Applied Energy 251 (2019) 113383

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Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Applicability evaluation of embedded piezoelectric energy harvester applied T

in pavement structures
⁎ ⁎
Chaohui Wanga, , Shuai Wanga, Zhiwei Gaob, , Xingju Wangc
a
School of Highway, Chang’an University, Xi’an 710064, China
b
College of Information Engineering, Xizang Minzu University, Xianyang 712000, China
c
School of Traffic and Transportation, Shijiazhuang Tiedao University, Shijiazhuang 050043, China

H I GH L IG H T S

• The adaptabilities of typical structural combinations of power pavement are clarified.

• The protection measures of energy harvesters are designed based on the characteristics of pavement rolling.
• The adaptabilities of energy harvesters in different road application conditions are evaluated.

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The piezoelectric energy harvester is buried in the pavement structure, the generated electric energy can be used
Piezoelectric energy-harvesting for daily power supply in the city, and can also be used for traffic safety early warning power supply in
Energy harvester mountainous corners. However, whether the energy harvester is suitable for the pavement structure directly
Applicability affects its power generation performance and long-term performance. Therefore, the energy harvester is taken as
Pavement structure combinations
the research object, and the adaptabilities of energy harvesters in different road application conditions are
Protection
systematically evaluated. The adaptabilities of typical structural combinations of power pavement are clarified
Roads
based on the application status of road engineering. The protection measures of harvesters are designed based on
the stress characteristics of pavement. Finally, the adaptabilities of harvesters under different pavement struc-
ture combinations, different loads and different working temperatures are studied. The results indicate that the
buried depth of energy harvester is inversely related to the electrical output effect. The Rubber Modified Asphalt-
concrete, Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA), and Open Graded Friction Course (OGFC) on the upper layer are ad-
vantageous in terms of improving the electrical output effect of the power pavement. The electrical output in the
heavy load section of medium temperatures (30–60 °C) is better although it is necessary to focus on the structural
integrity of the heavy load section power pavement. Additionally, the strength of energy harvester satisfies the
requirements for road construction and application phases. The findings will promote the practical application of
piezoelectric energy harvester in road engineering.

1. Introduction electricity of piezoelectric energy harvesting techniques for pavement is

Given the depletion of traditional energy sources, green renewable
energy is increasingly considered seriously by various industries
worldwide, such as solar [1], thermal [2], wind [3], ocean [4] and
vibration [5,6]. With the development of new energy electric transport,
the electricity demand for pavements is becoming increasingly urgent.
Existing smart piezoelectric energy harvesting techniques for pavement
convert pavement mechanical vibration energy into electrical energy
via the piezoelectric effect of piezoelectric materials [7]. The generated
directly supplied to surrounding power supplies such as road auxiliary
facilities, or cumulatively stored to power next generation electric cars.
Currently, the technical approaches to piezoelectric power pavements
are mainly divided into two types as follows: the power pavement
technology based on power device and the power pavement technology
based on buried energy harvester.
The power pavement technology based on power device is a tech-
nology in which several energy harvesters are placed in a device
structure in a specific array to realize stable output of piezoelectric

⁎
Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: wchh0205@chd.edu.cn (C. Wang), gaozhiwy@163.com (Z. Gao).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.113383
Received 15 February 2019; Received in revised form 16 May 2019; Accepted 18 May 2019
0306-2619/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C. Wang, et al.
power generation. Jeong et al. [8] developed a high performance hy-
brid nanocomposite generator (hNCG) device for self-powered wear-
able patch devices. Jung et al. [9] designed a energy harvesting model
based on organic piezoelectric material polyvinylidene fluoride. Wang
et al. [10] proposed a compact energy harvesting device and adjusted
the resonant frequency and device width that affect the efficiency of the
device through multivariate nonlinear technology. Cao et al. [11] de-
signed a self-generating system for highway vibration based on piezo-
electric effect, and the vehicle vibration energy was converted into
electric energy by implanting a power device in pavement. However,
the construction process of the technology is relatively complicated,
and it can easily lead to road cracks, misalignment and other defects in
the long-term. The technology is not suitable for special road occasions.
The power pavement technology based on buried energy harvester
is a technology that directly buries energy harvesters in the pavement to
realize the conversion of road mechanical vibration energy to electric
energy. When compared with the special application of power device,
the technology exhibits the advantages of relatively strong controll-
ability, relatively simple construction, and is less prone to road surface
cracks. Furthermore, it closely meets the needs of the aforementioned
applications. Currently, several countries examined power pavement
technology based on buried energy harvester. Ravi et al. [12] proposed
a monolithic mixed finite element formula for predictive modeling and
simulation of energy harvester. Kwon et al. [13] explored the energy
conversion efficiency of a bimorph transduction structure in a low
frequency vibration environment. Moure et al. [14] explored the fea-
sibility of collecting vibrational energy of asphalt concrete via a cymbal
energy harvester. Zhao [15] and Najini [16] et al. used a finite element
software to compare the energy output efficiency of multilayers, bi-
morphs, and cymbals in the road environment and concluded that the
energy output of a multilayer energy harvester is relatively superior.
Nair et al. [17] preliminarily studied the maximum output voltage of
asphalt specimens with piezoelectric crystal under different height
impact loads according to the Indian Bureau of Standards.
Although the technology exhibits a superior application prospect, it
is still in the laboratory and prototype verification stage, and has not yet
reached the practical application. The reason is that most studies focus
on improving the power generation performance of energy harvester,
ignoring the influence of application conditions such as pavement
structure, road traffic and temperature on the long-term stability of
energy harvester applied in pavement, and the necessary protective
measures are not provided for energy harvester's force characteristics in
the pavement structure, so that the power pavement technology based
on buried energy harvester still has problems such as unclear applic-
ability and unsatisfactory work durability of energy harvester in the
application conditions, which affect its practical application in road
engineering.
To clarify the applicability and durability of energy harvester in the
application conditions such as pavement structure, road traffic and
temperature, and realize the application of piezoelectric power gen-
eration technology for pavement, the type of energy harvester applied
to the pavement is identified in Section 2.1. Several typical structure
combinations for power pavement are proposed based on the current
status of pavement engineering application, the adaptabilities of the
typical structure combinations of power pavement are analyzed, and
the layout area of energy harvester is selected in Section 2.2. The en-
ergy harvester protection measures are designed based on the stress
characteristics of pavement in Section 2.3. Subsequently, the adapt-
abilities and work durability of energy harvester are analyzed in dif-
ferent application conditions in Section 3. The works will promote the
practical application of piezoelectric energy harvester in road en-
gineering.
2
Applied Energy 251 (2019) 113383
2. Testing method and protection of energy harvester
2.1. Piezoelectric energy harvester
2.1.1. Theory of energy harvester
Energy harvester is the core component to transform the vibration
energy of a power pavement into electrical energy. Based on the dif-
ferent charge generation characteristics of piezoelectric materials, the
main force-electricity conversion modes of Piezoelectric ceramic
transducer (PZT) are divided into two types as follows: (1) d31 mode
where the applied stress is axial and the direction of the generated
electric field is vertical; (2) d33 mode where the direction of the applied
stress is consistent with that of the electric field. And the power gen-
eration performance of the d33 mode significantly exceeds that of the
d31 mode.
The stacked energy harvester in the d33 mode exhibits the ad-
vantages of high power and electrical conversion efficiency, large
structural rigidity, good structural regularity, and good structural fa-
tigue resistance and can satisfy the environmental energy conversion
requirements of high-frequency and low-frequency loads [18].
Stacked energy harvester is formed by stacking single-layer piezo-
electric ceramics electrically in series or in parallel. Given the relatively
high voltage and low current characteristics of piezoelectric ceramics,
road piezoelectric technology is often used in a parallel stacking
manner to facilitate its electrical output and acquisition. Additionally,
the electrical output efficiency of the stacked energy harvester is as
follows:
C0 C1
β =
(C0 + C1)2 (1)
where β denotes the electrical output efficiency, C0 denotes the external
capacitance, and C1 denotes the inherent capacitance.
The electrical output efficiency of the stacked energy harvester is
related to external capacitance and inherent capacitance, and the en-
ergy harvester exhibits the highest electrical output efficiency when the
two are equal. However, the inherent capacitance of PZT is extremely
small, and its inherent capacitance should be increased to the maximum
possible extent.
2.1.2. Parameter and structure of energy harvester
The power generation performance and mechanical strength are not
only affected by connection methods, but by its thickness, diameter,
layers, and material properties. The thickness of energy harvester is
mainly composed of the thickness of insulating protective layer and the
piezoelectric ceramic sheet. Considering the integrity of the pavement
structure, the thickness of the energy harvester should be as small as
possible. When the energy harvester is produced by combining the
manufacturing equipment, technical level, economy and strength per-
formance of the current ceramic, the thickness can be taken between
0.5 and 1.0 mm [19].
And this paper comprehensively considers the inherent capacitance,
structural strength, and economic cost of energy harvesters, typical
energy harvesters with a diameter of 30 mm [14], a single layer
thickness of 0.5 mm and 1.0 mm, and a layer number corresponding to
6 layers are used as research objects to appraise the adaptability of
energy harvesters for pavement.
In order to facilitate the recording, different energy harvesters are
named by the nomenclature: Φ-h-n, where Φ denotes the diameter of
energy harvester, h denotes the thickness of it, and n denotes the
number of stacked layers. The energy harvesters designed in this paper
are 30–0.5–6 and 30–1.0–6. The structure of stacked energy harvester is
shown in Fig. 1.
2.1.3. Materials and fabrication of energy harvester
The piezoelectric material influences the energy output effect of
stacked energy harvester. The power pavement is subject to vehicle
C. Wang, et al.
Fig.1. Structure of stacked energy harvester.
load and must exhibit sufficient compressive strength. Lead zirconate
titanate piezoelectric ceramics are widely used in road piezoelectric
technology due to their advantages in terms of high compressive
strength, high piezoelectric coefficient, high dielectric constant, easy
processing, and large output [20], and the technical indicators are
shown in Table 1. The stacked energy harvester fabricated by the
electrode bonding method have larger output power, better structural
stability, and more outstanding road performance [21,22]. Therefore,
the stacked energy harvesters are fabricated by electrode bonding
method.
2.2. Typical structure combination of power pavement and testing methods
2.2.1. Typical structure combination
When the power pavement is applied to a road environment, the
pavement structure is required to act as a carrier, and there are dif-
ferences in the stress–strain transmission characteristics of different
road surface structures as well as the power output effects. Therefore, it
is necessary to determine the typical structural combination of the
power pavement.
(1) Type and stress analysis of power pavement
At present, the pavement is dominated by asphalt pavement and
cement pavement, and the type of power pavement can be selected
from the two pavement types.
The power pavement designed in this paper is to place the fabri-
cated single stacked energy harvester into the asphalt concrete pave-
ment or cement concrete pavement structure. The larger the deforma-
tion of energy harvester, the more electric energy is generated, and it
can be concluded that the greater the stress applied to the energy
harvester, the more favorable the electrical output level is.
From the aspect of stress transmission, the vertical stress attenua-
tion of asphalt pavement in the range of 0–70 cm is smaller than that of
cement pavement when the same load is applied [23]. If the energy
harvesters were respectively placed in two pavement structures of the
same depth, the vertical stress of energy harvester inside the asphalt
pavement should be larger than that of the cement pavement, which is
more favorable for the improvement of the power generation level. For
the embedding depth of energy harvester in asphalt pavement, Roshani
[24] analyzed and concluded by finite element modeling that the ver-
tical stress of energy harvester in the range of 2–5 cm in the asphalt
pavement is about 90% of the road surface tire pressure. In order to
ensure that the energy harvester buried in the pavement structure can
receive sufficient driving load, the buried depth is chosen to be 2–5 cm.
Table 1
Material specifications of piezoelectric ceramic sheets.
Material Electromechanical coupling coefficient/Kp Dielectric constant/ε
PZT-5H 0.68 3200
Applied Energy 251 (2019) 113383
(2) Typical structural combination of power pavement
In order to make the research results more universal applicability,
this paper considers existing asphalt mixture materials, grading types in
the road field, and structure combinations for new construction, re-
construction, and maintenance of roads and determines various struc-
ture combinations for power pavement. Subsequently, the adaptability
of typical structural combinations is analyzed to provide guidelines for
the selection of power pavement structure combinations in different
application environments.
When power pavements are used on conventional highways or
urban roads, there are mainly two cases of road reconstruction and
newly-built road design. Existing pavement surface renovation and
paving is a common construction plan. The energy output effect of the
power pavement is tested under the typical combination of 2-cm thin
layer cover +3-cm AC-13 structure. Different elastic modulus pave-
ment structures exhibit different stress transfer effects, and thus AC-13
(A-13) and modified AC-13 (JA-13) test are designed to analyze the
effect of elastic modulus on the power generation performance of
“2 + 3 mode” power pavement.
The typical surface combination for a newly-built road corresponds
to the “4 + 6 mode”. Decreases in the elastic modulus of the pavement
material increase the deflection effect under the load. Therefore, AC-13,
modified AC-13, SMA, and OGFC grading types are used to examine the
effect of the elastic modulus on the power generation performance of
the power pavement. Additionally, AC-16 structure is used for the lower
layer. The typical structure combination of power pavement is shown in
Fig. 2. Different grades of asphalt mixtures exhibit different mechanical
properties, and they are also limited by their own technical character-
istics, thereby resulting in a certain degree of applicability of the sur-
face layers formed by combining different gradations and layer thick-
nesses. The analysis of the advantages, disadvantages, and applicability
of the typical structural combination of power pavements is shown in
Table 2.
2.2.2. Testing methods
There are differences in the structural characteristics for road,
traffic load characteristics, and ambient temperature characteristics of
energy harvesters implanted in the pavement structure in different
application conditions, and the corresponding electrical output char-
acteristics are also different. Therefore, it is necessary to clarify the
electrical output effect of energy harvester in the application conditions
such as pavement structure, road traffic and temperature, and verify the
work durability in the construction and application process.
The purpose of the test is not to determine the optimal output
voltage or output power, but to evaluate the application effect of energy
harvester in different road application conditions, to ensure that it is
suitable for the pavement structure, which will promote the practical
application process of piezoelectric energy harvester in road en-
gineering.
(1) Energy harvester layout
Most of the wheel tracks are distributed over two 0.5 m wide road
surfaces that are symmetric about the midline of the road. It should be
noted that the study focuses on the applicability of energy harvester for
pavement. Therefore, the energy harvester layout area is selected based
on the common vehicle tire grounding section width at this stage, and
this part is crushed during the test. In order to avoid the influence of
Piezoelectric constant/10−12m/V Mechanical quality factor/Qm Bulk density/ρ
780 70 7.5
3
C. Wang, et al.
Fig. 2. Typical structure combination of power pavement.
individual energy harvester parameters on the test results, four energy
harvesters (#1, #2, #3, #4) are buried, the maximum values are se-
lected as the test result, and the specimens that simulate a real power
pavement structure are prepared to evaluate the applicability and
electrical output performance of energy harvester for pavement. The
electrical output performance of different layouts of energy harvesters
will continue to be explored in the future.
The tread width of automobile tires is mostly concentrated between
0.7 and 0.85 times of the section width [25,26]. The widths of common
automobile tires are mainly concentrated between 185 and 255 mm,
and the corresponding tire tread widths are mainly concentrated be-
tween 130 and 217 mm. Therefore, the energy harvester layout area is
selected to be 220 mm × 220 mm, and the area is crushed during the
test.
(2) Different combinations of pavement structures
Power pavement is applied to different road environments, and the
road structures are different. The corresponding stress and strain effects
are different, and the resulting electrical output is not identical. In the
study, the standard axle load of 0.7 MPa is applied on the rut instrument
to simulate the actual vehicle wheel load (Fig. 3 (a)), and the simulated
rolling frequency is 42 times/min [27]. The output voltage and the
maximum output power of the six typical pavement structure combi-
nations that include the “2 + 3 mode” (A13 + B, JA13 + B) and “4 + 6
mode” (A16 + A13, A16 + JA13, A16 + S, A16 + O) are tested.
(3) Different loads
The traffic load faced by power pavement in practical applications is
different, and it is extremely complicated for the energy harvester to be
subject to the stress and strain state of the asphalt mixture due to the
non-linear elastic characteristics of the road material. In order to clarify
the electrical output effect of the power pavement in different load
environments, the load range corresponds to 0.7 MPa − 1.1 MPa
[27,28], and the AC-16 (6 cm) + AC-13 (4 cm) specimens of newly-
built road is used as the carriers. The weight of mass block on the rut
instrument wheel is added by calculating to adjust the load size (Fig. 3
(b)), and the electrical output of the power pavement with different
load sizes are tested separately.
(4) Different operating temperatures
4
Applied Energy 251 (2019) 113383
A complex correlation exists between the elastic modulus of asphalt
mixture and temperature. The mechanical properties of asphalt pave-
ment in different regions vary across seasons. Therefore, it is necessary
to completely grasp the energy output effect of power pavement in the
wide temperature range and clarify the laying occasion of power pa-
vement. The maximum temperature of pavement generally corresponds
to approximately 60 °C. The study uses three types of relatively low
temperature (0 °C, 10 °C, 20 °C and 30 °C), medium temperature (40 °C,
50 °C and 60 °C) and high temperature (70 °C) as a regular exploratory
temperature condition and uses the common structure of newly-built
road AC-16 (6 cm) + AC-13 (4 cm) as a test specimen. Before the test,
different specimens were set to a specific temperature for 5 h in high
and low temperature alternating test chambers (Fig. 3 (d)). During the
test, the test temperatures were controlled by the rutting control system
to test the voltage output and power rules of pavement with different
working temperatures.
(5) Work durability of power pavement
When the power pavement is implemented, it faces two problems:
First, whether the pavement exhibits structural damage under the
heavy load of construction machinery during the construction process;
Second, whether the buried harvester exhibits piezoelectric perfor-
mance degradation under frequent loads. Therefore, the study proposes
the following two indicators to evaluate the durability of the power
pavement.
① Structural integrity of energy harvester during construction com-
paction
The Φ152 mm cylindrical specimens involve a layered preparation
(the energy harvester depth is approximately 4 cm). The vibration
rolling process (10 kN-40 Hz-60 s) is simulated due to the vibration
compaction molding equipment, and the test process and specimen are
shown in Fig. 4(a–d). After the test is completed, the specimens are
placed in an oven (T = 175 °C). Subsequently, the specimens are sof-
tened and loosened, and the harvesters are removed to observe struc-
tural integrity as shown in Fig. 4(e–f).
② Durability of power pavement in the operation stage
Power pavements with increased construction costs create sig-
nificant economic benefits over a long service life. The AC-13
C. Wang, et al. Applied Energy 251 (2019) 113383

(4 cm) + AC-16 (6 cm) specimens are used as the carrier, and the long-
term reciprocating load is applied by the rutting rubber wheel.

Consistent with OGFC adaptation

Adapted to high-grade roads or
Additionally, the representative 5000 test points are selected to clarify

Wide adaptability and strong

Wide adaptability and strong

Old road upgraded to power

Old road upgraded to power

the relationship between the voltage output 30–1.0–6 energy harvester
and the number of rolling.

heavy-duty roads
2.3. Materials and protection
adaptability

promotion

promotion

conditions
pavement

pavement

Piezoelectric energy harvesters are implanted inside the pavement

structure and subject to the confinement effect of dense materials.
Certain differences exist in the working environment when compared
with the experimental system. Therefore, it is necessary to prepare a
Construction technology of the lower layer is slightly complicated and the cover surface is thin,
Cover surface is thin, and the energy harvester is frequently slipped out due to frequent loads

simulated specimen to evaluate the electrical output effect of energy

harvesters in real pavement. Based on the structure combination of
Construction process is slightly more complicated and the upper layer is less durable

power pavement, typical raw materials for the pavement and reason-
able grading types are used to prepare specimens with different struc-
OGFC exhibits large gaps, and the energy harvester may be damaged by water
High cost and heavy-duty section should focus on overall structural durability

ture combinations of pavements to ensure the reliability of each test

result.
Dense structure of the upper layer is not conducive to load transfer

2.3.1. Materials and energy harvester protection

and this may result in the overall occurrence of bad phenomena

(1) Pavement materials

The asphalt used for the test corresponds to SBS I-D modified as-
phalt, the coarse aggregate corresponds to high quality basalt, the fine
aggregate corresponds to limestone mechanism sand, and the mineral
powder corresponds to high quality limestone powder. In each type of
grading, SMA and OGFC are added with lignin fibers to increase the
stability of asphalt. Additionally, OGFC is added with ATFAPCK-SPuer
(TPS), a high-viscosity modified asphalt additive to improve asphalt
cohesion.

(2) Energy harvester protection

Disadvantage

The energy harvesters form the core of energy conversion in pie-

zoelectric power pavement technology. Additionally, a complex road
environment places higher requirements on the structural strength of
energy harvesters. The energy harvesters embedded in the pavement
Lower layer reduces the overall stiffness of the pavement and is

SMA grades are good for transferring loads and exhibit excellent

structure must be in direct contact with the coarse aggregate of the

Commonly structure combination of newly-built roads, simple

Upper layer enhances the flexibility of the road and is more

asphalt mixture during construction, and the stress concentration oc-

OGFC structure exhibits a lower elastic modulus, skeleton

curs under the load. This affects the energy conversion efficiency and
Convenient construction, low cost, good prospects for

durability of the harvester. Furthermore, well-designed protection can

effectively improve the stress concentration phenomenon.
The stress concentration phenomena of energy harvesters include
harvester lead, solder bump, and harvester surfaces in contact with
structure is conducive to stress transfer

coarse aggregates. The pretreatment of harvester protection consists of

construction process, and low cost

road performance and longer life

the following two main aspects:

efficient than ordinary structures
conducive to stress transmission

① Solder bump: The side of the insulated energy harvester is packaged

and placed in a cylindrical container (Φ35 mm), and the epoxy resin
is injected sideways and solidified for 2 h as shown in Fig. 5 (c). The
transformation

package insulation effectively protects the structure of the welding

Adaptability of typical structure combination.

bulge, reduces the stress concentration at the bulge, avoids the loss
Advantage

of power, and ensures the effective output of electricity;

② Lead: The insulated rubber tape with good adhesion, high tem-
perature resistance, and corrosion resistance is wrapped, heated,
(D) A16 + JA13

and shrunk to prevent the lead from being melted or broken during
(C) A16 + A13
(B) JA13 + B
Abbreviation

(F) A16 + O
(A) A13 + B

(E) A16 + S

high temperature and high pressure;

③ Harvester surfaces contact with coarse aggregates: In a manner si-
milar to the asphalt mixture, the same type of asphalt is used as a
flexible material to coat the harvester surface and the insulated
rubber tape lead (Fig. 5 (d)), and this blocks contact between the
“2 + 3” Mode

“4 + 6” Mode

coarse aggregate and the harvester although it weakens or even

eliminates the surface stress concentration and avoids harvester
Table 2

Mode

structure damage, couples with the pavement material to ensure the

integrity of the power pavement and the effectiveness of internal

5
C. Wang, et al.
Fig. 3. Energy output test system of power pavement. (a) Rut instrument test; (b) Load size adjustment; (c) Digital oscilloscope; (d) Constant temperature system.
load transfer, extends the life of the unprotected harvesters, and
thereby ensure the electrical output effect and durability of the
harvesters.
When the harvester is covered with asphalt, its surface inevitably
produces the matrix effect. The upper and lower surfaces of harvesters
selected in this paper are protected by a rigid copper sheet, and the
periphery is encapsulated by epoxy resin. The asphalt is not in contact
with the internal piezoelectric material, so there is no matrix effect
between the asphalt and the piezoelectric material; And there may be a
matrix effect between the bitumen and the copper sheet, the bitumen
and the epoxy resin. However, these matrix effects have little effect on
the efficiency of the internal piezoelectric material to convert the me-
chanical energy into electrical energy, which can be negligible.
Therefore, when studying the performance of harvester for power pa-
vement, the influence of the matrix effect caused by the coated asphalt
can be neglected.
2.3.2. Specimen
The energy harvesters are implanted into the surface layer of the
power pavement through a layered paving method. Before the har-
vesters are buried, they need to be pretreated to prevent structural
damage during the high temperature and high pressure process. Based
on the “Standard Test Methods of Bitumen and Bituminous Mixtures for
Highway Engineering” (JTG E20-2011), two types of power pavement
specimens are prepared (Fig. 5), namely the “2 + 3 mode” and “4 + 6
mode”.
3. Applicability evaluation of energy harvester
3.1. Different combinations of pavement structures
Based on the method in Section 2.2.2, the maximum output open
Fig. 4. Test process and energy harvester after test. (a) Energy harvester buried between layers; (b) Layered paving specimens; (c) Simulation test; (d) Rolled
specimens; (e) Softened specimens; (f) Separated energy harvester.
6
Applied Energy 251 (2019) 113383
circuit voltage and output power of the power pavement with different
typical pavement structure combinations are tested under the standard
load of 0.7 MPa (Fig. 6).
As shown in Fig. 6, the maximum output open circuit voltage of
power pavement is approximately 18.92 V, and the maximum output
power is approximately 41.62 mW, and this exhibits a good electricity
harvesting prospect. The open circuit voltage and output power of the
“2 + 3 mode” power pavement based on the same harvesters evidently
exceed “4 + 6 mode”, and the former is approximately 2–3.5 times the
latter. This indicates that the buried depth of the buried layer harvester
is a key factor that affects the electrical output of the power pavement.
Increases in the depth at which the harvester is buried decrease the
stimulation of the vehicle load stress and worsen the effect of the
electrical output.
Simultaneously, the output voltage of the “2 + 3 mode” JA13 + B
power pavement is reduced by 0.84 V and 1.08 V when compared with
that of the A13 + B structure, thereby indicating that the lower layer
JA13 weakens the energy output effect. The reason is that the rubber
powder modification reduces the modulus of the asphalt concrete and
increases its deformation. The overall structure of the energy harvester
sinks under the transfer stress of the upper layer, and the stress is not
effectively converted into the energy harvester compression. The results
also indicate increases in the hardness of the lower bearing surface of
the harvester improve the output effect under the same load conditions.
Conversely, the energy output under the “4 + 6” mode is
A16 + A13 < A16 + JA13 ≈ A16 + S ≈ A16 + O. It is observed that
the excellent viscoelastic recovery characteristic of the upper layer
rubber modified asphalt mixture JA13, high strength modulus of the
SMA mixture, and large particle aggregate of the OGFC mixture are
beneficial to load stress transfer. This is advantageous to the electrical
output of the power pavement.
C. Wang, et al. Applied Energy 251 (2019) 113383

Fig. 5. Preparation of power pavement. (a) Paving the binder course; (b) Interlayer treatment, Spilled adhesive oil; (c) Energy harvester protection; (d) Processed
energy harvester, placed on the specimen; (e) Shaped specimen.

Fig. 6. Electrical output under typical pavement structure combinations. (a) Maximum output open circuit voltage (b) Maximum output power.

Fig. 7. Electrical output under different loads. (a) Maximum output open circuit voltage (b) Maximum output power.

7
C. Wang, et al.
3.2. Different loads
The electrical output of the power pavement under different loads is
shown in Fig. 7. As shown in Fig. 7, when the load increases, the
maximum open circuit output voltage of power pavement exhibits a
linear increase trend while the maximum output power of pavement
approximately exhibits a certain exponential or parabolic shape. The
maximum output voltage of pavement at the 1.1 MPa load level is
13.16 V, and this corresponds to the maximum output power of
21.04 mW, which is 1.5 times and 1.9 times, respectively, that at the
0.7 MPa load level. This indicates the output power of pavement grows
faster when the load level increases, and this is reflected in the fact that
the power generation effect of the heavy load road section is more
prominent. However, in this case, it is necessary to focus on the influ-
ence of the integrity of the road structure and the observation of the
rutting on the electrical output effect of the power pavement.
3.3. Different temperature
After the specimens of power pavement are insured for 5 h, it is
placed in the rutting constant temperature test environment. Based on
the method of Section 2.2.2, the voltage output effect and power var-
iation laws of the power pavement are tested as shown in Fig. 8.
As shown in Fig. 8, the open output voltage of power pavement
exhibits an increasing trend when the temperature of pavement in-
creases. The change in the pavement temperature from 0 to 30 °C (low
temperature) is relatively slow, and the change from 30 to 60 °C
(middle temperature) is obvious. At 70 °C (high temperature), a certain
degree of reduction is observed. The maximum output power of pave-
ment also exhibits a pattern similar to the temperature changes. The
reasons for the analysis are as follows: the asphalt mixture presents
three states corresponding to low temperature and high hardness,
medium temperature softening, and high temperature soft deformation
with the temperature change. The lower load stress in the softening
state at medium temperature can affect energy harvester to a greater
extent while the high temperature deformation state results in changes
in the disturbance position of the lower bearing layer of the energy
harvester. Simultaneously, the road rut disease easily causes the energy
harvester to fall out and affects the electrical output of harvesters. It is
observed that the application effect of power pavement in low tem-
perature and high temperature environments are significantly affected,
and thus the application to medium-temperature areas is considered.
Fig. 8. Electrical output under different operating temperatures. (a) Maximum output open circuit voltage (b) Maximum output power.
8
Applied Energy 251 (2019) 113383
3.4. Work durability of energy harvester
The above analysis analyzes the energy output effect of the buried
energy harvester based on the power pavement in a specific environ-
ment, thereby indicating a good application prospect. Additionally, the
work durability of power pavement is evaluated based on the method of
Section 2.2.2.
(1) Structural integrity of energy harvester during construction com-
paction
As shown in Fig. 4(f), the energy harvester is essentially intact after
undergoing the high-frequency and high-pressure during the construc-
tion period, and evident cracks, pitting, and misalignment are not ob-
served, thereby indicating that the buried energy harvester can with-
stand the high-frequency and high-pressure during the construction
period of the power pavement and satisfy the strength requirements of
the pavement construction stage.
(2) Durability of energy harvester in the operation stage
As shown in Fig. 9, the representative output voltage of the energy
harvester exhibits a decreasing trend with increases in the rolling times
although the reduction is low, thereby indicating that the energy har-
vester does not exhibit an obvious piezoelectric performance attenua-
tion phenomenon. This is because the repeated action of the rubber
wheel increases the compactness of the pavement material and the
energy harvester is more closely restrained, thereby resulting in a re-
duction in the vibration space, and the macroscopic performance in-
dicates that the output voltage exhibits a slight decrease.
In summary, the electrical output of the power pavement based on
the energy harvester is significant in different environments. The em-
bedding depth of the inter-layer harvester is inversely related to the
electrical output effect of the power pavement, and the stiffness of the
lower bearing surface of the harvester is positively correlated with it.
The superior viscoelastic recovery characteristics of the JA13, high
strength modulus characteristic of the SMA, and large aggregates of the
OGFC on the upper layer are beneficial in improving the electrical
output effect of the pavement. The energy output of pavement in the
heavy load section of medium temperature (30–60 °C) area is more
optimal. Additionally, the energy harvester satisfies the strength re-
quirements during the pavement construction and application, and the
electrical output is relatively stable.
Furthermore, the electrical output performance of different layouts
of energy harvesters will continue to be explored, the facilities
C. Wang, et al.
Fig. 9. Relationship between the output voltage of the 30–1.0–6 energy har-
vester and rolling times.
matching the typical application environment will be developed, the
intelligent development of power pavement will be realized through
intelligent control technology, thus realizing the practical application of
piezoelectric power pavement technology.
4. Conclusion
(1) The stacked piezoelectric energy harvester fabricated by electrode
bonding method was used for the power pavement. The energy
harvester protection measures were designed based on the stress
characteristics of pavement. Subsequently, combining the stress
analysis of power pavement and the application status of road en-
gineering, the typical structure combination schemes of “2 + 3
mode” and “4 + 6 mode” were proposed. The output voltage and
output power of the “2 + 3 mode” power pavement evidently ex-
ceeded that of the “4 + 6 mode”.
(2) The buried depth of the energy harvester was inversely propor-
tional to the electrical output effect of the pavement, and the
stiffness of the harvester lower bearing surface was positively re-
lated to the energy output effect of the pavement. The Rubber
Modified Asphalt-concrete, Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA), and Open
Graded Friction Course (OGFC) aided in improving the electrical
output effect of the power pavement, and the three types of pave-
ment structures can be considered in practical applications.
(3) The output voltage and output power of energy harvester for pa-
vement exhibited a linear increasing trend with the increase of the
load. This was reflected in the actual application corresponding to
the power effect of a heavy load section that was more prominent.
However, it was necessary to focus on the integrity of the road
structure and to observe the effects of ruts and other factors on the
electrical output of energy harvester for pavement.
(4) The output voltage and output power of energy harvester for pa-
vement increased with increases in the pavement temperature. The
effects of energy harvester for pavement in the low temperature and
high temperature environment were significantly affected, and it
can be considered in the medium temperature region when it is
applied. The findings will promote the practical application of
piezoelectric energy harvester in road engineering.
Acknowledgement
This paper describes research activities mainly requested and
Applied Energy 251 (2019) 113383
sponsored by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central
Universities, China (Program No. 300102218207, 300102218304,
300102219314) and Shaanxi Province Innovation Support Program in
2017 (Program No. 2017KW-033). The sponsorship and team's efforts
are gratefully acknowledged.
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