Page 1 of 17 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes

Fundamental elements that make up an electronic circuit

Resistor
 This is a device that provides resistance (electrical resistance) to the flow of electric
current.

 A resistor falls under one of the following two main categories:

1. Fixed resistors.
2. Variable resistors.

1. Fixed resistors
 Their electric resistance values cannot be altered.
 Diagrams below shows examples of an assortment of resistors:

 Fixed resistors are rated by the value of their resistance (in Ohms) and the electrical
power (in Watts).
o Most common fixed resistors have a power rating of 0.5 W and 1.0 W.
o The resistance value of a fixed resistor can be determined by use of an instrument
(Ohmmeter) or by use of a color code.
 Fixed resistors have colored bands. These bands indicate a resistor’s,
i. Value – how much resistance it can provide.
ii. Tolerance – variation from it specified value.

 The colored bands, therefore, provide a system of identifying a resistor’s resistance value
and its tolerance.
 Most resistors have three, four, five or six color bands.

 The resistors color code consists of a set of individual colored bands in spectral order
representing each digit of the resistors value. These is illustrated below:

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Page 2 of 17 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes

‒ Match the color of the first band with

its associated number in the digit
column of the color chart. The first
digit is identified. This represents the
first digit of the resistance value.
‒ Match the color of the second band
with its associated number in the digit
column of the color chart. The second
digit is identified. This is the second
digit of the resistance value.
‒ etc.

‒ The tolerance band is mostly gold or

silver colored. If there is no tolerance
band then the default tolerance would
be at 20%.

‒ When reading the value of a resistor

the tolerance band is the last band to
be read.

‒ Example: reading the resistance value for the 4 band resistor.

Yellow Violet Red Silver Resistance value

1st digit 2nd digit multiplier tolerance

4 7 2 10% = 4 7 x 102 = 4700 Ω = 4.7 x 103 = 4.7 kΩ

‒ Example: reading the resistance value for the 5 band resistor.

Blue Grey Black Red Gold Resistance value

3rd digit toleranc

1st digit 2nd digit multiplier
e

6 8 0 2 5% = 6 8 0 x 102 = 68000 Ω = 68 x 103 = 68 kΩ

 Exercise: calculate the resistance value for a three band resistor below.
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Page 3 of 17 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes

 Standard fixed resistor symbols:

2. Variable resistors
 Their electric resistance values can be altered.

 These resistors consist of a fixed resistor element and a slider which taps onto the main
resistor element. This gives three connections to the component: two connected to the
fixed element, and the third is the slider.
 The most common variable resistor that is used in electric circuits is the potentiometer (or
pot) as shown in the figure below:

‒ A pot has a movable contact (known as a wiper) that slides over a resistive
material that has terminals attached to its two ends.
o The wiper travels along the resistive material when the knob is turned.
o The closer the wiper is to the end terminal it is wired in conjunction with,
the less the resistance, because the path of the current will be shorter.
o The further away it moves from the terminal, the greater the resistance will
be.

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Page 4 of 17 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes

‒ Pots are useful for circuits where the resistance needs to be dynamically changed
to control the current.

 The most common variable resistor that is used in laboratory experiments is the rheostat
as shown in the figure below.

 Standard variable resistor symbols:

 Resistors in electronic circuits can be connected in series, parallel or both series and
parallel.
‒ In series connection there is only one path for current flow (as shown below).

‒ Three resistors (labeled R1, R2, and R3)

connected in a chain from one terminal
of the battery to the other.
‒ Current flows in a counter-clockwise
direction, from point 4 to point 3 to point
2 to point 1 and back around to 4. This
forms only one path for electrons to
flow.

In series connection, therefore, the resistors are connected end-to-end in a line to

form a single path for electrons to flow as shown below:

The potential difference across each resistor is V R , where l=1 , 2 ,3.

l

If the potential difference of the battery is V , then

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Page 5 of 17 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes
V =V R +V R +V R
1 2 3

From Ohm’s law, V =IR where, V is the potential difference, I is the current and R is
the resistance.
Thus,
V = ( I R ∙ R 1 ) + ( I R ∙ R 2) + ( I R ∙ R 3 )
1 2 3

But, for a parallel connection I R =I R =I R =I where I is the current drawn from the
1 2 3

battery.

Thus,
V =I ( R1 + R2 + R3 )
V =I RT

Where, RT is the total (effective) resistance of the circuit i.e.

RT =R1 + R2 + R3

Sample question: Three resistors of values 8.4 Ω, 6.8 Ω, and 4.8 Ω, are connected in
series across a 100 V supply. Determine (a) the total resistance, (b) the current
flowing through each resistor, and (c) the voltage-drop across each resistor.
Solution:
a) RT =R1 + R2 + R3=8.4 Ω+6.8 Ω+ 4.8 Ω=20 Ω
b) V =I ∙ R T
V 100 V
I= = =5 A
R T 20 Ω
I 8.4 Ω =I 6.8 Ω=I 4.8 Ω =I =5 A

c) V 8.4 Ω=5 A ×8.4 Ω=42V

V 6.8 Ω =5 A ×6.8 Ω=34 V
V 4.8 Ω=5 A × 4.8 Ω=24 V

NB: V =V 8.4 Ω +V 6.8 Ω +V 4.8 Ω =42 V +34 V +24 V =100 V

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Page 6 of 17 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes
‒ In parallel connection there are multiple paths for current flow (as shown below).

Paths for current flow:

‒ 1st path: from 8 to 7 to 2 to 1 and
back to 8 again.
‒ 2nd path: from 8 to 7 to 6 to 3 to 2
to 1 and back to 8 again.
‒ 3rd path: from 8 to 7 to 6 to 5 to 4 to
3 to 2 to 1 and back to 8 again.

In parallel connection, therefore, all resistors are connected between the same set of
electrically common points. All resistors as well as the battery are connected between
these two sets of points.

Therefore, in a parallel connection all resistors are connected across each other’s
leads.

The current flowing through each resistor is i R , where l=1 , 2 ,3. l

If the current that can be drawn from the battery is I , then

I =i R +i R +i R
1 2 3

From Ohm’s law,

VR VR VR
I= 1
+ 2
+ 3

R1 R2 R3

But, for a parallel connection, V R =V R =V R =V , where V is the potential difference of

1 2 3

the battery.

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Page 7 of 17 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes

Thus,

I =V ∙
( R1 + R1 + R1 )
1 2 3

V
I=
RT

Where, RT is the total resistance.

Thus,
1 1 1 1
= + +
R T R1 R2 R3

Sample question: Three resistors of values 8.4 Ω, 6.8 Ω, and 4.8 Ω, are connected in
parallel across a 100 V supply. Determine (a) the total resistance, (b) the total current
of the supply, and (c) the current flowing through each one of the resistors.
Solution:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
a) R = R + R + R = 8.4 Ω + 6.8 Ω + 4.8 Ω =0.474 4 Ω
T 1 2 3

RT =2.12 Ω

V 100 V
b) I = R = 2.12 Ω =47.44 A
T

V 100 V
c) i 1= R = 8.4 Ω =11.90 A
1

V 100 V
i 2= = =14.71 A
R 2 6.8 Ω
V 100 V
i 3= = =20.83 A
R3 4.8 Ω

NB: the supply current I =i R +i R +i R =11.90 A +14.71 A +20.83 A=47.44 A

1 2 3

 Resistors can also be connected in series and parallel within the same circuit (figure
below).

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Page 8 of 17 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes

‒ Both paths i.e. 6-5-2-1-6 and 6-5-4-3-2-

1-6 go through R1.
‒ R2 and R3 are in parallel with each other,
while R1 is in series with the parallel
combination of R2 and R3.

Sample question: Study the circuit diagram below:

R1

R3

R2

+
V
bat R4

R6

R5

R7

Given that R1=20 Ω, R2=20 Ω, R3=5 Ω, R4 =10 Ω , R5=15 Ω, R6 =25 Ω, R7 =100 Ω and
V batt =120 V , determine (a) the current leaving the battery, (b) the power supplied by
the battery, and (c) the voltage drop across R5.
Solution:
a) V =I ∙ R T , where, V is the potential difference of the battery, I is the current
leaving the battery and RT is the total resistance of the circuit.
V
Therefore, I = R
T

But,
‒ V =120 V

1 2 R ∙R
20× 20
‒ For R1 and R2: RT = R + R = 20+20 =10 Ω
1,2
1 2

6 7 R ∙R
25 ×100
‒ For R6 and R7 : RT = R + R = 25+100 =20 Ω
6,7
6 7

‒ For R1 ∥ R 2, R3, R4 , R5 and R6 ∥ R7:

RT = ( R1 ∥ R2 ) + R3 + R4 + R 5 + ( R6 ∥ R7 )

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Page 9 of 17 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes
RT =10+5+10+15+ 20=60 Ω
V 120 V
Thus, I = R = 60 Ω =2 A
T

b) P=V ∙ I =120 V × 2 A=240 W

c) V R =I ∙ R5=2 A ×15 Ω=30 V

5

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Page 10 of 17 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes

Capacitor
 A capacitor is an electronic device that provides storage of electrical charge.

 A basic construction of a capacitor involves placing two metal plates in close proximity
with each other and separating them by use of a non-conducting material (e.g. air, mica,
ceramic, cellulose, porcelain, Teflon, etc.) called a dielectric.

 One of the plates is connected to the negative terminal of a voltage source (e.g. a battery)
while the other one is connected to the positive terminal.
o The plate attached to the negative terminal accepts electrons that the battery is
producing while the one that is attached to the positive terminal loses electrons to
the battery.
o Once it's charged, the capacitor has the same voltage as the battery (1.5 volts on the
battery means 1.5 volts on the capacitor).

 To store more energy in a capacitor, the voltage across it must be increased. Conversely,
to release energy from a capacitor, the voltage across it must be decreased.

 A capacitor's potential to store electrical energy is known as capacitance.

 Capacitance is symbolized using C is and is measured in units called farads (symbolized
using F).

 The amount of charge on a capacitor is directly proportional to the voltage applied across
its plates. Thus,
Q=CV
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Page 11 of 17 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes
Where,Q is the charge on the capacitor in coulombs (C), C is capacitance in farads (F), V
is the voltage difference between the capacitor plates in volts (V).
 From the equation above,
Q
C=
V
The unit for capacitance - the Farad, therefore, is equivalent to coulomb per volt (C /V ).
Smaller units for the farad includes the millifarad (mF, 1x10 -3 F), the microfarad (μF,
1x10-6 F), the nanofarad (nF, 1x10-9 F) and the picofarad (pF, 1x10-12 F).

 The amount of charge on the plates is a function of the plates’ geometry and the plates’
separation distance. The capacitance of a capacitor, therefore, depends on the size, shape,
and separation distance of the plates.

 Schematic symbol for a capacitor:

 Generally, capacitor symbol represents the two separated plates.

Capacitor types, however, are distinguished by the material used as the dielectric as
summarized below:

i. Plastic film capacitor (polyester is the most

common) - two sheets of foil separated by a
thin plastic film and rolled up to save space.

ii. Ceramic capacitor - alternate layers of metal

and ceramic (a few μm thick).

iii. Electrolytic capacitor - two sheets of aluminum

foil separated by paper soaked in conducting
electrolyte.

iv. Air capacitor – conductive plates are separated

by an air gap.

etc.
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Page 12 of 17 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes

 Charging a capacitor:

‒ Before connecting to a battery, the capacitor is uncharged (no net

charge on the plates) and the potential difference across it is zero
i.e. V c =0 .

‒ In order to charge the capacitor, the positive terminal of a battery

is connected to one of the conductor plates and the negative
terminal to the other.
‒ Electrons start flowing to the plate that is connected to the
negative terminal while the plate that is connected to the positive
terminal is depleted of electrons. This starts a buildup of a
potential difference across the plates of the capacitor (V c >0).
‒ Initially, the potential difference across the battery (V b) is greater
that the potential difference across the capacitor (V c ).

‒ The process continues until V c is equal in magnitude and opposite

in direction to V b. At this point the capacitor is fully charged.
‒ It possesses an electric charge of magnitude Q .
NB: the two plates have a charge of same magnitude but opposite
in polarity.

‒ The charging battery is disconnected and the capacitor remains

charged.

 Discharging a capacitor involves connecting a large valued resistor across its terminals.
This allows electrons to flow back to the positively charged plate. The capacitor is
discharged when neither plate possesses a net charge (flow of electrons stops).

 Like resistors, capacitors in electronic circuits can be connected in series, parallel or both
series and parallel.

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Page 13 of 17 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes
o Capacitors in series

Charge is the same on each capacitor:

‒ if +q units of charge are given to the left hand side (LHS) plate of C 1, then by
induction -q units of charge appears on its right hand side (RHS) plate.
‒ +q appears on the LHS plate of capacitor C 2 and by induction -q appears on
its RHS plate.
‒ +q appears on the LHS plate of capacitor C 3 and by induction -q appears on
its RHS plate.
Consequently,
Q1=Q2=Q3

The potential difference of the source,

V =V 1+V 2+V 3

Since Q=CV ,
Q1 Q2 Q3
V= + +
C1 C2 C3

V =Q ∙ ( 1 1 1
+ +
C 1 C2 C 3 )
Q
V=
CT
Where, C T is the equivalent capacitance for capacitors in series.
Thus,
1 1 1 1
= + +
CT C 1 C2 C 3

Sample question: Three capacitors: 0.20 µF, 0.08 µF and 0.40 µF, are connected in
series and attached to a 12 V battery. Determine (a) the total equivalent
capacitance of the circuit, (b) the charge on each capacitor, and (c) the voltage
across each capacitor.
Solution:

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Page 14 of 17 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
a) C = C + C + C = 0.20 μF + 0.08 μF + 0 , 40 μF =20 μF
T 1 2 3

C T =0.05 μF

b) Q=C T V =0.05 μF ×12 V =0.05 ×10−3 F ×12V =6.0 ×10−4 C=0.6 μC

−3
Q 0.6 ×10 C
c) V 0.20 μF= =
0.20 μF 0.20 ×10−3 F
=3.0 V
−3
Q 0.6 ×10 C
V 0.08 μF= = =7.5V
0.08 μF 0.08 ×10−3 F

−3
Q 0.6 ×10 C
V 0.40 μF= = =1.5 V
0.40 μF 0.40 μF

NB: V =V C +V C +V C =3.0+7.5+1.5=12.0 V
1 2 3

o Capacitors in parallel

The potential difference of the source is equal to that across each capacitor is the
circuit.
Thus,
V =V 1=V 2=V 3
The electric charge on the capacitors is not the same (assuming their capacitance
are not the same). Thus,
Q=Q 1+Q2 +Q3
From Q=CV ,
C T ∙V =C1 ∙V 1 +C 2 ∙ V 2 +C3 ∙ V 3
And since, V 1=V 2 =V 3=V , the effective capacitance for capacitors in parallel
becomes,
C T =C 1 +C2 +C 3

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Page 15 of 17 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes
Sample question: Three capacitors: 0.20 µF, 0.08 µF and 0.40 µF, are connected in
parallel and attached to a 12 V battery. Determine (a) the total equivalent
capacitance of the circuit, (b) the total amount of charge in the circuit, and (c) the
charge on each capacitor.
Solution:
a) C T =C 1 +C2 +C 3=0.20 μF+ 0.08 μF +0.40 μF=0.68 μF

b) Q=C T ∙ V =0.68 μF × 12V =8.16 μC

c) Q1=C 1 ∙ V 1=C 1 ∙ V =0.20 μF × 12V =2.4 μC

Q2=C 2 ∙ V =0.08 μF ×12 V =0.96 μC

Q1=C 3 ∙ V =0.40 μF ×12 V =4.8 μC

NB: Q1 +Q2 +Q3=2.4 μC +0.96 μC+ 4.8 μC=8.16 μC

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Page 16 of 17 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes

Inductor
 An inductor is a device that stores electrical energy in a magnetic field when an electric
current flows through it.

 It is made from an insulated copper wire formed into a coil and wound around a steel
(magnetic substance) core.

 A conductor carrying a time-varying electric current produces a changing magnetic field

around the conductor as shown in the figure below. The resulting magnetic field is a
time-varying electromagnetic field.

o The electromagnetic field has a circular shape (direction given by the right hand grip
rule) and exists along the whole length of the conductor.
o The changing electromagnetic field induces a voltage across the coil (Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction) in a direction to oppose the change in the current (Lenz’s
law). This is referred to as inductance.

 Inductance, therefore, is a measure of a coil’s ability to establish an induced voltage as a

result of a changing current.
It is symbolized using “L” and measured in the unit of Henry (H).
Typical values of H range from 1 µH to 20 H.

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Page 17 of 17 SPH 2110: Instrumental Electronics Lecture Notes

 An inductor is characterized by its inductance and is given by the ratio of the induced
voltage to the rate of change of current.
 Inductors are mainly classified depending on the type of magnetic core which is mostly
iron or ferrite. Their schematic symbols are shown below (a) with iron core, (b) with
ferrite core:

 The magnetic core serves to increase the magnetic field and thus the inductance.
 The schematic symbol for an inductor without eh magnetic core is shown below:

 Inductors are mostly used in blocking alternating current (AC) while allowing direct
current (DC) to pass.

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