INTRODUCTION

What does it take to be Human? What is the human person made up of? There has been

diverse understanding of the complexity of the nature of the human person, the Igbos in

particular have cultivated a profound philosophical understanding of the human person, one that

embodies interconnectedness, multiple dimensions of being, and honors the delicate balance

between individual and communal existence. This work aims at analyzing the understanding of

the human person in the Igbo cultural tradition and its stance in the mind-body problem. I will

begin by attempting a definition of the human person, before delving deeply into the culture of

the Igbos and their understanding of the human person and it’s stance.

THE CONCEPT OF THE HUMAN PERSON

Strawson defines the human person as “individuals of a certain unique type such that

each individual of that type, there must be ascribed, or ascribable both states of consciousness

and corporeal characteristics”1. Furthermore, Locke goes on to define the human person as “a

thinking and rational being that has reason and reflection and can consider itself as itself.” 2

Lastly but not the least, Boethius defines the human person as the “individual substance of a

rational nature”3

WHAT IS THE MIND-BODY PROBLEM?

The mind-body problem stands as one of the most enduring and perplexing questions in

philosophy, this problem deals with how to determine the fundamental relationship between

mind and body. The question seeks to understand how our subjective mental phenomena, like

1
Teichman, J. 1985. The Definition of Person. Philosophy, 60(232), 175. Retrieved on 15th January 2024 from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3750997
2
John Locke. 1961. Essay Concerning Human Understanding. London: Dent 280.
3
Teichman, J. 1985. The Definition of Person. 175.
thoughts, feelings, and consciousness, arise from and interact with the physical brain and body. 4

In an attempt to resolve the question regarding the relationship between the mind and body, two

major schools of thought arose, these are: Dualism and Monism.

Dualism argues for the existence of two distinct substances the mind, which is non-

physical and immaterial, and the body, which is physical and material 5 and under Dualism there

are different schools of thoughts like, Substance dualism which argue that there are two entirely

separate substances, the mind and body, with no possibility of interaction , Property dualism ,

this school of thought argue that mental and physical properties are fundamentally different, even

if they belong to the same underlying substance and Interactionist dualism which acknowledges

the possibility of interaction between mind and body, but the mechanism of this interaction

remains unclear.6

Monism on the other hand refer to the school of thought that posits that there is only one

fundamental substance, either physical or mental, these means that it is either only the mind

exists or only the body exist, there are basically three types of monism, these are physical

Monism or Materialism, Mental monism or idealism and Neutral Monism.

Physical monism deals with the argument that reality is ultimately physical or material

and it can be further divided into eliminative physicalism which holds that only matter exist,

reductive physicalism which holds that all of reality can be reduced to physical component, and

non-reductive physicalism which holds that mental states cannot reduced to physical states. 7

Mental monism holds that everything is merely mental or ideas .and lastly neutral monism argues
4
Robinson, Howard. 2023 "Dualism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman
(eds.), Retrieved on 6th Jan., 2024 from URL = https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2023/entries/dualism/
5
Descartes, R. 2013. Meditations on first philosophy. Broadview Press.25.
6
Robinson, Howard, "Dualism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
7
Stoljar, Daniel. 2024 "Physicalism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy , Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman
(eds.), Retrieved on 6th Jan.,2024 from https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2024/entries/physicalism/
that reality is made up of a neutral substance from which both mental and physical phenomena

emerge and the exponents of this school posits the existence of a common underlying substance

or reality that gives rise to both mental and physical aspects of the world that is neither

exclusively mental nor exclusively physical.8

WHO ARE THE IGBOS?

To better analyze the Igbo understanding of the human person, at this point in my work I

will discuss the cultural background of the Igbos. The Igbos are a vibrant ethnic group

inhabiting southeastern Nigeria, primarily residing in the states of Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi,

Enugu, and Imo. With an estimated population exceeding 50 million, they constitute one of the

largest ethnic groups in Africa9.Their rich history and distinct cultural heritage have earned them

recognition as a significant force in Nigerian and African society.

The exact origins of the Igbo people remain a mystery, with archeological and oral

traditions offering various, often contested, accounts. Some scholars are of the opinion that their

presence in these regions dates back to several millennia, while others propose migrations from

other parts of Africa.10 Regardless of their exact origins, the Igbo have demonstrably occupied

their current homeland for centuries, developing a unique culture and social structure.

Furthermore, traditionally, the Igbo people do not have centralized political structures,

instead they organize themselves into autonomous villages and communities, as the famous

saying goes Igbo e nwere Eze, this translates literally to, Igbos do not have a king. The lineage

8
Stubenberg, Leopold and Donovan Wishon. 2023. "Neutral Monism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,
Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.), Retrieved on 6th Jan.,2024 from
https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2023/entries/neutral-monism/
9
Nwachukwu, J. O. J. 2015. Proverbs of the Igbo. Lulu Press Inc.29
10
Afigbo, A. E. 1981. Ropes of sand: Studies in Igbo history and culture. University Press in association with Oxford
University Press. 34
and family played a central role in social organization, with elders and titled men commanding
11
respect and wielding authority within their respective groups. The Igbo society emphasized

communal living and cooperation, with shared customs, rituals, and agricultural practices

forming the bedrock of their identity.12

Igbo cultural expressions encompass a diverse array of art forms, including vibrant

music, dance, folktales, and proverbs. These artistic expressions not only entertain but also

transmit wisdom and values across generations, keeping the Igbo cultural heritage alive. 13

ANALYSIS OF THE IGBO UNDERSTANDING OF THE HUMAN PERSON

The Igbo word for person is mmadu, this means human being regardless of age, sex, or

status, furthermore mmadu, which can also be translated as good life suggests that the Igbos

believe that human beings are inherently good and that their purpose in life is to live a good life.

They believe that all humans are ontologically equal because they are all rational beings. The

Igbo concept of reality is centered on the human being, who is seen as the focal point of the

universe. The human being is also seen as a medium of interaction between the visible and

invisible worlds, spirits and ancestors.14

The person (mmadu) is a constituent of both the spiritual (mmuo) and the physical (ahu)

aspects. The ahu is the physical body that one can see and touch, while the mmuo is the spiritual

part of us that lives on after death. This dualistic understanding is captured in the Igbo proverb,

11
Nwachukwu, J. O. J. 2015. Proverbs of the Igbo.33.
12
Okoye, I. S. 1997. History, aesthetics and the political in Igbo spatial heterotopias. Paideuma. 75.
13
McCarthy, B. E. 1985. Rhythm and Narrative Method in Achebe's" Things Fall Apart". In Novel: A Forum on Fiction
Vol. 18, No.3. Duke University Press. 243.
14
Isaac, J. 2022. UNDERSTANDING PERSONHOOD IN IGBO PHILOSOPHY: A PRECURSOR FOR NATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT. Oracle of Wisdom Journal of Philosophy and Public Affairs (OWIJOPPA), 6(2).
Ọnwụ gburu mmadụ, ọnwụ agbụghị mmụọ which means death kills a person, but not their

spirit.15

The idea of the multiple Selves: according to the Igbo understanding of the human person there

are multiple selves that make up a person, these selves includes; the Obi (heart or breath), Chi

(destiny), and Eke (ancestral character), these selves are not separate from the person, but rather

they are different aspects of the person's personality and the goal of a person is to achieve their

akara chi or destiny.16

The obi is the life force of the person. It is what animates the body and connects the

person to the rest of the universe. The chi is the person's destiny. It is the path that the person is

meant to follow in life. The eke is the person's ancestral character. It is the part of the person that

is inherited from their ancestors. Furthermore in the Igbo philosophy there is that believe that a

person's actions are determined by their chi and their eke. If a person follows their chi, they will

live a good life. If they do not, they will live a bad life. The eke also influences a person's

actions. A person with a good eke will be more likely to act in accordance with Igbo values. 17

These selves emerge in response to different contexts and interactions, allowing for flexibility

and growth. This concept challenges Western notions of a fixed and singular self, suggesting that

personhood is a dynamic process of becoming.

Furthermore, the ‘self’ being an entity faced with destiny has everything about it centered

on its nature and has it own environment explainable through it. Thus, the self can also be

categorized into three as follows: The Soul – Mkpuruobi; The Spirit- Mmuo;and The Body-Aru.

the trio above constitutes what is called the ‘onwe’-self. Mkpuruobi, according to the Igbo
15
Nwachukwu, J. O. J. 2015. Proverbs of the Igbo.45.
16
Isaac, J.2022. Understanding Personhood In Igbo Philosophy: A Precursor For National Development.6(4)
17
Achebe, Chinua 1998. “Chi in Igbo Cosmology.” In African Philosophy: An Anthology. Ed. Emmanuel Chukwudi
Eze.USA: Blackwell Publishers. 67.
systems of thought, forms the innermost self. This implies that the very essence of the individual

person and the unit of the life of an individual is the ‘Mkpuruobi’-soul.18

Ogugua an African philosopher denied the existence of Mkpuruobi in the traditional

Igbo concept of personhood. He however contended that the word Mmuo rather suffices for both

the concept of the Mmuo and Mkpuruobi respectively. 19

Community and Character: The Igbo view emphasizes that a person's identity and moral

standing are shaped by their actions and character within the community. Living in accordance

with Ogirisi (community ethos) is crucial for being considered a proper member. The Igbo

concept of personhood is somewhat complex and nuanced because it is based on the idea that a

person is a moral being who is part of a community. This concept is in contrast to the Western

concept of personhood, which is often based on individual rights and freedoms. Even physical or

psychological limitations might not preclude someone from being considered human, but they

may affect their judgment as an "authentic" person based on moral conduct.20

Essential structures of an Authentic person: the defining qualities of a "good person" in Igbo

culture (ezigbo mmadu) are not just about individual goodness, but rather it is something crucial

for building thriving communities and achieving a fulfilled human existence. Without these

essential structures, life can descend into chaos and misery, similar to the Hobbesian "nasty,

brutish, and short" state of nature. The essential structures of an authentic person ezigbo nwaafo

obodo includes; a Community Person, a Respecter of Social Norms and Customs, a hospitable

Person and a respecter of other persons.21

18
Okoye, C. A. 2011. ‘Onwe’: An Inquiry into the Igbo Concept of Self. Ogirisi: a new journal of African studies, 8, 51.
19
Okoye, C. A. 2011. ‘Onwe’: An Inquiry into the Igbo Concept of Self. 55
20
Obioha, U. P. 2020. Authentic personhood in traditional Igbo-African thought. Ogirisi: A New Journal of African
Studies, 16, 110-126.
21
Ukpokolo, C. 2010 “EzigboMmadu: An Anthropological Investigation into the Concept of a Good Person in Igbo
Worldview” in LUMINA: An Interdisciplinary Research and Scholarly Journal. Vol.21, No.2. Holy Name University.
Nature of the human person: According to the Igbo philosophy of the human person, there are

several nature of the human person, but for the Igbos, self-consciousness stands out, because for

them a human being is a person with the ability to think, to reason, to understand situations and

the logical link between a cause and its effect, the mental capacity to visualize a situation, to

envisage a situation, to foresee the likely consequences of a given course of action, to draw the

necessary conclusions and inferences from a line of argument or a statement, to deliberate over

issues and situations.

The Mmuo can be seen as the seat of consciousness and agency. It holds the individual's

Chi and retains consciousness after death.22 The Uche being a part of Mmuo, appear to play the

role of the consciousness which the Igbo believe speaks to the body and makes it swing into

action. It is by the power of the intellect that all these human activities are carried out by man.

Knowledge would be impossible of attainment by a person without the power of reason or

intellect.

THE IGBO UNDERSTANDING OF THE HUMAN PERSON IN RELATION TO THE

MIND-BODY PROBLEM.

As I have earlier analyzed above, the Igbos understands the human person mmadu, as

constitutive of both body-ahu and spirit-Mmuo, this presents an interesting perspective on the

mind-body problem, for the Igbos the mind and body relationship, is so close that they comprise

one indivisible whole. The self for the Igbo man could be said to be a homogeneous entity.

Philippines.
22
Akpan, M. U. 2015. Religio-Philosophical Significance of Relationality through the Igbo Understanding of the
Human Person. Journal of Pan African Studies, 9(3), 159.
 I will now attempt to situate the stance of the Igbo idea of personhood in relation to the

various prominent schools of thought like dualism, and monism which delved into the

relationship between the mind and the body.

Dualism: In philosophy of mind, this is the position that the mind and the body are two distinct

and fundamental substances23 there are different schools of thoughts under dualism, these are

ssubstance ddualism, which is the most radical form of dualism, philosophers like René

Descartes a major proponent of this form of dualism argue that the mind and body are

completely different entities24, there is also, Property Dualism, the proponents of this school

argue that mental and physical properties are fundamentally different, even though they are both

properties of the same underlying substance, and the interaction dualism as I have earlier

explained in the body of my work above.

Dualism in relation to the Igbo idea of personhood

Unlike Western Cartesian dualism, which posits mind and body as two distinct and

independent substances, the Igbo of the mind and body relationship is harmonious. Although

separate, Ahu and Mmuo are considered intertwined and interdependent, these in some way go in

line with the interaction dualism which posits that the mind and the body are distinct substances

but they interact and influence each other.25 The Mmuo animates the body, influencing its desires

and actions, while the body provides the means for the Mmuo to experience the world.26

Furthermore, The Mmuo can be seen as the seat of consciousness and agency. It holds the

individual's Chi and retains consciousness after death, this aligns with the mind-body dualist

theories that locate consciousness in the non-physical realm.

23
Chalmers, David J. 2003. Consciousness and its place in nature. The Blackwell guide to philosophy of mind. 105
24
Descartes, R. 2013. Meditations on first philosophy.35
25
Robinson, Howard, "Dualism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
26
Okoye, C. A. 2011. ‘Onwe’: An Inquiry into the Igbo Concept of Self. 59
 However, the Igbo perspective of personhood diverges from traditional dualism in areas

like; Interconnectedness, because unlike the independent substances of Cartesian dualism, Ahu

and Mmuo are fundamentally connected and their interaction shapes the person's experience and

actions. There's no strict separation between the two27

Furthermore, one can say that the Igbo conception of the human person follows a non-

dualist approach but has some dualistic elements, the separation of the Ahu and Mmuo doesn't

necessarily lead to the mind-body problem's central dilemma, as there is no inherent conflict

between Ahu and Mmuo. They are seen as complementary aspects of a whole.28 Lastly, the Igbo

understanding of personhood places a strong emphasis on the individual's connection to the

community and ancestors. This communal aspect is often absent in Western discussions of the

mind-body problem.

Monism in relation to the Igbo concept of personhood.

As I have earlier explained in the body of my work monism argues that there is only one

fundamental substance either physical or mental. There are also three basic types which are

Physical monism, Mental Monism and Neutral monism. The Igbo understanding of the concept

of personhood goes in contrast to the Monist school of thought because for the Igbos, the Mmuo

cannot be solely explained by the physical brain, and the body is not just a passive vessel for the

mind, both aspects are crucial for a complete understanding of the person, and this in contrast to

Physical Monism, and in particular reductionism, which holds that mental phenomena, such as

27
Ugwu, A. K. 2022. The Igbo Understanding of the Human Being: A Philosophical Approach. Conatus-Journal of
Philosophy, 7(1), 135.
28
Akpan, M. U. 2015. Religio-Philosophical Significance of Relationality through the Igbo Understanding of the
Human Person. 173
thoughts, feelings, and consciousness, can be reduced to or completely explained by physical

phenomena, specifically brain activity and processes.29

CONCLUSION

So in general, one can say that the Igbo conception of the human person does not follow

strictly the trend of any of the two basic schools of thought in the mind-body problem namely

Dualism and Monism, however traces of interactionist dualism can be found in their concept of

the human person, their concept of mmadu in relation to the mind-body problem remains unique

for they argue that Ahu and Mmuo are distinct part of a person but they are interconnected, and

they influence and complement each other. Aalso, the communal and ancestral dimensions

embedded in Igbo personhood offer a broader perspective on the self, one that transcends

Western individualistic notions. In essence, the Igbo concept of the human person offers a

valuable counterpoint to Western philosophical traditions. it moves beyond the mind-body

dichotomy and embraces a more holistic understanding of the human experience, where physical,

spiritual, and communal aspects are seen as interconnected and essential for a meaningful life.

This perspective highlights the importance of both the physical and spiritual aspects of the

human person, the interconnectedness with one’s communities, and the potential for a

harmonious coexistence between mind and body, spirit and matter.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

29
Kim, J. 2010. Essays in the Metaphysics of Mind. Oxford University Press. 37
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Afigbo, A. E. 1981. Ropes of sand: Studies in Igbo history and culture. University Press in

association with Oxford University Press.

Akpan, M. U. 2015. Religio-Philosophical Significance of Relationality through the Igbo

Understanding of the Human Person. Journal of Pan African Studies, 9(3), 159-172.

Descartes, R. 2013. Meditations on first philosophy. Broadview Press.

Isaac, J. 2022. UNDERSTANDING PERSONHOOD IN IGBO PHILOSOPHY: A PRECURSOR

FOR NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT. Oracle of Wisdom Journal of Philosophy and

Public Affairs (OWIJOPPA), 6(2).

Kim, J. 2010. Essays in the Metaphysics of Mind. Oxford University Press.

Locke John. 1961. Essay Concerning Human Understanding. London: Dent.

McCarthy, B. E. 1985. Rhythm and Narrative Method in Achebe's" Things Fall Apart". In

Novel: A Forum on Fiction Vol. 18, No.3. Duke University Press. 243-256

Nwachukwu, J. O. J. 2015. Proverbs of the Igbo. Lulu Press Inc.

Obioha, U. P. 2020. Authentic personhood in traditional Igbo-African thought. Ogirisi: A New

Journal of African Studies, 16, 110-126.

Okoye, C. A. 2011. ‘Onwe’: An Inquiry into the Igbo Concept of Self. Ogirisi: a new journal of

African studies, 8, 51-66.

Okoye, I. S. 1997. History, aesthetics and the political in Igbo spatial heterotopias. Paideuma.
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Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.), Retrieved on 6th January, 2024 from URL =

https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2023/entries/dualism/

Stoljar, Daniel. 2024. "Physicalism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward N. Zalta

& Uri Nodelman (eds.), Retrieved on 6th Jan., 2024 URL =

https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2024/entries/physicalism/

Stubenberg, Leopold and Donovan Wishon. 2023. "Neutral Monism", The Stanford

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6th Jan.,2024 from https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2023/entries/neutral-

monism/

Teichman, J. 1985. The Definition of Person. Philosophy, 60(232), 175–185. Retrieved on 15th

January 2024 from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3750997

Ugwu, A. K. 2022. The Igbo Understanding of the Human Being: A Philosophical

Approach. Conatus-Journal of Philosophy, 7(1), 135-181.

Ukpokolo, C. 2010. “EzigboMmadu: An Anthropological Investigation into the Concept of a

Good Person in Igbo Worldview” in LUMINA: An Interdisciplinary Research and

Scholarly Journal. Vol.21, No.2. Holy Name University. Philippines.