Page 1 of 10 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes

Digital Electronics
 Analog and digital signals:
o Signal ⇒ a physical quantity that carries information and changes with respect to time
e.g. temperature over time, speech over time, etc.
o A signal is converted into an electrical signal by use of a transducer.
 A transducer is an instrument that senses changes in a physical parameter (e.g.
temperature) and converts the sensed information into an electrical signal (such as
current).

The sensor converts the physical variable to some physical indication that varies
with variation in the measured quantity e.g. a diaphragm converts a pressure into a
physical motion.
The conversion element (transducing unit) transforms the physical indication into
an electronic signal.

 Transducer example: thermocouple – a device that is made by connecting two

dissimilar metals such that they are welded together on one end (creating a
junction). When the junction experiences a change in temperature, a voltage is
created. The voltage can then be interpreted using thermocouple reference tables
to calculate the temperature.

Common materials used in the construction of thermocouples include

copper/constantan (type T), iron/constantan (type J), and chromel/alumel (type K).
Type K is the most common general-purpose thermocouple.

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Page 2 of 10 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes

A thermocouple, therefore, converts a physical variable, temperature, into an

electronic signal (voltage).

 Electronic signals can be transmitted in either of two basic forms: either analogue
or digital.
An analogue signal varies continuously in time.
A digital signal is discrete in time (i.e. it does not vary continuously in time).

‒ Most of the fundamental electronic components – resistors, capacitors, inductors,

diodes, transistors, and operational amplifiers – are all inherently analog.
Circuits built with a combination of solely these components are usually referred
to as analog circuits and one is said to be dealing with analog electronics.

 Digital/logic circuits
o A digital signal is such that a voltage range is chosen between two voltage levels and
when the voltage is above one of the voltage levels it is defined to be in one state and
when it is below the other voltage level, it is in the other state.

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Page 3 of 10 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes
e.g.

When,
‒ 0 V ≤ voltage range ≤0.8 V → logic state “0”
‒ 2.0 V ≤ voltage range ≤5 V → logic state “1”

‒ 0.8 V < voltage range <2.0 V → invalid state

‒ The gap between the two voltage levels is well-defined.

‒ The upper signal level is defined as logic “1” or logic
HIGH and the lower signal level as logic “0” or logic
LOW.

o A digital signal is therefore in either of two states, logic 1 or logic 0.

o Electronic logic circuits are constructed from two state components (digital
components).
Circuits built with a combination of these components are usually referred to as digital
circuits and one is said to be dealing with digital electronics. They include computers,
smart phones, digital TVs, calculators, etc.

o In digital electronics, therefore, a signal can only be either logic 1 or logic 0. Each of
these (1 and 0) is referred to as a bit (binary digit).

 Number systems
o In analog electronics, a signal can take any numerical value e.g. 0 V, 2.2 V, 10 V, 100
V, etc.
Fundamentally, these values are expressed using ten basic symbols, namely, 0, 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9.
In order to express numbers using these ten symbols a number system is adopted. This
number system is referred to as the decimal number system. It is referred to as a base
10 number system.

o In digital electronics, a signal can only be in either of two states, 1 or 0, i.e. logic
HIGH or logic LOW respectively. A number system is therefore adopted that has two
basic symbols, 0 and 1. The corresponding number system is referred to as the binary
number system and it is a base 2 number system.

o Other number systems include the octal (base 8) and hexadecimal (base 16) number
systems.
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Page 4 of 10 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes

 Boolean algebra
o It is the mathematics of logic.
o Basic operations that are performed in Boolean algebra are,
1. AND e.g. an AND operation between two variables x and y is expressed as x ∙ y .
Read: “ x and y ”
2. OR e.g. an OR operation between two variables x and y is expressed as x + y .
Read: “ x or y ”
3. NOT e.g. a NOT operation on a variable x is expressed as x or x '.
Read: “ x complement or x inverted”

o Functions in Boolean algebra are referred to as Boolean functions or logic functions

e.g.
1. F ( x , y )=x ∙ y
2. Q ( x , y )=x + y
3. K ( x )=x

NB: F (x , y ), Q(x , y) and K (x ) are Boolean functions for the three basic Boolean
operators AND, OR and NOT respectively.

o Components of a Boolean function:

‒ Variable ⇒ a symbol in a Boolean function.
‒ Literal ⇒ each occurrence of a variable or its complement in a Boolean function.
‒ Term ⇒ an expression formed by literals and operations at one level.
Illustrative example: consider the Boolean function,
Q ( A , B ) =A ∙ B+ A ∙ B+ A ∙ B
Variables: A and B i.e. two variables.

Literals: A , B, A , B, A and B i.e. six literals.

Terms: three AND terms i.e. A ∙ B , A ∙ B , A ∙ B and one OR term i.e.

A ∙ B+ A ∙ B+ A ∙ B

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Page 5 of 10 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes

o Basic laws and theorems of Boolean algebra:

1. OR and AND laws

OR operations AND operations

A+0= A A ∙ 0=0
A+1=1 A ∙ 1= A
} Operations with ‘0’ and ‘1’
A+ A= A A ∙ A= A → Identity law
A+ A=1 A ∙ A=0 → Complementation law

2. Commutative laws
A+ B=B+ A
A ∙ B=B ∙ A

3. Associative laws

A+ ( B+C )=B+ ( A+C )=C + ( A+ B )

A ∙(B ∙C)=B ∙( A ∙ C)=C ∙(B ∙ A )

4. Distributive laws

A ∙ ( B+C )= A ∙ B + A ∙C
A+ B ∙C=( A+ B)∙( A+ C)

5. Absorption laws (or redundancy laws)

A+ A ∙ B= A
A ∙ ( A +B )= A

6. Involution law

Á=A

7. Inversion laws (DeMorgan’s theorem)

A+ B=A ∙ B
A ∙ B=A + B

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Page 6 of 10 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes
8. Duality principle
A Boolean expression is valid if its dual is also valid.

The dual of a Boolean expression is obtained by replacing all the symbols in the
expression with its counterparts i.e. replacing all · with +, + with ·, 0s with 1s, and 1s
with 0s. Literals are left unchanged.
Example: commutative laws
A+ B=B+ A
A ∙ B=B ∙ A
Replacing ‘+’ with ‘∙’ in A+ B = B+ A results in A ∙ B = B∙ A
Example: applying the duality principle on an OR law gives a corresponding AND
law (and vice versa). Thus,
A+0= A ∙ 1= A
A ∙ 1= A+0= A

o Simplification of Boolean expressions

- Aim: To obtain, firstly, an expression with the minimum number of terms, and
secondly, an expression with the minimum number of literals.
- Illustrative examples: Simplify the Boolean expression,

i. C+ BC

Solution:

C+ BC = C+(B+C) → De Morgan’s theorem

= (C+ C ¿+ B → Associative law
= 1+ B → OR law; complementation
= B → OR law; operations with “1”
Therefore, C+ BC =B

ii. ( AB)( A +B)

Solution:

( AB)( A +B) = ( A+ B)( A+ B) →De Morgan’s theorem

= A A+ A B+ B A + B B →Distributive law
= A+ A ( B+ B ) +0 →AND laws, Distributive law
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Page 7 of 10 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes
= A+ A (1) →OR laws, AND laws
→AND law; operations with
= A+1
“1”
A OR law; operations with “1”
Therefore, ( AB)( A +B)=A

iii. ( A+C ) ( AD + A D ) + AC +C

Solution:

( A+C ) ( AD + A D ) + AC +C = ( A+C ) ∙ A ( D+ D ) + AC +C
= ( A+C ) A + AC +C
= AA+ AC + AC +C
= A+ AC+C
= A(1+C )+ C
= A(1)+C
= A+C
Therefore, ( A+C ) ( AD + A D ) + AC +C= A+C

iv. A ( A+ B C ) + A ( B+C )

Solution:

A ( A+ B C ) + A ( B+C ) = AA+ A BC + A B+ AC
= A+ A B(C +1)+ AC
= A+ A B+ AC
= A(1+ B+C )
= A(1+C )
= A(1)
= A
Therefore, A ( A+ B C ) + A ( B+C )= A

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Page 8 of 10 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes

 Basic logic gates

o In digital electronics, Boolean functions are implemented using circuits that are
referred to as logic gates.
Corresponding to the three basic Boolean functions, therefore, are three basic logic
gates, namely, the AND, OR and NOT logic gates.
Following are circuit symbols and truth tables for the three basic logic gates:
1. AND logic gate

This is a two-input AND logic gate.

Its truth table shows that the logic state of its output is logic HIGH when both
inputs are logic HIGH otherwise its logic LOW.

An AND logic gate can also have multiple inputs (more than two) e.g. circuit
diagram and truth table for a 3-input AND gate:

2. OR logic gate

Exercise: circuit symbol, truth table, and Boolean function for a three-input OR
gate.

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Page 9 of 10 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes
3. NOT logic gate

NB:
AND and OR logic gates can have two or more inputs and one output only.
A NOT logic gate is a single input single output device.

o Examples: Implement the following Boolean expressions in logic circuits:

i. C+ BC

Solution:

ii. ( AB)( A +B)

Solution:

Exercise:
iii. ( A+C ) ( AD + A D ) + AC +C

iv. A ( A+ B C ) + A ( B+C )

 Note: Logic gates are contained in integrated circuits (ICs). An IC is a circuit that
consists of miniaturized resistors, transistors, capacitors, diodes, etc. connected in a way
to perform a desired function and fabricated as a single unit (see images below).

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Page 10 of 10 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes

o Application of logic gates – an example:

In a factory, some parameters of a machine need to be monitored so that they do not
exceed a safe value. Otherwise, if they do, some protective measure is applied.

The use of the OR gate means that the machine will shut down when the outputs of
the comparators are such that if either one of them is interpreted to be logic HIGH or
both of them are interpreted to be logic HIGH, then the machine will shut down. Truth
table:

The OR gate can therefore be used in applications that require the detection of the
occurrence of one or more events.

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