communi-
cate with other areas of the body through an internal transport
system—the circulation. For example, the blood absorbs the
waste products released by each of your cells and carries those
wastes to the kidneys for excretion.
Biology includes many subspecialties. In this text we con-
sider two biological subjects: anatomy (ah-NAT-o-mē) and
physiology (fiz-ē-OL-o-jē). Over the course of this book, you
will become familiar with the basic anatomy and physiology
of the human body.
CHECKPOINT
1. How do vital functions such as responsiveness,
growth, reproduction, and movement depend on
metabolism?
See the blue Answers tab at the back of the book.
1-2 Anatomy is structure, and
physiology is function
Learning Outcome Explain the relationship between anatomy and
physiology, and describe various specialties of each discipline.
The word anatomy has Greek origins, as do many other ana-
tomical terms and phrases. Anatomy, which means “a cutting
open,” is the study of internal and external structure and the
physical relationships between body parts. Physiology, also
derived from Greek, is the study of how living organisms carry
out their vital functions. The two subjects are interrelated.
Anatomical details provide clues about probable functions.
Physiological processes can be explained only in terms of their
underlying anatomy.
The link between structure and function is always pres-
ent but not always understood. For example, the anatomy of
the heart was clearly described in the fifteenth century, but
almost 200 years passed before anyone realized that it pumped
blood. This text will familiarize you with basic anatomy and
give you an appreciation of the physiological processes that
Chapter 1 An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology   33
1
understand many diseases to make informed decisions about
your own health.
Anatomy
We can divide anatomy into gross (macroscopic) anatomy
or microscopic anatomy. We do so on the basis of the degree
of structural detail under consideration. Other anatomical
specialties focus on specific processes, such as respiration, or
on medical applications, such as developing artificial limbs.
Gross Anatomy
Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy, considers features
visible with the unaided eye. We can approach gross anatomy
in many ways. Surface anatomy is the study of general form
and superficial markings. Regional anatomy considers all the
superficial and internal features in a specific region of the body,
such as the head, neck, or trunk. Systemic anatomy considers
the structure of major organ systems, which are groups of organs
that work together in a coordinated manner. For example, the
heart, blood, and blood vessels form the cardiovascular system,
which circulates oxygen and nutrients throughout the body.
Microscopic Anatomy
Microscopic anatomy concerns structures that we cannot
see without magnification. The boundaries of microscopic
anatomy are set by the limits of the equipment used. A light
microscope reveals basic details about cell structure, but an
electron microscope can visualize individual molecules only
a few nanometers (nm, 1 millionth of a millimeter) across.
In this text, we will consider details at all levels, from macro-
scopic to microscopic.
We can subdivide microscopic anatomy into specialties
that consider features within a characteristic range of sizes.
­Cytology (sī-TOL-o-jē) analyzes the internal structure of indi-
vidual cells. The trillions of living cells in our bodies are made
up of chemical substances in various combinations. Our lives
depend on the chemical processes taking place in those cells.
For this reason we consider basic chemistry (Chapter 2: The
Chemical Level of Organization) before looking at cell struc-
ture (Chapter 3: Cell Structure and Function).
Histology (his-TOL-o-jē) takes a broader perspective. It
examines tissues, groups of specialized cells and cell products
that work together to carry out specific functions (Chapter 4).
Tissues combine to form organs, such as the heart, kidney, liver,
and brain. We can examine many organs without a microscope,
so at the organ level we cross the boundary into gross anatomy.
 34 F O U N DAT I O N S
1
Physiology
Physiology is the study of function in living organisms.
Human physiology is the study of the functions of the
human body. These functions are complex and much more
difficult to examine than most anatomical structures. As a
result, the science of physiology includes even more specialties
than does the science of anatomy.
The cornerstone of human physiology is cell physiology,
the study of the functions of living cells. Cell physiology
includes events at the chemical or molecular levels—chemi-
cal processes both within cells and between cells. Special
physiology is the study of the physiology of specific organs.
Examples include renal physiology (kidney function) and
cardiac physiology (heart function). Systemic physiology
considers all aspects of the function of specific organ systems.
Respiratory physiology and reproductive physiology are exam-
ples. Pathological physiology, or pathology (pah-THOL-
o-jē), is the study of the effects of diseases on organ or system
functions. (The Greek word pathos means “disease.”) Modern
medicine depends on an understanding of both normal and
pathological physiology, to know not only what has gone
wrong but also how to correct it.
Special topics in physiology address specific functions of
the human body as a whole. These specialties focus on func-
tional relationships among multiple organ systems. Exercise
physiology, for example, studies the physiological adjustments
to exercise.
CHECKPOINT
2. Describe how anatomy and physiology are closely
related.
3. Would a histologist more likely be considered a spe-
cialist in microscopic anatomy or in gross anatomy?
Why?
See the blue Answers tab at the back of the book.
1-3 Levels of organization
progress from atoms and molecules
to a complete organism
Learning Outcome Identify the major levels of organization in organ-
isms, from the simplest to the most complex.
To understand the human body, we must examine how it is
organized at several different levels, from the submicroscopic
to the macroscopic. Spotlight Figure 1-1 presents the rela-
tionships among the various levels of organization, using the
cardiovascular system as an example.
⦁⦁ Chemical level. Atoms, the smallest stable units of m
­ atter,
combine to form molecules with complex shapes. Even
at this simplest level, a molecule’s specialized shape
determines its function. This is the chemical level of
organization.
⦁⦁ Cellular level. Different molecules can interact to form
larger structures. Each type of structure has a specific
function in a cell. For example, different types of protein
filaments interact to produce the contractions of muscle
cells in the heart. Cells, the smallest living units in the
body, make up the cellular level of organization.
⦁⦁ Tissue level. A tissue is composed of similar cells work-
ing together to perform a specific function. Heart muscle
cells form cardiac muscle tissue, an example of the tissue
level of organization.
⦁⦁ Organ level. An organ consists of two or more different
tissues working together to perform specific functions.
An example of the organ level of organization is the heart,
a hollow, three-dimensional organ with walls composed
of layers of cardiac muscle and other tissues.
⦁⦁ Organ system level. Organs interact in organ systems.
Each time it contracts, the heart pushes blood into a
network of blood vessels. Together, the heart, blood, and
blood vessels form the cardiovascular system, an example
of the organ system level of organization.
⦁⦁ Organism level. All the organ systems of the body work
together to maintain life and health. The highest level of
organization is the organism—in this case, a human.
The organization at each level determines both the struc-
tural characteristics and the functions of higher levels. As
Spotlight Figure 1-1 shows, the arrangement of atoms and
molecules at the chemical level creates the protein filaments
that, at the cellular level, give cardiac muscle cells the ability
to contract. At the tissue level, these cells are linked, form-
ing cardiac muscle tissue. The structure of the tissue ensures
that the contractions are coordinated, producing a heart-
beat. When that beat occurs, the internal anatomy of the
heart, an organ, enables it to function as a pump. The heart
is filled with blood and connected to the blood vessels, and
the pumping action circulates blood through the vessels of
the cardiovascular system. Through interactions with the
respiratory, digestive, urinary, and other systems, the car-
diovascular system performs a variety of functions essential
to the survival of the organism.
Something that affects a system will ultimately affect each
of the system’s components. For example, the heart cannot
pump blood effectively after massive blood loss. If the heart
 Figure 1-1
SPOTLIGHT LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

Our understanding of how the human body works is based on investigations of its different
levels of organization. Interacting atoms form molecules that combine to form the protein
filaments of a heart muscle cell. Such cells interlock, creating heart muscle tissue, which
makes up most of the walls of the heart, a three-dimensional organ. The heart is only one
component of the cardiovascular system, which also includes the blood and blood vessels.
The various organ systems must work together to maintain life at the organism level.

Chemical Level
(Chapter 2)

Atoms interact to
form molecules.

Contractile protein Molecules join to form

filaments are complex contractile
structures within a protein filaments.
heart muscle cell.

Cellular Level
(Chapter 3)
Interlocking heart
muscle cells form
cardiac muscle tissue.

Tissue Level
(Chapter 4)
Cardiac muscle
tissue makes up
the bulk of the
walls of the heart.

Organ Level The heart is a

complex organ
composed of
different
tissues.

Organ System Level

(Chapters 5–20)
The cardiovascular
system includes the
heart, blood, and
blood vessels.

Organism Level

All 11 organ systems

must work together for
a person to remain alive
and healthy.

35
 36 F O U N DAT I O N S
1 cannot pump and blood cannot flow, oxygen and nutrients
cannot be distributed. Very soon, the cardiac muscle tissue
begins to break down as its individual muscle cells die from
oxygen and nutrient starvation. These changes will also take
place beyond the cardiovascular system: cells, tissues, and
organs throughout the body will be damaged.
CHECKPOINT
4. Identify the major levels of organization of the human
body from the simplest to the most complex.
See the blue Answers tab at the back of the book.
1-4 The human body consists
of 11 organ systems
Learning Outcome Identify the 11 organ systems of the human body
and contrast their major functions.
Figure 1-2 introduces the 11 organ systems in the human body
and their major functions and components. The body’s organ
systems are (1) the integumentary system, (2) the skeletal sys-
tem, (3) the muscular system, (4) the nervous system, (5) the
endocrine system, (6) the cardiovascular system, (7) the lym-
phatic system, (8) the respiratory system, (9) the digestive sys-
tem, (10) the urinary system, and (11) the reproductive system.
CHECKPOINT
5. Identify the organ systems of the body and list their
major functions.
6. Which organ system includes the pituitary gland
and directs long-term changes in the activities of the
body’s other systems?
See the blue Answers tab at the back of the book.
1-5 Homeostasis is the state
of internal balance
Learning Outcome Explain the concept of homeostasis.
Organ systems are interdependent, interconnected, and take
up a relatively small space. The cells, tissues, organs, and organ
systems of the body function together in a shared environ-
ment. Just as the people in a large city breathe the same air
and drink water from the local water company, the cells in
the human body absorb oxygen and nutrients from the body
fluids that surround them. All living cells are in contact with
blood or some other body fluid. Any change in the compo-
sition of these fluids will affect the cells in some way. For
> Go to Mastering A&P > Study Area > Menu > Chapter Quizzes > Section 1-4
example, changes in the temperature or salt content of the
blood could cause anything from a minor adjustment (heart
muscle tissue contracts more often, and the heart rate goes up)
to a total disaster (the heart stops beating altogether).
Various physiological responses act to prevent potentially
dangerous changes in the environment inside the body.
Homeostasis (hō-mē-ō-STĀ-sis; homeo, unchanging + stasis,
standing) refers to a stable internal environment. To survive,
every living organism must maintain homeostasis. The term
homeostatic regulation refers to the adjustments in physi-
ological systems that preserve homeostasis.
Homeostatic regulation usually involves
1. a receptor that is sensitive to a particular ­environmental
change or stimulus;
2. a control center, or integration center, which receives
and processes information from the receptor; and
3. an effector, a cell or organ that responds to the
­commands of the control center and whose activity
opposes or enhances the stimulus.
You are probably already familiar with several examples of
homeostatic regulation, although not in those terms. As an
example, think about the operation of the thermostat in a
house or apartment (Figure 1-3).
CLINICAL NOTE
Homeostasis and Disease
The human body is amazingly effective in maintaining
homeostasis. Nevertheless, an infection, an injury, or a
genetic abnormality can sometimes have effects so severe
that homeostatic responses can’t fully compensate for them.
One or more characteristics of the internal environment may
then be pushed outside normal limits. When this happens,
organ systems begin to malfunction, producing a state we
know as illness or disease.
An understanding of normal homeostatic responses usu-
ally aids in thinking about what might be responsible for the
signs and symptoms that are characteristic of many diseases.
Symptoms are subjective—things that a person experiences
and describes but that aren’t otherwise detectable or mea-
surable. Pain, nausea, and anxiety are examples. A sign, by
contrast, is an objectively observable or measurable physical
indication of a disease. Examples are a rash, a swelling, a fever,
or sounds of abnormal breathing. Technology can reveal many
additional signs that would not be evident to a physician’s
unaided senses: an unusual shape on an x-ray or MRI scan or
an elevated concentration of a particular chemical in a blood
test. We describe many aspects of human health, disease, and
treatment in this textbook.
 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology   37

Figure 1-2 The Organ Systems of the Human Body.

1

The Integumentary System The Skeletal System

•
Protects against Provides support; protects tissues; stores
environmental hazards; Hair minerals; forms blood cells
helps control body AXIAL APPENDICULAR
temperature; provides SKELETON Skull SKELETON
sensory information
Skin Supporting bones
(scapula and clavicle)
Sternum
Ribs Upper limb
bones

Vertebrae

Sacrum

Pelvis (supporting
Nails
bones plus sacrum)

Lower limb
bones

The Muscular System The Nervous System

• •
Provides movement;
provides protection
and support for other
tissues; produces heat
Axial
muscles
Directs immediate responses CENTRAL NERVOUS
to stimuli, usually by SYSTEM
coordinating the activities
Brain
of other organ systems;
provides and interprets Spinal cord
sensory information
about internal and
external conditions
Appendicular
muscles

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS
Tendons
SYSTEM

Peripheral
nerves
 38 F O U N DAT I O N S

1 Figure 1-2 The Organ Systems of the Human Body. (continued)

The Endocrine System The Cardiovascular System

• •
Directs long-term Transports cells and
changes in activities of Pineal gland dissolved materials,
other organ systems Pituitary gland including nutrients,
wastes, oxygen, and
Parathyroid gland Thyroid gland carbon dioxide
Thymus

Heart
Pancreas
Adrenal gland
Capillaries
Artery
Vein

Ovary in Testis in male

female

The Lymphatic System The Respiratory System

• •
Defends against Delivers air to sites in the
infection and disease; lungs where gas exchange
returns tissue fluids to Nasal cavity
occurs between the air
the bloodstream and bloodstream; Sinus
produces sound for Pharynx
communication Larynx
Trachea
Thymus Lymph nodes
Lung Bronchi

Diaphragm
Spleen

Lymphatic vessel
 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology   39

The Digestive System The Urinary System

• •
Processes food and Excretes waste products
absorbs nutrients from the blood; controls
water balance by
Salivary gland regulating the volume
Pharynx Mouth, teeth, and tongue of urine produced
Esophagus

Liver
Gallbladder
Stomach Kidney
Pancreas
Ureter
Small intestine Large intestine Urinary
bladder

Urethra
Anus

The Male Reproductive System The Female Reproductive System

• •
Produces male sex Produces female sex cells
cells (sperm) and (oocytes, or immature
hormones eggs) and hormones;
supports embryonic and
fetal development from
fertilization to birth

Prostate Mammary
gland
Seminal gland

Ductus deferens Uterine

tube
Ovary
Urethra
Uterus

Vagina
Epididymis
External
Testis genitalia
Penis
Scrotum
 40 F O U N DAT I O N S

1 Figure 1-3 The Control of Room Temperature. In response to input from a receptor (a thermometer),
a thermostat (the control center) triggers a response from an effector (in this case, an air conditioner) that
restores normal temperature. When room temperature rises above the set point, the thermostat turns on
the air conditioner, and the temperature returns to normal.

Control Center:

rmostat
The

Information affects Sends commands to

o
22 C
Receptor Effector

Thermometer Air conditioner

Homeostasis Homeostasis
DISTURBED BY RESTORED BY

INCREASING DECREASING
STIMULUS RESTORED
room room

HOMEOSTASIS
temperature temperature

NORMAL ROOM TEMPERATURE

The thermostat is a control center that monitors room tem-

perature. The thermostat shows the set point, the “ideal” room
temperature—in this example, 22°C (about 72°F). The function
of the thermostat is to keep room temperature within accept-
able limits, usually within a degree or so of the set point. The
thermostat receives information from a receptor, a thermom-
eter exposed to air in the room, and it controls one of two effec-
tors: a heater or an air conditioner. In the summer, for example,
a rise in temperature above the set point causes the thermo-
stat to turn on the air conditioner, which then cools the room
(Figure 1-3). When the temperature at the thermometer returns
to the set point, the thermostat turns off the air conditioner.
We can summarize the essential feature of temperature
control by a thermostat very simply: A variation outside the
desired range triggers an automatic response that corrects the
situation. This method of homeostatic regulation is called
negative feedback, because an effector activated by the control
center opposes, or negates, the original stimulus.
CHECKPOINT
7. Define homeostasis.
8. Why is homeostatic regulation important to an organism?
9. What happens to the body when homeostasis breaks
down?
See the blue Answers tab at the back of the book.
1-6 Negative feedback opposes
variations from normal, whereas positive
feedback exaggerates them
Learning Outcome Describe how negative feedback and positive feed-
back are involved in homeostatic regulation.
Homeostatic regulation controls aspects of the internal envi-
ronment that affect every cell in the body. Most commonly,
such regulation uses negative feedback. Positive feedback is
less frequent because it tends to produce extreme responses.
Negative Feedback
The essential feature of negative feedback is this: Regardless
of whether the stimulus (such as temperature) rises or falls at
the receptor, a variation outside normal limits triggers an auto-
matic response that corrects the situation.
Most homeostatic responses in the body involve negative
feedback. For example, consider the control of body tempera-
ture, a process called thermoregulation (Figure 1-4). Thermo-
regulation involves altering the relationship between heat
loss, which takes place primarily at the body surface, and heat
production, which occurs in all active tissues. In the human
body, skeletal muscles are the most important generators of
body heat.

> Go to Mastering A&P > Study Area > Menu > MP3 Tutor Session > Homeostasis
 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology   41

Figure 1-4 Negative Feedback: Control of Body Temperature. In negative feedback, a stimulus
1
produces a response that opposes the original stimulus. Body temperature is regulated by a control
center in the brain that functions as a thermostat with a set point of 37°C.

Control Center

Effectors
Information Sends Blood vessels and
affects commands to sweat glands in skin

Respond with

Receptors
Increased blood
Body’s flow to skin
temperature
Homeostasis sensors Thermoregulatory Increased sweating Homeostasis
DISTURBED BY center in brain RESTORED BY

INCREASING DECREASING
STIMULUS RESTORED
body temperature body
above 37.2ºC temperature

HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis NORMAL BODY TEMPERATURE Homeostasis
DISTURBED BY RESTORED BY
STIMULUS RESTORED INCREASING
DECREASING

body temperature Thermoregulatory body

below 36.7ºC Receptors center in brain Decreased blood temperature
flow to skin
Body’s
temperature Control Center
Decreased sweating
sensors
Shivering

Respond with
Information Sends Effectors
affects commands to
Blood vessels and
sweat glands in skin

Skeletal muscles

The thermoregulatory control center is located in the brain.
This control center receives information from temperature
receptors located in the skin and in cells in the control center.
At the normal set point, body temperature is approximately
37°C (98.6°F).
If body temperature rises above 37.2°C (99°F), activity in
the control center targets two effectors: (1) smooth muscles
in the walls of blood vessels supplying the skin and (2) sweat
glands. The muscle tissue relaxes and the blood vessels widen,
or dilate, increasing blood flow at the body surface. The sweat
glands accelerate, or speed up, their secretion. The skin then
acts like a radiator, losing heat to the environment, and the
evaporation of sweat speeds the process. When body tempera-
ture returns to normal, the control center becomes inactive.
Superficial blood flow and sweat gland activity then decrease
to normal resting levels.
If temperature at the control center falls below 36.7°C
(98°F), the control center targets the same two effectors
and ­s keletal muscles. This time, blood flow to the skin
declines, and sweat gland activity decreases. This combination
 42 F O U N DAT I O N S

1 reduces the rate of heat loss to the environment. However,
body temperature gradually rises because skeletal muscles con-
tinue to produce heat. (Additional heat may be generated by
shivering, which is caused by random contractions of skeletal
muscles.) Once the body has warmed to the set point, the
thermoregulatory center turns itself “off.” Both blood flow
and sweat gland activity in the skin then increase to normal
resting levels.
Homeostatic responses using negative feedback maintain a
normal range, not a fixed value. In the previous example, body
temperature oscillates around the ideal set-point temperature.
Thus, for any single individual, any measured value (such as
body temperature) can vary from moment to moment or day
to day. The variability among individuals is even greater, for
each person has a slightly different homeostatic set point. It is,
therefore, impractical to define “normal” homeostatic condi-
tions very precisely.
By convention, physiological values are reported either
as average values obtained by sampling a large number of
individuals or as a range that includes 95 percent or more
of the sample population. For example, for 95 percent of
healthy adults, body temperature ranges between 36.7°C
and 37.2°C (98°F and 99°F). The other 5 percent of healthy
adults have resting body temperatures outside the “normal”
range (below 36.7°C or above 37.2°C). Still, these temperatures
are perfectly normal for them, and the variations have no
clinical significance.
Positive Feedback
In positive feedback, an initial stimulus produces a response that
reinforces that stimulus. For example, suppose a thermostat were
wired so that when the temperature rose, the thermostat would
turn on the heater rather than the air conditioner. In that case,
the initial stimulus (rising room temperature) would cause a
response (heater turns on) that strengthens the stimulus. Room
temperature would continue to rise until someone switched off
the thermostat, unplugged the heater, or intervened in some
other way before the house caught fire and burned down. This
kind of escalating cycle is called a positive feedback loop.
In the body, positive feedback loops are involved in the
­regulation of a potentially dangerous or stressful process
that must be completed quickly. For example, the immediate
danger from a severe cut is blood loss, which can lower blood
pressure and reduce the pumping efficiency of the heart. The
positive feedback loop involved in the body’s clotting response
to blood loss is diagrammed in Figure 1-5. (We will examine
blood clotting more closely in Chapter 11.) Labor and deliv-
ery (discussed in Chapter 20) is another example of positive
feedback in action.

Figure 1-5 Positive Feedback. In positive feedback, a stimulus produces a response that reinforces
the original stimulus. Positive feedback is important in accelerating processes that must proceed to
­completion rapidly. In this example, positive feedback accelerates blood clotting until bleeding stops.

Clotting
accelerates

Positive
feedback
loop

Chemicals Blood clot

Chemicals

Damage to cells in the blood
vessel wall releases
chemicals that begin the
process of blood clotting.
The chemicals start chain
reactions in which cells,
cell fragments, and dissolved
proteins in the blood begin to
form a clot.
As clotting continues, each
step releases chemicals that
further accelerate the
process.
This escalating process
is a positive feedback
loop that ends with the
formation of a blood clot,
which patches the vessel
wall and stops the bleeding.

> Go to Mastering A&P > Study Area > Menu > Chapter Quizzes > Section 1-6

CHECKPOINT
10. Explain the function of negative feedback systems.
11. Why is positive feedback helpful in blood clotting but
unsuitable for the regulation of body temperature, as
with a fever?
See the blue Answers tab at the back of the book.
1-7 Anatomical terms describe body
regions, anatomical positions and
directions, and body sections
Learning Outcome Use anatomical terms to describe body regions,
body sections, and relative positions.
Early anatomists faced serious communication problems. For
example, stating that a bump is “on the back” does not give
very precise information about its location. So anatomists
created maps of the human body. Prominent anatomical
structures serve as landmarks, distances are measured (in cen-
timeters or inches), and specialized directional terms are used.
In effect, anatomy uses a language of its own, called medical ter-
minology, that you must learn almost at the start of your study.
Anatomical terms are easier to understand if you are famil-
iar with Latin and Greek word roots and their combinations.
As new terms are introduced in the text, we will provide notes
on their pronunciation and the relevant word roots. Look
inside the back cover for additional information on foreign
word roots, prefixes, suffixes, and combining forms.
Latin and Greek terms are not the only foreign words
imported into the anatomical vocabulary over the centuries,
and the vocabulary continues to expand. Many anatomical
structures and clinical conditions were first named after either
the discoverer or, in the case of diseases, the most famous vic-
tim. Most such commemorative names, or eponyms, have been
replaced by more precise terms, but many are still in use.
Surface Anatomy
With the exception of the skin, none of the organ systems can
be seen from the body surface. For this reason, you must create
your own mental maps, basing your information on the terms
given in Figures 1-6 and 1-7. Learning these terms now will
make material in subsequent chapters easier to understand.
Anatomical Landmarks
Standard anatomical illustrations show the human form in the
anatomical position. When the body is in this position,
the hands are at the sides with the palms facing forward, and
the feet are together (Figure 1-6). A person lying down in the
Chapter 1 An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology   43
1
anatomical position is said to be supine (soo-PĪN) when face
up and prone when face down.
Important anatomical landmarks are also presented in
Figure 1-6. The anatomical terms are in boldface, the com-
mon names in plain type, and the anatomical adjectives in
parentheses. Understanding these terms and their origins will
help you remember both the location of a particular structure
and its name. For example, the term brachium refers to the
arm. Later chapters will discuss the brachialis muscle and the
brachial artery, which are in the arm, as their names suggest.
Anatomical Regions
Major regions of the body, such as the brachial region, are referred
to by their anatomical adjectives, as shown in Figure 1-6.
To describe a general area of interest or injury, anatomists and
clinicians often need to use broader terms in addition to specific
landmarks. Two methods are used to map the surface of the
abdomen and pelvis.
Clinicians refer to four abdominopelvic quadrants formed
by a pair of imaginary perpendicular lines that intersect at the
umbilicus (navel). This simple method, shown in Figure 1-7a,
is useful for describing the location of aches, pains, and inju-
ries, which can help a doctor determine the possible cause.
For example, tenderness in the right lower quadrant (RLQ)
is a symptom of appendicitis. Tenderness in the right upper
quadrant (RUQ) may indicate gallbladder or liver problems.
Anatomists like to use more precise regional terms to
describe the location and orientation of internal organs.
They recognize nine abdominopelvic regions (Figure 1-7b).
Figure 1-7c shows the relationships among quadrants, regions,
and internal organs.
Anatomical Directions
Figure 1-8 presents the principal directional terms and some
examples of their use. There are many different terms, and
some can be used interchangeably. For example, anterior refers
to the front of the body, when viewed in the anatomical posi-
tion. In humans, this term is equivalent to ventral, which refers
to the belly. Likewise, the terms posterior and dorsal refer to the
back of the human body. Remember that left and right always
refer to the left and right sides of the subject, not of the observer.
Sectional Anatomy
Sometimes the only way to understand the relationships
among the parts of a three-dimensional object is to slice
through it and look at the internal organization. An under-
standing of sectional views is particularly important now that
imaging techniques enable us to see inside the living body
Another random document with
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— Voi, o Rosa.
Rosa scosse la testa: e si rifece silenzio.
— Finalmente, continuò Cornelio, rompendo il silenzio, tutto si
cangia nella natura; ai fiori di primavera succedono altri fiori, e
vedonsi le api che carezzano teneramente le mammolette e le
garofanate, posarsi col medesimo amore sul caprifoglio, le rose, i
gelsomini, i crisantemi e il giranio.
— Che vuol dir ciò? dimandò Rosa.
— Ciò vuol dire, mia signorina, che voi avete dapprima amato
sentire il racconto delle mie gioie e delle mie angoscie; avete
carezzato il fiore della nostra reciproca giovinezza: ma la mia si è
appassita all’ombra. Il giardino delle speranze e dei piaceri di un
prigioniero non ha che una stagione; chè non è come i bei giardini
all’aria aperta ed al sole. Una volta la messe fatta, una volta la preda
presa, le api come voi, o Rosa, le api dal corpo delicato, dai
pennoncelli d’oro, dalle ali trasparenti, attraversano i cancellati,
fuggono il freddo, la solitudine e la tristezza per andare a trovare
altrove i profumi e le tepide esalazioni.... la contentezza, infine!
Rosa guardava Cornelio con un sorriso, che egli non vedeva; perchè
avea gli occhi verso il cielo.
Egli continuò con un sospiro.
— Mi avete abbandonato, o Rosa, per avere le vostre quattro
stagioni di piacere. Avete fatto bene, non me ne lagno; qual diritto
aveva io di esigere la vostra fedeltà?
— La mia fedeltà? esclamò Rosa tutta piangente e senza la pena
più a lungo di nascondere a Cornelio la rugiada di perle che le
scorrevano sulle guance; la mia fedeltà! che non vi sono stata
fedele, io?
— Ahimè! si chiama essermi fedele, esclamò Cornelio, e poi
abbandonarmi e lasciarmi qui morire?
— Ma, signor Cornelio, disse Rosa, non faccio tutto quello che
possa farvi piacere? Non mi occupo io del vostro tulipano?
— La sola gioia ch’io mi abbia provata al mondo senza che sia stata
intorbidita dall’amarezza. Voi me la rimproverate, o Rosa!
— Non vi rimprovero nient’altro, signor Cornelio, se non l’affanno
profondo che io provo dal giorno che mi si venne a dire al Buitenhof,
che voi andavate ad essere giustiziato.
— Vi dispiace, o Rosa, mia cara Rosa, vi dispiace dunque che io ami
i fiori.
— Non mi dispiace che voi li amiate, signor Cornelio, ma mi attrista
bensì che li amiate a preferenza di me.
— Ah! cara, carissima creatura, esclamò Cornelio; guardate come
tremano le mie mani, come la mia fronte è pallida; ascoltate,
ascoltate come batte forte il mio cuore. Ebbene non è mica perchè
mi sorrida e mi appelli il mio tulipano nero: è perchè voi mi sorridete,
è perchè voi piegate verso di me la vostra fronte, è perchè, — e io
so se l’è vero, — perchè, quantunque le fuggano, le vostre mani
aspirano alle mie, è perchè io sento il calore delle vostre guancie
dietro la fredda graticola di ferro. Rosa, mio amore, spezzate il tallo
del tulipano nero, distruggete la speranza di questo fiore, spengete
la dolce luce del casto e delizioso sogno che ogni giorno
abitualmente io faceva; sia pure! i fiori dalle ricche spoglie, dalle
grazie eleganti, dai capricci divini, sì toglietemeli tutti, o fiore geloso
degli altri fiori, sì toglietemeli tutti, ma non mi togliete la vostra voce,
il vostro gesto, lo strepito de’ passi vostri su per la trista scala; deh!
non mi togliete il fuoco degli occhi vostri per lo scuro corridoio, la
certezza del vostro amore che perpetuamente carezzerà questo mio
cuore. Amatemi o Rosa, perchè io non posso amare che voi.
— Dopo il tulipano nero! sospirò la giovanctta, le cui mani calduccie
e carezzevoli passate alla fine a traverso alle sbarrette di ferro erano
sotto le labbra di Cornelio.
— Prima di tutto, o Rosa....
— Che vi debbo credere?
— Come credete in Dio.
— Sia, ma ciò non vi obbliga ad amarmi molto?
— Troppo poco, pel volere, mia cara Rosa, ma obbliga pur voi.
— Me? dimandò Rosa; e mi obbliga a che?
— A non potervi maritare prima di tutto.
Ella sorrise dicendo:
— Ah! ecco come siete tiranni voialtri. Voi adorate una bella: non
pensate che a lei, non sognate che lei; siete condannato a morte:
andando al patibolo le consacrate il vostro estremo sospiro, ed
esigete da me povera meschina il sacrifizio de’ miei sogni, della mia
ambizione.
— Ma di qual bella mi parlate voi, o Rosa? disse Cornelio cercando,
ma inutilmente, nelle sue rimembranze una donna alla quale Rosa
potesse fare allusione.
— Della bella nera, signore, della bella nera dalla forma svelta, dal
piè sottile, dalla testa dignitosa. Parlo del vostro fiore, non mi capite?
Cornelio sorrise.
— Bella immaginaria, mia buona Rosa, mentre voi, senza contare il
vostro amoroso Giacobbe, o per dir meglio, il mio, voi siete attorniata
di partiti, che vi fanno la corte. Rammentatevi, o Rosa, ciò che mi
avete detto degli studenti, degli officiali, dei commessi dell’Aya?
Ebbene! a Loevestein non sonvi commessi, officiali, studenti?
— Oh! ve ne sono, e come! disse Rosa.
— Che scrivono?
— Sicuro.
— E ora che sapete leggere....
E mandò un sospiro, pensando, che Rosa doveva a lui, povero
prigioniero, il privilegio di saper leggere i bigliettini amorosi, che ella
riceverebbe.
— Ma, signor Cornelio, mi pare, disse Rosa, che leggendo i
bigliettini, che mi sono scritti, e adocchiando li zerbini, che mi fanno
la ronda, io non faccia che seguire le vostre istruzioni.
— Come le mie istruzioni?
— Già, le vostre istruzioni! Fate lo scordato, continuò Rosa,
sospirando la sua volta, fate voi lo scordato del testamento scritto da
voi sulla Bibbia del signor Cornelio de Witt? Non me ne scordo mica
io; perchè ora che so leggere, lo rileggo tutti i giorni, e non una, ma
spesso due volte. Ebbene! In quel testamento voi mi ordinate di
amare e di sposare un bel giovine da ventisei ai ventotto anni. Io lo
cerco questo giovine; e siccome tutta la giornata la consacro al
vostro tulipano, bisogna bene che mi lasciate la sera per trovarlo.
— Ah! Rosa, il testamento è fatto nella previsione della mia morte, e
grazie al cielo io sono vivo.
— Ebbene! dunque non cercherò più il ben giovine dai ventisei ai
ventotto anni, e verrò a veder voi.
— Brava, Rosa! sì, sì; venite!
— Ma a una condizione.
— L’ho già accettata!
— Che per tre giorni non si parli del tulipano nero.
— Non se ne parli più, se così vi piace.
— Oh! disse la giovanetta, non bisogna mai chieder l’impossibile.
E come per sbadataggine ella appressò la sua fresca guancia così
presso alla graticola, che Cornelio la potè sfiorare con le labbra.
Rosa diè uno strillo sommesso mandato dal cuore, e ratto disparve.
 V
Il secondo tallo.

La notte fu buona, e la giornata del domani fu ancora migliore.

I giorni precedenti la prigione erasi fatta squallida, scura, bassa
bassa; gravava di tutto il suo peso sul povero prigioniero. I suoi muri
erano neri, la sua aria fredda, le spranghe così raffittite da lasciarvi
appena penetrare il giorno.
Ma quando Cornelio risvegliossi, un raggio di sole mattinale
strisciava sulla ferrata; alcuni piccioni fendevano l’aria con le loro ali
stese, mentre altri coccolavano amorosi sul tetto vicino alla finestra
ancora chiusa.
Cornelio corse alla finestra e l’aperse; parvegli che la vita, la gioia e
quasi la libertà entrassero con i raggi del sole nell’oscura sua stanza.
Fioriavi l’amore e con lui fioriva attorno al prigioniero ogni cosa:
l’amore, fiore celeste ben’altrimenti profumato di tutti i fiori terreni.
Quando Grifo entrò nella stanza di Van Baerle invece di trovarlo
mesto e coricato come gli altri giorni, trovollo alzato, e cantante
un’arietta di un’opera.
— Ohè! fece Grifo.
— Stamani come va? disse Cornelio.
Grifo lo guardò in cagnesco.
— Il cane, il signor Giacobbe, la nostra bella Rosa, stanno tutti
bene?
Grifo digrignò i denti e tagliò corto, rispondendo:
— Eccovi la vostra colezione.
— Grazie, amico Cerbero; viene a tempo, che ho una gran fame.
— Ah! voi avete fame? disse Grifo.
— Toh! perchè no? domandò Van Baerle.
— Pare che la cospirazione cammini, disse Grifo.
— Qual cospirazione? dimandò Cornelio.
— Buono! so quello che mi dico, ma staremo con tanti d’occhi,
signor sapiente; state tranquillo: sì con tanti d’occhi.
— Così va fatto amico Grifo! così va fatto! La mia cospirazione come
pure la mia persona è ai vostri comandi.
— Si vedrà a mezzogiorno, disse Grifo, e escì.
— A mezzogiorno, ripetè Cornelio, che cosa vuol dire? Via,
aspettiamo mezzogiorno e vedremo.
Gli era facile aspettare mezzogiorno: aspettava le nove ore.
Battè mezzogiorno, e s’intese per le scale non solamente il passo di
Grifo, ma il passo di tre o quattro soldati che salivano con lui.
Si aprì la porta, Grifo entrò introducendo gli uomini, e chiuse l’uscio
dietro a loro.
— Via! ora perquisiamo.
Fu cercato nelle tasche di Cornelio, tra l’abito e la sua sottoveste, tra
la sottoveste e la camicia, tra la camicia e la carne: non fu trovato
niente.
Fu cercato dentro le lenzuola, dentro le materasse, dentro il
saccone: non fu trovato niente.
Quanto allora felicitossi Cornelio per non avere accettato il terzo
tallo. Grifo in questa perquisizione avrebbelo certo trovato per ben
nascosto che fosse stato, e lo avrebbe trattato come il primo.
Del resto mai prigioniero assistette di un viso più sereno a una
perquisizione fatta nella sua stanza.
Grifo si ritirò coll’apis e i tre o quattro fogli di carta bianca che Rosa
aveva dato a Cornelio; ciò fu il solo trionfo della spedizione.
Alle sei Grifo tornò ma solo; Cornelio volevalo addolcire; ma Grifo
brontolò, serrandosi con le due dita le labbra, ed escì all’indietro
come un uomo che abbia paura di essere aggredito.
Cornelio diede in uno scroscio di riso; per cui Grifo che ne
conosceva il perchè, gli gridò attraverso la graticola:
— Bene! bene! ben ride, chi ultimo ride.
Chi doveva ridere l’ultimo, in quella sera almeno, era Cornelio,
perchè aspettava Rosa.
Rosa venne alle nove, ma venne senza lanterna: non avea più
bisogno di lume, chè sapea già leggere. E poi il lume poteva tradire
Rosa viepiù spioneggiata da Giacobbe. E poi al fin dei conti
vedevasi troppo il rossore di Rosa, quand’ella arrossiva.
Di che parlarono i due giovani quella sera? Di quelle cose di cui
parlano in Francia sulla soglia di una porta tutti gl’innamorati, da una
parte all’altra del balcone in Ispagna, dall’alto al basso di un
terrazzino in Oriente.
Parlarono di cose che mettono le ali ai piedi alle ore, e aggiungon
penne al tempo.
Di tutto parlarono fuorchè del tulipano nero.
Poi alle dieci come il solito si lasciarono.
Cornelio era felice e così pienamente felice quanto può esserlo un
tulipaniere cui non siasi punto parlato del suo tulipano.
Ei trovava Rosa graziosa come senza paragone: la trovava buona,
leggiadra, avvenente.
Ma perchè Rosa proibiva che si parlasse del tulipano?
L’era un capriccetto di Rosa. E Cornelio diceva dentro di sè
sospirando, che la femmina non è perfetta.
Una parte della notte meditò su questa imperfezione; che è quanto
dire che, finchè fu sveglio, pensò sempre a Rosa.
Una volta addormentato, la sognò. Ma la Rosa dei sogni era ben
altrimenti più perfetta della Rosa reale. Non solamente quella
parlava del tulipano, ma di più portava a Cornelio un magnifico
tulipano nero piantato in un vaso della China.
Cornelio svegliossi con un brivido universale di gioia, e mormorò:
— Rosa, Rosa, io ti amo.
E siccome facevasi giorno, Cornelio non giudicò a proposito di
riaddormentarsi. Restò dunque tutta la giornata fisso nella idea che
gli era rimasta svegliandosi.
Ah! se Rosa avesse parlato del tulipano, Cornelio avrebbela preferita
alla regina Semiramide, alla regina Cleopatra, alla regina Elisabetta,
alla regina Anna d’Austria, che è quanto dire alle più grandi e alle più
belle regine del mondo.
Ma Rosa avea proibito sotto pena di non tornar più, avea proibito
che per tre giorni non si parlasse di tulipani.
Erano settantadue ore concesse all’amante, è vero; ma erano
settantadue ore minimate alla orticultura. È vero però che su queste
settantadue ore già trentasei erano passate; e le altre trentasei
passerebbero ben sollecite, diciotto aspettando, e diciotto
ricordando.
Rosa tornò alla medesima ora: Cornelio sopportò eroicamente la sua
penitenza. Questo Cornelio gli era un degnissimo pitagorico, e
purchè fossegli permesso di avere una sola volta per giorno novelle
del suo tulipano, sarebbe rimasto anche cinque anni senza parlare
d’altro, secondo lo statuto dell’ordine.
Del resto la bella visitatrice capiva bene che quando si comanda da
una parte, bisogna cedere dall’altra. Rosa lasciava prendere le sue
dita dalla graticola; e lasciava che Cornelio baciasse a traverso della
ferratella, le sue ciocche di capelli.
Povera ragazza! tutti questi vezzi amorosi le erano ben più dannosi
che di parlare del tulipano.
Ella ben lo comprese tornando nella sua stanza col cuore palpitante,
le guancie ardenti, le labbra arse, gli occhi rugiadosi.
Il dimani sera poi dopo scambiate le prime parole, dopo le prime
carezze fatte, Rosa guardò Cornelio attraverso la graticola, al buio,
con quello sguardo che sente anche quando non vede.
— Ebbene! ella disse, ha buttato!
— Ha buttato! che? che? domandò Cornelio, non osando credere
che Rosa da sè abrogasse la durata della sua prova.
— Il tulipano, disse Rosa.
— Come, esclamò Cornelio, voi dunque permettete?....
— Eh! sì, disse Rosa di un tuono di tenera madre che permetta a
suo figlio una contentezza.
— Ah! Rosa! esclamò Cornelio, sporgendo le sue labbra, attraverso
le sbarrette di ferro, nella speranza di toccare una guancia, una
mano, la fronte, qualche cosa insomma; ma meglio di queste, toccò
due labbra semiaperte.
Rosa gettò un piccolo strillo. Cornelio si accorse che bisognava
affrettarsi a proseguire la conversazione, perchè il suo inatteso
contatto aveva spaventato fortemente Rosa.
— Buttato ben diritto? egli dimandò.
— Diritto come un fuso di Frigia, disse Rosa.
— È ben’alto?
— Due pollici almeno.
— Oh! Rosa, abbiatene ben cura, e vedrete come crescerà presto.
— Posso averne più cura? disse Rosa. Non penso che a lui.
— Che a lui, o Rosa? Guardate che ora sono geloso io.
— Eh! voi sapete bene che pensando a lui è lo stesso che pensare a
voi. Non lo perdo mai di vista; lo vedo da letto; mi sveglio, ed è il
primo oggetto che miro; mi addormento, è l’ultimo oggetto che perdo
di vista. Il giorno seggo e lavoro vicino a lui; chè dal momento che è
in camera mia, non lascio più la mia stanza.
— Avete ragione, o Rosa: è la vostra dote, lo sapete.
— Sì, e mercè sua potrò sposare un giovine di ventisette o ventotto
anni, che io amerò.
— Zitta, cattivella.
E Cornelio potè prendere le dita della giovanetta, il che se non fece
cambiar di conversazione, fece almeno succedere il silenzio al
dialogo.
Quella sera Cornelio fu il più felice dei mortali. Rosa lasciogli la sua
mano per quanto egli volle, e lasciollo parlare a suo piacere del
tulipano.
A partire da questo momento ciascun giorno apportava un progresso
nel tulipano e nell’amore dei due giovani. Una volta eransi aperte le
foglie, un’altra erasi sbocciato il fiore.
A questa nuova la gioia di Cornelio fu grande, e le sue dimande
succedevansi con una rapidità che testimoniavano la loro
importanza.
— Sbocciato! esclamò Cornelio, sbocciato?
— È sbocciato, ripete Rosa.
Cornelio si sentì mancare dalla gioia, e fu costretto ad attenersi alla
ferriata.
— Ah! Dio mio! esclamò.
Poi rivolgendosi a Rosa:
— L’ovale è regolare? il cilindro è pieno? le punte sono ben verdi?
— L’ovale è quasi un pollice e si appunta come un ago; il cilindro
gonfia i suoi fianchi, e le punte sono pronte a screpolare.
Questa notte Cornelio potè dormir poco: l’era un momento supremo
quello della screpolatura delle punte.
Due giorni dopo Rosa annunziò che erano screpolate.
— Screpolate, o Rosa! esclamò Cornelio; l’involucro è screpolato!
Ma dunque allora si vede, si può distinguere già?....
E il prigioniero arrestossi affannoso.
— Sì, rispose Rosa, sì, può distinguersi una strisciolina di differente
colore, sottile come un capello.
— E il colore? insistè Cornelio tremando.
— Ah! rispose Rosa, l’è ben cupo.
— Bruno?
— Oh! più cupo.
— Più cupo, mia buona Rosa, più cupo! oh! grazie. Cupo come
l’ebano, cupo come....
— Cupo come l’inchiostro col quale vi ho scritto.
Cornelio gettò un grido di stolta gioia. Poi arrestandosi ad un tratto,
disse a mani giunte:
— Oh! Rosa, non vi può essere angiolo da compararsi a voi.
— Veramente? disse Rosa sorridendo a tale esaltazione.
— O Rosa, voi avete fatto tanto; o Rosa, vi siete tanto adoperata per
me; o Rosa, il mio tulipano va a fiorire, e fiorisce nero! Rosa, Rosa,
Dio non ha creato sulla terra cosa più perfetta di voi.
— Dopo il tulipano però?
— Chetatevi, cattivella; chetatevi! Per pietà non turbate la mia gioia!
Ma ditemi, Rosa, credete che tra due o tre giorni al più tardi il
tulipano vada a fiorire?
— Dimani o posdomani, dicerto.
— Ah! e io non lo vedrò, esclamò Cornelio rovesciandosi indietro,
non lo bacerò come una meraviglia di Dio che deve adorarsi, come
bacio le vostre mani, o Rosa, come bacio i vostri capelli, come bacio
le vostre guancie, quando per caso trovansi a contatto della
graticola.
Rosa avvicinò la sua guancia non per caso, ma volontariamente; le
avide labbra del giovine vi si affissero.
— Madonna! esclamò Rosa, ve lo porterò, se volete.
— Ah! no, no! Appenachè sarà aperto, guardatelo bene all’ombra; e
sull’istante, vedete, sull’istante spedite a Harlem a prevenire il
presidente della società di orticultura, che il gran tulipano nero è
fiorito. Lo so bene, Harlem è lontano, ma coi quattrini troverete un
espresso. Ne avete o Rosa?
Rosa sorrise, rispondendo:
— Oh! sì!
— Un buon pochi? dimandò Cornelio.
— Trecento fiorini.
— Oh! se avete trecento fiorini, non un espresso, ma voi stessa
dovete andare a Harlem.
— Ma in questo tempo il fiore?.....
— Lo porterete con voi. Capite bene che non bisogna che ve ne
separiate neppure per un minuto.
— Ma non separandomi punto da lui, mi separo però da voi, signor
Cornelio, disse Rosa attristata.
— È vero, mia dolce, mia cara Rosa. Mio Dio! gli uomini sono cattivi!
Che ho loro io fatto? e perchè mi hanno tolto la libertà? Avete
ragione, o Rosa, non potrei vivere senza di voi. Ebbene ecco
spedirete qualcuno ad Harlem; e in fede mia, il miracolo è tanto
grande da far muovere lo stesso presidente, che verrà in persona a
Loevestein a cercare del tulipano.
Poi arrestandosi a un tratto e con voce tremante:
— Rosa! mormorò, Rosa! e se non fosse poi nero?
— Madonna? lo saprete dimani o posdimani a sera.
— Aspettare fino alla sera per saperlo, o Rosa!... Morirò
d’impazienza. Non potremmo combinare un segnale?
— Farò di meglio.
— Che farete?
— Se si apre di notte, verrò, oh sì! verrò a dirvelo da me; e se di
giorno, verrò all’uscio, e striscerò un biglietto o di sotto alla porta o
per la graticola tra la prima e la seconda ispezione di mio padre.
— Oh! Rosa, che mi dite mai! Ciò sarà per me una doppia
contentezza.
— Ecco le dieci, bisogna che io vi lasci.
— Sì, sì, disse Cornelio, andate, Rosa, andate!
Rosa si ritirò quasi che trista; Cornelio l’avea quasi mandata via.
Era, è vero, per vegliare sul tulipano nero.
 VI

Scorse la notte ben dolce, ma nel tempo stesso bene agitata per
Cornelio. A ogni minuto sembravagli che la soave voce di Rosa lo
chiamasse; svegliavasi in sussulto, andava alla porta, avvicinava il
viso alla graticola; ma la graticola era solitaria, il corridoio deserto.
Senza dubbio Rosa dal canto suo vegliava pure; ma più felice di lui,
vegliava sul tulipano. Avea là sotto gli occhi il nobile fiore, meraviglia
delle meraviglie, non solo ancora sconosciuta, ma creduta anco
impossibile.
Che dirà il mondo quando saprà che il tulipano nero sia trovato, che
esista, e che sia Van Baerle il prigioniero che lo abbia trovato?
Cornelio avrebbe scacciato da sè chiunque gli avesse proposta la
libertà in cambio del suo tulipano!
Il giorno venne senza avviso nessuno; il tulipano non era ancora
fiorito.
La giornata passò come la notte innanzi, e venne l’altra con Rosa
tutta lieta, con Rosa leggiera come una lodoletta.
— Ebbene! dimandò Cornelio.
— Ebbene! va tutto a meraviglia: stanotte indispensabilmente il
nostro tulipano fiorisce.
— E fiorirà nero?
— Nero come un’ala di corvo.
— Senza la minima vergaturina?
— Senza neppure l’ombra.
— Misericordia del cielo! Rosa ho passato la notte pensando prima a
voi...
Rosa accennò insensibilmente di non crederci.
— E poi a ciò che dobbiamo fare.
— Ebbene!
— Ebbene! ecco ciò che ho deciso. Quando il tulipano fiorito, sarà
ben costatato sia nero, e nero perfetto, bisogna che troviate un
espresso.
— Se non è che questo, l’ho bell’e trovato.
— Un espresso sicuro?
— Ne rispondo io; gli è un mio innamorato.
— Spero non sia Giacobbe.
— No, state tranquillo. È il navicellaio di Loevestein, giovanotto
avvistato, di venticinque ai ventisette anni.
— Diavolo!
— State tranquillo, disse Rosa ridendo, non ha ancora l’età, giacchè
voi stesso l’avete fissata dai ventisei ai ventotto.
— Ma credete di poter contare su questo giovine?
— Come su me; si getterebbe dalla sua barchetta nel Wahal o nella
Mosa, come più mi piacesse, se glielo comandassi.
— Eh! potrebbe, o Rosa, questo giovinotto essere in dieci ore a
Harlem. Datemi apis e carta, meglio ancora penna e inchiostro, che
scriverò... anzi è meglio che scriviate voi; io povero prigioniero potrei
dar sospetto, come a vostro padre, di una cospirazione nascosta.
Scriverete al presidente della società d’orticoltura, e, ne sono certo,
verrà quà il presidente.
— Ma se tardasse?
— Supponete che tardi un giorno o due; ma gli è impossibile, che un
amatore di tulipani come lui tardi anco un’ora, un minuto, un
secondo a mettersi in via per vedere l’ottava maraviglia del mondo.
Ma, come io diceva, tardasse pure un giorno, ne tardasse due, il
tulipano sarebbe in tutto il suo splendore. Visto il tulipano dal
presidente, ci s’intende, voi riterrete, o Rosa, un duplicato del
processo verbale, e gli consegnerete il tulipano. Ah! se lo avessimo
potuto portar da noi, o Rosa, sarebbe stato un dolce peso un po’ alle
mie e un po’ alle vostre braccia; ma è un sogno cui non bisogna
pensare, continuò Cornelio sospirando; altri occhi lo vedranno
sfiorire! Oh! soprattutto, o Rosa, che non lo veda persona, prima del
presidente. Buon Dio! il tulipano nero sarebbe visto e preso!
— Ih!
— Non mi avete detto voi stessa i vostri sospetti sul conto di quel
vostro Giacobbe? Si ruba un fiorino, perchè non ne possono essere
rubati cento mila?
— Starò in guardia, via; state tranquillo.
— Se mentre siete qui, si aprisse?
— N’è ben capace il capriccioso, disse Rosa.
— Se tornando voi lo trovaste fiorito?
— Ebbene?
— Ah! Rosa, appena sia fiorito, ricordatevi che non avvi un minuto a
perdere per prevenirne il presidente.
— E voi, ci s’intende.
Rosa sospirò, ma senza amarezza, e come donna che comincia a
capire, sebbene stenti ad abituarvisi, che l’è una debolezza.
— Torno presso il tulipano, signor Van Baerle, e appena aperto,
sarete prevenuto; e subito partirà l’espresso.
— Rosa, Rosa, io non so più a qual meraviglia del cielo o della terra
compararvi.
— Comparatemi al tulipano nero, signor Cornelio, e ne sarò ben
lusingata, ve lo giuro. Dunque a rivederci, signor Cornelio.
— Oh! dite: A rivederci, amico mio.
— A rivederci, amico mio, disse Rosa un poco consolata.
— Dite: Amico mio diletto.
— Oh! amico mio...
— Diletto, o Rosa, ve ne supplico, diletto, diletto, non è così?
— Diletto, diletto, pronunziò Rosa palpitante, inebriata, pazza per la
gioia.
— Allora, o Rosa, dacchè avete detto diletto, dite pure felice; felice
quanto uomo giammai sia stato felice e benedetto sotto il cielo. Non
mi manca che una cosa, o Rosa.
— Quale?
— La vostra guancia, o Rosa, la vostra guancia fresca, rosea,
vellutata. Oh! ma di vostra volontà non più per sorpresa, non più per
caso. Rosa, ah!
Il prigioniero finì la sua preghiera in un sospiro; chè vennero le sue
labbra a incontrarsi con quelle della giovinetta non più per caso, non
per sorpresa, come cent’anni dopo Saint-Preux doveva incontrare le
labbra della sua Giulietta.
Rosa s’involò; e Cornelio restò con l’anima sospesa alle di lei labbra,
e col viso fisso alla graticola.
Soffocato dalla gioia e dalla felicità, egli aperse la finestra e
contemplò lungamente col cuore pregno di letizia l’azzurro celeste
senza nuvole e la luna al di là delle colline versante un torrente
d’argentea luce sopra lo specchio dei due fiumi. Rinfrescò i suoi
polmoni d’aria pura e balsamica, lo spirito di dolci idee, l’anima di
riconoscenza e di religiosa ammirazione.
— Oh! voi siete eternamente lassù, o mio Dio! esclamò genuflesso
con gli occhi fitti nel firmamento; — deh! perdonatemi, se mai nei
giorni trascorsi io avessi quasi dubitato di voi; ravvolto dentro il
vostro manto di nubi, per un istante cessai di vedervi, o Dio buono,
Dio eterno, Dio misericordioso! Ma oggi, ma stasera, ma stanotte oh!
vi vedo tutto intiero nello specchio dei vostri cieli, e soprattutto nello
specchio del mio cuore.
Era guarito il povero malato; era libero il povero prigioniero!
Per una gran parte della notte Cornelio restò fisso alle sbarre della
sua finestra a orecchie tese, concentrando i suoi cinque sensi in un
solo, o piuttosto solamente in due: guardava e origliava.
Guardava il cielo, e ascoltava la terra.
Poi di tratto in tratto volgeva l’occhio verso il corridoio, dicendo:
— Laggiù è Rosa, che veglia come me, come me aspetta di minuto
in minuto. Laggiù sotto gli occhi di Rosa è il fiore misterioso che vive,
che screpola, che si apre; forse in questo momento Rosa tiene tra le
sue dita tiepide e delicate lo stelo del tulipano. Sia delicato il
contatto, o Rosa! Forse tocca co’ labbri suoi il calice del fiore
semiaperto. Sfioralo con precauzione, o Rosa! le tue labbra
bruciano! Forse in questo momento i miei dolci amori si carezzano
sotto lo sguardo di Dio.
In quel momento una stella strisciò al mezzogiorno, traversò tutto lo
spazio che separava l’orizzonte della fortezza e venne a cadere su
Loevestein.
Cornelio trasalì:
— Ah! disse, ecco che Dio invia un’anima al mio fiore.
E come se avesse colto nel segno, quasi nello stesso momento il
prigioniero intese nel corridoio dei passi leggeri come quelli di una
silfide, lo sventolìo di una veste che pareva un ventilar di ali, e una
voce ben conosciuta, che diceva:
— Cornelio, amico mio, amico diletto e ben felice, venite, venite
presto!
Cornelio non fece che un salto dalla finestra alla graticola. Questa
volta ancora incontraronsi le sue labbra con quelle mormoranti di
Rosa che gli disse con un bacio:
— È sbocciato; è nero, eccolo!
— Come eccolo! esclamò Cornelio staccando le sue labbra da
quelle della giovinetta.
— Sì, sì; merita bene correre un piccolo rischio per dare una gioia:
eccolo, guardate!
E con una mano alzò all’altezza della graticola una lanternina sorda,
da lei allora aperta, mentre alla medesima altezza mostrava con
l’altra il miracoloso tulipano.
Cornelio gettò un grido e credette svenire.
— Oh! mormorò, Dio mio! Dio mio! mi ricompensate della mia
innocenza e della mia prigionia, dappoichè avete fatto che si accosti
questo dolce fiore alla graticola della mia prigione.
— Abbracciatelo, disse Rosa, come io l’ho abbracciato or ora.
Cornelio ritenendo il suo alito toccò a fior di labbra la punta del fiore,
e mai altro bacio impresso sulle labbra di una donna, di quelle
puranco di Rosa, non così profondamente mai gli scesero sul cuore.
Il tulipano era bello, splendido, magnifico; il suo gambo aveva più di
dieci pollici di altezza; slanciavasi dal seno di quattro verdi foglie,
liscie, diritte, come quattro ferri di lancia; e il suo fiore era nero,
brillante come polverino.
— Rosa, disse Cornelio tutto anelante, Rosa, non c’è un istante a
perdere, bisogna scrivere la lettera!
— L’è scritta, mio diletto Cornelio, disse Rosa.
— Davvero!
— Mentre aprivasi il tulipano, io scriveva, perchè non volevo che
andasse perduto neppure un secondo. Leggete la lettera, e ditemi se
va bene.
Cornelio prese la lettera e lesse uno scritto ancora moltissimo
migliorato dacchè egli avea ricevuto quelle due parole:

«Signor Presidente,
«Tra dieci minuti forse il tulipano nero sboccerà; e
appena ciò sia, io vi invierò un espresso per pregarvi di
venire in persona a vederlo nella fortezza di
Loevestein. Io sono la figlia del carceriere Grifo, quasi
prigioniera quanto i prigionieri di mio padre, sicchè da
me non potrei recarvi questa maraviglia. Il perchè oso
supplicarvi a venirvelo a prendere da voi.
«Mio desiderio sarebbe che si chiamasse Rosa
Barlaeensis.
«È sbocciato, è nerissimo... Venite, signor Presidente,
venite.
«Ho l’onore di essere vostra umilissima serva
«Rosa Grifo.

— Va benone, va benone, mia cara Rosa. Questa lettera è una

maraviglia; non l’avrei scritta io con tanta semplicità. Al congresso
darete tutti i ragguagli che vi saranno richiesti; saprassi come il
tulipano sia cresciuto; di quali cure, veglie e timori sia stato cagione;
ma ora, Rosa mia, ora non un istante da perdere... L’espresso!
l’espresso!
— Come si chiama il presidente?
— Qua, ci metterò io l’indirizzo. È ben conosciuto, è Van Herysen,
sindaco di Harlem.... Qua, Rosa, qua.
E con mano tremante fece la soprascritta:

«A Pietro Van Herysen

«Sindaco e Presidente della Società orticola di
Harlem.