Journal of Environmental Management 197 (2017) 50e62

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Journal of Environmental Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

Research article

Genesis and properties of wetland soils by VIS-NIR-SWIR as a

technique for environmental monitoring

Alexandre Melo Dematte
Jose ^ a, *, Ingrid Hora

k-Terra b, Raphael Moreira Beirigo c,
Fabrício da Silva Terra d, Karina Patrícia Prazeres Marques a, Caio Troula Fongaro a,
Alexandre Christo
faro Silva e, Pablo Vidal-Torrado a
a ~o Paulo, Pa
Department of Soil Science, College of Agriculture “Luiz de Queiroz”, University of Sa
dua Dias Avenue, 11, CP 9, Piracicaba, SP, 13418-900, Brazil
b
Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Federal University of Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys e Campus Unaí, Vereador Joa ~o Narciso Avenue, 1380, Unaí, MG,
38610-000, Brazil
c
Department of Soils and Rural Engineering, Center of Agricultural Science, Federal University of Paraíba e Campus II, Highway BR 079 Km 12, Areia, PB,
58397-000, Brazil
d
Center for Technological Development/Water Resources Engineering, Federal University of Pelotas - Campus Porto, Street Gomes Carneiro Street, 1, Center,
Pelotas, RS, 96010-610, Brazil
e
Department of Forest Engineering, Federal University of Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys, Campus JK, Highway MGT 367 e Km 583, nº 5000, Diamantina,
MG, 39100-000, Brazil

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Wetlands are important ecosystems characterized by redoximorphic environments producing typical soil
Received 23 April 2016 forming processes and organic carbon accumulation. Assessments and management of these areas are
Received in revised form dependent on knowledge about soil characteristics and variability. By reflectance spectroscopy, infor-
3 March 2017
mation about soils can be obtained since their spectral behaviors are directly related to their chemical,
Accepted 4 March 2017
Available online 18 March 2017
physical, and mineralogical properties reflecting the pedogenetic processes and environment conditions.
Our aims were: (a) to characterize the main soil classes of wetlands regarding their spectral behaviors in
VIS-NIR-SWIR (350e2500 nm) and relate them to pedogenesis and environmental conditions, (b) to
Keywords:
Remote sensing
determine spectral ranges (bands) with greater expression of the main soil properties, (c) to identify
Reflectance spectroscopy spectral variations and similarities between hydromorphic soils from wetlands and other soils under
Soil spectral behavior different moisture conditions, and (d) to propose spectral models to quantify some chemical and physical
Soil characterization soil properties used as environmental quality indicators. Nine soil profiles from the Pantanal region
Spectral morphology (Mato Grosso State, Brazil) and one from the Serra do Espinhaço Meridional (Minas Gerais State, Brazil)
Environment monitoring were investigated. Spectral morphology interpretation allowed identifying horizon differences regarding
shape, absorption features and reflectance intensity. Some pedogenetic processes of wetland soils related
to organic carbon accumulation and oxide iron variation were identified by spectra. Principal Component
Analysis allowed discriminating soils from wetland and outside this area (oxidic environment). Quan-
tification of organic carbon was possible with R2 of 0.90 and low error. Quantification of clay content was
masked by soils with organic carbon content over 2% where it was not possible to quantify with high R2
and low error both properties when dataset has soil samples with high organic carbon content. By
reflectance spectroscopy, important characteristics of wetland soils can be identified and used to
distinguish from soils of different environments at low costs, reduced time, and with environmental
quality.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
* Corresponding author.
^), ingrid.horak@ufvjm.edu.
E-mail addresses: jamdemat@usp.br (J.A.M. Dematte According to functional-factorial model proposed by Dokuchaev
br (I. Hor
ak-Terra), rmbeirigo@yahoo.com.br (R.M. Beirigo), fabricio.terra@ufpel. (1883), Shaw (1930), and Jenny (1994), soils are formed from
edu.br (F.S. Terra), karina.marques@usp.br (K.P.P. Marques), caio.fongaro@gmail.
environmental factors such as parent material (rocks, mineral and
com (C.T. Fongaro), alexandre.christo@ufvjm.edu.br (A.C. Silva), pvidal@usp.br
(P. Vidal-Torrado).
organic sediments), climate, relief, organisms, and time. For a

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.03.014
0301-4797/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 J.A.M. Dematt^e et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 197 (2017) 50e62
particular relief (landscape position), the interaction between
parent material and climate determines the presence of organisms,
which acts over time and occur soil formation (pedogenesis). Thus,
soils represent the result of a set of natural resources interaction,
and for that reason, it can be considered one of the best ecosystem
components for environmental stratification.
Soils are considered the base of terrestrial ecosystems and
wetlands plays several environmental functions. Wetlands are
ecosystems with permanent or seasonal flooding where soils
remain saturated to the surface long enough to allow physical,
chemical, and biological processes typical of anaerobic environ-
ments (National Research Council, 1995). Their ecological functions
are essential for regulation of hydrological and biogeochemical
cycles with fauna, flora and soil characteristics (Ramsar Convention
Secretariat, 2013).
Wetland soils have been developed under strong influence of
redoximorphic processes, which cause Fe and Mn redistribution
and organic carbon accumulation. Properties of these soils are
rather distinct from those developed under other hydrological
conditions, and the chemical and mineralogical features are asso-
ciated to the typical pedogenetic processes, such as: paludization,
redoximorphism, and bissialitization. These features are able to be
identified by spectral behavior and are directly related to their
chemical, physical, and mineralogical composition and environ-
ment conditions.
In Brazil, some tropical wetlands are located in the Pantanal and
in the Serra do Espinhaço Meridional, which are internationally
recognized for their ecological importance and considered
biosphere reserves by United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and Ramsar Convention on Wet-
lands (Ramsar Convention Secretariat, 2013). In particular, Pantanal
has around 195.000 km2 of this important ecosystem, and infor-
mation about wetland soils become essential for environmental
studies to develop management plans and carry out impact ana-
lyses in these protected areas.
Reflectance spectroscopy is one part of the remote sensing
techniques where information about properties of objects (soils, for
instance) have been obtained by reflected electromagnetic radia-
tion. There are many reasons to use this technique as an analytical
method in soil analysis, as minimal samples preparation, rapid
analysis, no waste, and simultaneous estimation of many soil
properties (Viscarra Rossel et al., 2009). Reflectance spectroscopy is
a non-destructive method that does not use toxic chemicals ele-
ments to humans and environment and it allows estimating results
equal to conventional wet chemical analyses (Cohen et al., 2007).
The graphic representation of reflectance data of objects along
wavelength is known as curves behavior (or spectral signatures)
and it is dependent on their inherent characteristics (Jensen, 2009).
Soil spectral behavior is directly related to its chemical, physical,
and mineralogical properties reflecting the pedogenetic processes
and environment conditions.
Although many studies are related to quantitative spectroscopy
to model soil properties (Soriano-Disla et al., 2014), qualitative
assessments to investigate shapes and features of spectral behav-
iors are also important for a rapid and efficient identification of soils
based on standards. Tropical wetland soils have not been appro-
priately studied in terms of reflected energy yet. Indeed, there are
not enough information about spectral behaviors of soils from
redoximorphic environments in Brazil. In this country, some
spectral libraries have been developed in order to establish stan-
dards of spectral behaviors of typical tropical soil classes from oxic
environments (Terra et al., 2015; Dematte ^ and Terra, 2014; Belinaso
et al., 2010; Formaggio et al., 1996). Such information can help re-
searches to understand soil characteristics and variability by
spectra making its monitoring better (Viscarra Rossel et al., 2016).
51
The link between pedogenesis and reflectance spectroscopy is
an important step to achieve consistency of spectral analysis and
understanding of soil behavior. In fact, soil characterization is
essential for environmental studies including its management plan,
risk analysis, monitoring and assessments. Besides that, important
soil properties and environmental quality indicators, such as clay
and organic carbon (OC) content, have been properly modeled by
reflectance spectroscopy, and their results have been largely
improved due to advances in statistical modeling (Guerrero et al.,
2016; Shi et al., 2015).
Our aims were (i) to characterize the main soil classes of wet-
lands regarding their spectral behaviors in visible (VIS e
350e700 nm), near infrared (NIR e 700e1100 nm) and shortwave
infrared (SWIR e 1100e2500 nm) and relate them to pedogenesis
and environmental conditions, (ii) to determine spectral ranges
(bands) with greater expression of the main soil properties, (iii) to
identify spectral variations and similarities between hydromorphic
soils from wetland and other soils under different moisture con-
dition, and (iv) to propose spectral models to quantify some
chemical and physical soil properties used as environmental quality
indicators.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Study areas and their respective soil profiles
The Reserva Particular do Patrimo ^nio Natural (RPPN) SESC
Pantanal is located between the rivers Cuiaba
and S~
ao Lourenço, in
Bara~o de Melgaço e Mato Grosso State, Brazil and covers around
106,644 ha (coordinates 16
32’ e 16
490 S and 56
03’ e 56
260 W).
€ ppen, 1948) and characterized as
This climate is classified as Aw (Ko
tropical humid with average annual precipitation of 1200 mm,
eight months of water deficit, annual average temperature of 25
C
(Hasenack et al., 2010), and altitudes between 100 and 150 m
(Nascimento et al., 2013). According to IUSS/WRB (2015), the nine
soil profiles investigated in this region were classified as: Fluvic
Cambisol (CM1 and CM2), Plinthic Gleysol (GL1 and GL2), Cutanic
Luvisol (LV), Endogleyic Arenosol (ARg), Stagnic Solonetz (SNj),
Endogleyic Planosol (PLg) and Pisolithic Plinthosol (PT).
The other area is placed in the Biribiri State Park, in Serra do
Espinhaço Meridional, Diamantina e Minas Gerais State, Brazil, at
1.250 m above sea level, and the sampling place was at top of a
planning surface in the head of the stream San Miguel (coordinates
18º080 S and 43º350 W). The regional climate is classified as Cwb
(Ko€ppen, 1948) and characterized as tropical of altitude with cold
and dry winters, and mild and wet summers. The average annual
temperature is 18.7
C and average annual precipitation is
1500 mm. The soil profile studied was classified as Sapric Histosol
(HS) (IUSS/WRB, 2015), which presents thick layers rich in organic
material alternating with thin layers formed almost by sand,
possibly by alternations of dry and wet periods due to paleoclimatic
changes. Because of mining activity, the lowering of the drainage
network (more than 3.5 m from the surface level) exposed the
peatland in talvegue San Miguel Stream (Silva et al., 2009).
2.2. Wet chemical, particle size distribution, and mineralogy
analysis
The soil samples were air-dried, sieved at 2-mm mesh, and sent to
laboratory for wet chemical and particle size distribution analyses.
Chemical analyses consisted of pH in water, extraction of exchange-
able cations (Al3þ, Ca2þ, and Mg2þ) by KCl solution 1 mol L1 where
Ca2þ and Mg2þ were quantified by atomic absorption spectropho-
tometry and Al3þ exchangeable by titration with NaOH solution
0.025 mol L1, extraction of Naþ and Kþ by Mehlich-1 which were
52 J.A.M. Dematt^e et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 197 (2017) 50e62
quantified by flame photometry and potential acidity (H þ Al)
extracted by calcium acetate solution 0.5 mol L1 at pH 7 and deter-
mined by titration with NaOH solution 0.025 mol L1, according to
Embrapa (2011). Organic carbon (OC) was determined by the Walkley
and Black method (1934). The iron by X-ray Fluorescence Analysis
method, Dithionite-Citrate-Bicarbonate and Acid Oxalate under
darkness method inserted in this article was realized by Coringa et al.
(2014). The particle size distribution analysis was performed ac-
cording to Gee and Or (2002), which clay fraction (<0.002 mm) was
measured by the hydrometer method, total sand fraction
(2e0.05 mm) by sieving and silt fraction (0.05e0.002 mm) was
obtained by difference. Calcium hexametaphosphate 0.1N and so-
dium hydroxide 0.1N were used as dispersing agents. These results
allowed calculating the cationic exchange capacity (CEC ¼
Ca2þ þ Mg2þ þ Kþ þ Naþ þ Hþ þ Al3þ), clay fraction activity
(CFA ¼ [CEC*1000]/g kg1 of clay), and base saturation
(V ¼ [Ca2þ þ Mg2þ þ Kþ þ Naþ/CEC]*100).
2.3. Soil spectral analysis
The soil samples were air-dried, milled, and sieved through a 2-
mm mesh. Each sample corresponded to approximately 15 cm3 of
soil that was placed in a petri dish. The reflectance data were ob-
tained at laboratory using a spectroradiometer Field SpecPro
(Analytical Spectral Devices, Boulder, Colo.), which is an optical fi-
ber device with spectral resolution of 1 nm from 350 to 1100 nm
and 2 nm from 1100 to 2500 nm, and with a capacity of more than
30 scannings per second. The samples were analyzed in triplicate in
order to increase the soil surface to be scanned by the sensor. The
sensor was vertically placed at 8 cm from the sample, where the
reflected light was measured in an area of approximately 2 cm2 in
the sample center. The light source was a 50-W halogen bulb with
non-collimated beam to the target plane positioned at 35 cm of the
sample and at 30
zenithal angle. A Spectralon white plate that
reflects 100% was used as standard reference.
Spectral data of moist samples were also obtained for more
specific analyses related to the effect of water in clay fraction. These
data were graphically compared to assess the behavior of bands
regarding the clay fraction mineralogy, such as the presence of 1:1
and 2:1 minerals. Spectral behaviors were interpreted according to
methodology of Multiple Interpretation of Reflectance of Soils e
MIRS (Dematte ^ et al., 2014). MIRS has been used to determine
differences between horizons based on the shape of spectral curves,
reflectance intensity and absorption features associated with
analytical data. The interpretation of soil spectral curves was
divided into seven steps, as follows: (a) the first step refers to the
intensity of the spectral curve, (b) the second step is to observe the
general shape of the curves along the complete spectrum, (c) the
third step consists of evaluating absorption features, usually pro-
moted by mineralogy in specific wavelengths, (d) the fourth step is
the comparison of spectral curves between horizons in the same
profile, (e) the fifth step is based on a quantitative view of the
spectral data, (f) the sixth step is related to a comparison between
unknown profile spectra with a database already known, (g) the
seventh step is to collect all morphological and quantitative infor-
mation and observe the convergence of evidence that enables the
most probable classification for the soil to be reached.
Derivate analyses (1st and 2nd derivatives) were also carried out
in the Unscrambler program to find and enhance features related to
mineralogy of Fe oxides (oxides and oxyhydroxides) in clay fraction
in order to help spectral morphological descriptions.
2.4. Descriptive and statistical assessment
Multivariate statistical analyses of soil properties and spectra
were carried out using the statistical software ParLes version 3.1
(Viscarra Rossel, 2008), which has implemented the Partial Least
Squares (PLS) as multiple regression technique. PLS was used to
determine the best correlation between the chemical and spectral
data since the models obtained by this method comprise a series of
“b” coefficients (loadings) presenting information that can be
interpreted in terms of composition, structure, and concentration
of some soil properties. These loadings have been used to indicate
the spectral ranges (or bands) that effectively contribute to pre-
diction of soil properties (Min and Lee, 2005).
The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was performed on the
soil spectra in order to reduce the data dimensionality (Varmuza
and Filzmoser, 2009) and distinguish soils from different environ-
ments based on spectral characteristics of two datasets where one
corresponds to wetland soils and the other to soils from distinct
environmental conditions (oxic environmental). The PCA was per-
formed on the soil absorbance spectra (log10[1/reflectance]). The
other spectral dataset (Terra et al., 2015) was compound by 15 soil
profiles (total of 56 soil samples) of typical tropical soil classes (clay
content of diagnostic horizon between brackets), as follows: Red
Yellow Ferralsol, dystric (LVAd - 37%); Red Ferralsol, dystric, ferric
(LVdf - 69%); Red Nitosol, dystric (NVdf - 78%); Ferralic Cambisol
(CXbd - 79%); Red Ferrasol, dystric (LVd - 91%); Red Ferrasol, eutric
(LVe - 34%); Red Yellow Acrisol, eutric (PVAe - 17%); Red Yellow
Acrisol, dystric (PVAvd - 24%); Red Ferrasol, dystric (LVd - 26%); Red
Ferrasol, eutric, ferric (LVef - 71%); Red Ferrasol, dystric, ferric (LVef
- 47%); Red Yellow Ferralsol, dystric (LVAd - 22%); Yellow Ferrasol,
dystric (LAd - 16%); Red Yellow Ferralsol, dystric (LVAd - 16%); and
Arenosol (RQo - 14%). These profiles have been developing under
ferralitization and monossialitization processes and they have
consequently presented minerals as iron oxides and aluminum
hydroxides: hematite, goethite, and gibbsite) and 1:1 phyllosili-
cates (kaolinite), which have characteristic contributions on their
spectral behaviors.
The following soil properties were chosen to be quantified by
spectral models: clay, sand, OC and CEC. From total soil data set (57
samples), 40 samples were randomly selected to calibrate the
models, and the remaining samples (17 samples) to validate them.
Reflectance data were converted into absorbance values to reduce
non-linearity in the spectrum. “Leave-one-out” cross-validation
was performed to assess the prediction models by calculating the
following indexes: coefficient of determination (R2), Root Mean
Square Error (RMSE), Ratio Percentage of Deviation (RPD) and
Standard Deviation of the Error (SDE).
Since high OC content can mask some soil property features and
damage their modeling for a given soil population, we used the
database corresponding to the wetland soils to evaluate its influ-
ence in the quantification of clay. This procedure was carried out by
removing soil samples with the highest OC content from the pop-
ulation, and, after that, clay content was quantified and evaluated
by R2 and RMSE.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Spectral characterization of soil profile and their relation to
pedogenesis
Pantanal landscape presents several ecosystems distributed
over many geomorphic features producing different soil types,
which need to be protected due to them fragility. The geo-
morphology of these ecosystems is compound by river plain, high
areas that do not receive floodwater, and low areas that receive
floodwater (Coringa et al., 2014). The main pedogenetic processes
related to these soils are: redoximorphic (gleization and plinth-
ization), melanization, aggregation, synthesis, eluviation,
 J.A.M. Dematt^e et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 197 (2017) 50e62 53

illuviation, lessivage, sodification, solodization, ferrolysis and leu-
cinization (Nascimento et al., 2015; Buol et al., 2011). The soils from
Pantanal of Bara ~o de Melgaço have been from a complex Quater-
nary sedimentation in alluvial megafan, whose parent materials
derived from sedimentary and mafic rocks have resulted in very
weathered soils. Kaolinite has been the dominant mineral, but
there also is the presence of illite, hydroxy-interlayered vermiculite,
and smectites (Nascimento et al., 2013, 2015; Coringa et al., 2014).
The spectral behavior of soil horizons varied mainly according to
OC content, particle size distribution, presence of Fe oxides (oxides
and oxyhydroxides), such as hematite and goethite, and features
related to water and hydroxyls from phyllosilicates. Higher OC
content (2%) in surface horizons reduced reflectance intensity
along the spectra (Figs. 1 and 2, Tables 1 and 2). However, it was
more pronounced in wavelengths up to 1100 nm due to higher
absorption energy (Bartholomeus et al., 2008). In almost all sub-
surface horizons, there was presence of strong absorption features
at 1400, 1900, and 2200 nm attributed to molecular vibration of
OH groups (Stenberg et al., 2010; Whiting et al., 2004). Among
them, the feature at 1900 nm was even more evident, probably
because of the presence of H2O in interstratified minerals. Ac-
cording to Whiting et al. (2004), stronger absorption intensity at
1900 nm has indicated predominance of structural H2O in 2:1
minerals, such as montmorillonite and vermiculite.
The absorption feature at 2200 nm in spectral curves was
symmetric with greater openness toward the right and a “step” at

Fig. 1. Spectral behavior of soils horizons (a) Endogleic Planosol (PLg), (b) Stagnic Solonetz (SNj), (c) Endogleyic Arenosol (ARg), (d) Fluvic Cambisol (CM1), and (e) Sapric Histosol
(HS).
54 J.A.M. Dematt^e et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 197 (2017) 50e62

Fig. 2. Spectral behavior of soils horizons (a) Pisolithic Plinthosol (PT), (b) Plinthic Gleysol (GL1), (c) Fluvic Cambisol (CM2), (d) Plinthic Gleysol (GL2), and (e) Cutanic Luvisol (LV).

left, characterizing kaolinite predominance (Dematte ^ et al., 2014).
The mineralogy of soil samples has been characterized by the
presence of 2:1 type clays (illite, smectite and vermiculite with
hydroxyinterlayers), however, most of them featured dominance of
1:1 type clays (Nascimento et al., 2013, 2015; Coringa et al., 2014).
The high clay fraction activity (CFA) in some horizons was not only
related to 2:1 clay, but also to 1:1 þ 2:1 clay (interstratified min-
erals) and humified OM, as observed by Coringa et al. (2014).
2:1 minerals or interstratified ones showed, besides the feature
at 1400 nm, one sharper feature at 1900 nm and another with more
elongated shape at 2200 nm. Both minerals can occur simulta-
neously, which hinders identification. However, in these soils, 2:1
clay minerals (smectites and vermiculite) are adsorbed at surface
by 1:1 minerals. The 2:1 minerals occur in the fine clay fraction
(<0.2 mm), which are more likely to migrate in the soil due to high
content of exchangeable Na and Mg.
The variation in OC and Fe oxide content between surface and
subsurface horizons conferred distinct behaviors to their spectral
shapes (Figs. 1 and 2). This requires a different analysis between
horizons, as reported by Stoner and Baumgardner (1981) and
Formaggio et al. (1996). These authors have classified different soil
horizons in distinct spectral patterns (reflectance intensity and
spectral features) based on influence of soil properties. Spectral
curves of surface horizons has been influenced by the OC content
according to their soil complexity interaction, which is one of the
main factors that hinder the full understanding of interference from
other minerals (Henderson et al., 1989).
Among the soil horizons with a textural gradient, greater
 J.A.M. Dematt^e et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 197 (2017) 50e62 55

Table 1
Particle size distribution and chemical properties of Endogleic Planosol (PLg), Stagnic Solonetz (SNj), Endogleyic Arenosol (ARg), Fluvic Cambisol (CM1), and Sapric Histosol
(HS).

Soil horizons Depth pH OCa Kþ Ca2þ Mg2þ Al3þ HþAl Naþ Tb CFAc Vd Sand Silt Clay Fete FeDCBf FeOXg

(cm) H2O (g kg1) (mmolc kg1) (cmolc kg1) (%) (g kg1)

Endogleyic Planosol (PLg)

A 0e25 6.9 9.3 1.3 3.0 3.0 6.0 23.0 0.2 31.0 31.0 25 84 6 10 5.0 4.4 0.6
AE 25e40 4.4 6.4 0.7 1.0 1.0 6.0 17.0 0.1 20.0 25.0 14 86 6 8 6.1 5.2 0.6
E 40e100 5.0 4.1 0.5 1.0 1.0 2.0 5.0 0.1 8.0 13.0 34 86 8 6 6.8 5.6 0.5
EB 100e140 4.9 4.1 1.8 1.0 2.0 14.0 23.0 2.0 30.0 21.0 23 72 14 14 20.3 10.3 3.3
Btg 140-180þ 5.3 4.1 3.0 3.0 3.0 51.0 71.0 5.2 85.0 23.0 17 51 12 37 39.7 18.5 5.5
Stagnic Solonetz (SNj)
A 0e20 6.0 19.1 4.3 39.0 16.0 14.0 93.0 1.1 153.0 102.0 39 82 3 15 45.9 9.6 4.0
AB 20e35 4.5 12.8 2.0 17.0 7.0 35.0 79.0 0.6 106.0 21.0 25 14 36 50 53.9 10.6 3.7
Btg 35e55 4.6 7.5 0.6 7.0 3.0 28.0 52.0 0.6 63.0 13.0 18 18 34 48 44.2 11.8 3.7
2Btg 55e90 4.5 7.5 0.6 4.0 1.0 59.0 70.0 1.1 77.0 26.0 9 34 36 30 25.5 8.1 3.3
3Clv 90-200þ 4.7 4.1 0.4 1.0 1.0 27.0 27.0 0.8 30.0 7.0 11 40 19 41 29.0 10.3 3.4
Endogleyic Arenosol (ARg)
A 0e25 3.8 21.5 1.4 4.0 2.0 31.0 66.0 0.3 74.0 37.0 10 66 18 14 25.5 11.8 6.3
AC 25e48 4.2 8.1 0.6 2.0 3.0 17.0 30.0 0.3 36.0 30.0 16 70 18 12 22.5 12.2 4.6
C1 48e145 4.7 5.2 0.3 7.0 3.0 1.0 6.0 0.1 16.0 82.0 63 96 2 2 8.6 6.8 3.9
2C 145e172 4.7 5.2 0.4 4.0 3.0 1.0 3.0 0.2 11.0 53.0 72 96 2 2 9.5 6.0 3.6
3Cl 172e210 4.3 5.2 0.6 2.0 2.0 4.0 7.0 0.3 12.0 30.0 41 92 4 4 15.8 13.3 4.0
4Cr 210-225þ 4.2 7.5 1.5 1.0 2.0 17.0 32.0 0.3 37.0 31.0 13 72 16 12 10.8 8.6 4.0
Fluvic Cambisol (CM1)
A1 0e17 5.5 20.3 2.4 83.0 19.0 0.0 20.0 0.5 125.0 46.0 84 45 28 27 24.1 19.7 6.8
A2 17e30 6.0 9.9 2.8 71.0 30.0 0.0 9.0 0.5 113.0 31.0 92 31 32 37 34.7 20.8 11.0
Bw1 30e62 6.3 6.4 3.6 62.0 35.0 0.0 8.0 0.5 109.0 25.0 93 29 28 43 38.2 21.1 6.6
Bw2 62e105 6.5 4.6 2.3 34.0 23.0 0.0 5.0 0.3 65.0 27.0 92 62 14 24 28.0 21.5 4.2
BC 105e154 6.6 4.1 2.0 29.0 24.0 0.0 4.0 0.2 59.0 37.0 93 68 16 16 25.1 21.9 3.9
C 154e210þ 7.0 4.1 1.5 9.0 17.0 0.0 2.0 0.3 30.0 37.0 93 82 10 8 16.1 11.3 1.4
Sapric Histosol (HS)
Oi-e 0e66 5.2 160.0 3.0 0.2 0.2 1.4 10.2 10.6 11.0 21.0 4 94 1 5 e e e
Oe-i 66e116 5.3 180.0 3.0 0.3 0.2 1.1 7.3 7.8 8.0 26.0 7 97 0 3 e e e
Oe-i2 116e130 5.3 130.0 3.0 0.2 0.1 0.9 6.5 6.8 7.0 1.0 5 21 0 78 e e e
Oe-i3 130e140 5.2 130.0 3.0 0.2 0.1 0.6 6.5 6.8 7.0 23.0 5 76 21 3 e e e
Oe-i4 140e150 5.4 80.0 3.0 0.3 0.2 0.5 4.2 4.7 5.0 4.0 11 86 1 13 e e e
Oa 150e166 5.4 130.0 3.0 0.3 0.3 1.0 8.1 8.7 9.0 10.0 7 91 0 9 e e e
Oa2 166e180 5.4 140.0 3.0 0.2 0.2 0.9 6.5 6.9 7.0 1.0 6 25 0 74 e e e
a
Organic Carbon.
b
Cation exchange capacity.
c
Clay fraction activity.
d
Base saturation.
e
Fet ¼ Iron by X-ray Fluorescence Analysis method.
f
FeDCB ¼ Iron by Dithionite-Citrate-Bicarbonate method.
g
FeOX ¼ Iron by Acid Oxalate Method Under Darkness method.

reflectance intensity was observed for eluvial horizons of PLg and
LV soils (Figs. 1a and 2e), since these presented sandy and loamy
textural class, respectively (Tables 1 and 2). C horizons showed
higher reflectance intensity for CM1, PT, GL2 soils (Figs. 1d, 2a and
2d), which could be attributed to the occurrence of Fe micronodules
and/or the coating of grains that compose the sand fraction by Fe
oxides (loamy-sand textural class of C horizon from CM1, very
clayey and loamy-sand of 6Clc horizon from PT and very clayey of
4Cl horizon from GL2) (Tables 1 and 2). The only exception was HS
(Fig. 1e), whose high OC and sand content in almost all profile did
not allow this differentiation.
Endogleyic Planosol (PLg), Fluvic Cambisol (CM1), and Cutanic
Luvisol (LV) are located at paleolevees of alluvial fan of Sa~o Lour-
enço River, corresponding to the highest landscape position
composed to Savanna Forest and Semidecidous Forest with palm
(Attalea phalerata Mart.). This landscape position is not directly
affected by flood pulses (Beirigo et al., 2011).
Pedogenectic processes related to these soils are melanization,
aggregation, synthesis, eluviation, illuviation, and lessivage in the
LV, and solodization, redoximorphic, ferrolysis, and leucinization in
the PLg. Enhanced by the range of base saturation between 14 and
34% (dystrophic soils), CFA between 13 and 31 mmolc kg1, and OC
content between 4.1 and 9.3 g kg1 in PLg soil. This soil class is the
most develop of the study area where time factor had provided
lower levels for these mentioned characteristics.
SNj, GL2 and LV soils (Figs. 1b, 2d and 2e) showed low reflec-
tance intensity across the entire spectra with a concave starting up
to 1300 nm. Although the OC content were not very high in surface
horizon (SNj: 19.1 g kg1, GL2: 52.8 g kg1 and LV: 29.6 g kg1)
(Tables 1 and 2), they presented spectral behaviors very close to the
soils with the high OC content and loamy-sand and loamy textural
soil.
Luvisol (LV) and Cambisol (CM1) are eutrophic soils with base
saturation (V) between 79 and 93%, clay activity between 25 and 73
mmolc kg1, and OC content between 20.3 and 29.6 g kg1 (Tables 1
and 2). High CFA is related to humic substances and the presence of
2:1 minerals in surface horizons. The deep absorption at 1900 nm is
due to H2O, although can also be inferred with CFA (Figs. 1 and 2,
Tables 1 and 2), and the total iron content present in the CM1 and
LV come from parent material and landscape position, which
determine more stable redox conditions and iron forms (Tables 1
and 2).
Plinthic Gleysol (GL1 and GL2) and Pisolithic Plinthosol (PT) are
located at lower landscape position of Cuiaba
River plain
(Nascimento et al., 2015), which is composed by shurb vegetation
with legumes and shurb with papyrus (Cyperus giganteus Vahl).
56 J.A.M. Dematt^e et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 197 (2017) 50e62

Table 2
Particle size distribution and chemical properties of Pisolithic Plinthosol (PT), Plinthic Gleysol (GL1), Fluvic Cambisol (CM2), Plinthic Gleysol (GL2), and Cutanic Luvisol (LV).

Soil horizons Depth pH OCa Kþ Ca2þ Mg2þ Al3þ HþAl Naþ Tb CFAc Vd Sand Silt Clay Fete FeDCBf FeOXg

(cm) H2O (g kg1) (mmolc kg1) (cmolc kg1) (%) (g kg1)

Pisolithic Plinthosol (PT)

A 0e10 4.3 19.7 8.2 54.0 20.0 7.0 147.0 0.9 230.0 164.0 36 84 2 14 17.5 12.4 3.5
AB 10e22 4.3 8.7 3.5 27.0 15.0 17.0 40.0 0.4 86.0 23.0 53 34 28 38 18.5 12.5 3.9
2Bwl 22e35 4.7 8.1 3.3 17.0 10.0 16.0 49.0 0.7 80.0 14.0 39 13 29 58 86.2 108.6 5.4
3Bwl 35e45 4.9 5.2 1.9 16.0 10.0 15.0 29.0 0.4 57.0 9.0 49 7 27 66 19.2 15.3 3.1
4Bwlv 45e68 4.8 7.5 3.1 18.0 12.0 26.0 53.0 0.5 87.0 26.0 39 51 16 33 56.4 40 3.9
5Cl 68e110 4.9 4.1 0.8 12.0 6.0 5.0 13.0 0.3 32.0 5.0 60 18 18 64 15.5 18.3 2.8
6Clc 110e150þ 5.0 4.1 2.0 14.0 9.0 23.0 33.0 0.6 59.0 29.0 44 62 18 20 60.8 53.8 2.8
Plinthic Gleysol (GL1)
A 0e20 4.5 13.9 0.6 33.0 19.0 40.0 108.0 1.6 162.0 30.0 33 22 24 54 54.2 27.4 3.2
Bwl1 20e60 4.6 7.5 0.7 18.0 11.0 84.0 102.0 1.8 134.0 17.0 24 5 17 78 67.6 27.4 3
Bwl2 60e120 4.6 7.5 0.6 16.0 9.0 76.0 101.0 2.5 129.0 15.0 22 2 14 84 77.2 28.5 1.8
2Bwl 120e150 4.7 5.2 0.6 19.0 11.0 46.0 72.0 2.6 105.0 13.0 32 9 13 78 83 29.9 2.3
2Bwlv 150e170þ 5.4 4.6 0.7 20.0 11.0 52.0 69.0 4.4 105.0 16.0 34 23 10 67 67.8 28.8 2.7
Fluvic Cambisol (CM2)
O 5 5.6 124.1 17.0 160.0 57.0 3.0 175.0 2.4 411.0 50.0 57 8 9 83 e e e
A 0e5 4.5 19.1 2.3 47.0 32.0 13.0 72.0 2.4 156.0 26.0 54 28 13 59 35 23.5 5.2
Bwl 5e40 4.6 7.0 1.0 25.0 26.0 10.0 28.0 1.8 82.0 11.0 66 4 23 73 41.6 26.3 13.3
2Bwl 40e70 5.0 5.2 0.4 10.0 15.0 2.0 11.0 1.4 38.0 6.0 71 2 31 67 29.7 26.3 12.6
3Bwl 70e130 5.4 5.2 0.5 33.0 50.0 0.0 4.0 4.7 92.0 19.0 96 2 50 48 31.9 26.6 10.9
4Cl 130e160þ 7.2 4.1 0.5 24.0 15.0 1.0 9.0 0.8 49.0 31.0 82 70 14 16 37 28.2 10.3
Plinthic Gleysol (GL2)
A 0e5 5.0 52.8 16.0 93.0 48.0 1.0 75.0 1.7 233.0 117.0 68 60 20 20 36.9 17.2 9.6
Bwl 5e25 5.7 15.1 1.1 32.0 16.0 32.0 89.0 1.5 140.0 26.0 36 16 31 53 51.2 19.7 5.9
2Bwlv 25e45 4.5 7.0 0.6 14.0 7.0 24.0 46.0 1.0 69.0 9.0 33 2 18 80 18.1 17.2 3.4
3Bwlv 45e100 4.6 6.4 0.7 10.0 6.0 54.0 59.0 1.9 78.0 17.0 24 31 24 45 38.9 19.7 3.6
4Cl 100e180þ 4.5 5.2 0.6 7.0 5.0 42.0 48.0 1.6 62.0 10.0 23 11 27 62 72.3 25.5 4.6
Cutanic Luvisol (LV)
A 0e20 5.5 29.6 7.3 96.0 22.0 0.0 34.0 0.4 160.0 73.0 79 39 39 22 27.2 23.4 4.1
AE 20e35 5.9 10.4 5.2 67.0 25.0 0.0 13.0 0.3 111.0 55.0 88 43 37 20 26.9 22.3 3.7
E 35e50 6.0 9.9 6.0 49.0 30.0 0.0 13.0 0.2 98.0 38.0 87 39 35 26 30.3 23 3.2
Bt 50e138 6.4 7.0 0.2 53.0 47.0 0.0 13.0 0.2 113.0 29.0 89 27 34 39 51.5 24.1 3.4
BC 138e160þ 6.4 5.2 8.4 40.0 40.0 0.0 8.0 0.2 97.0 31.0 92 37 32 31 43.4 24.5 3.5
a
Organic Carbon.
b
Cation exchange capacity.
c
Clay fraction activity.
d
Base saturation.
e
Fet ¼ Iron by X-ray Fluorescence Analysis method.
f
FeDCB ¼ Iron by Dithionite-Citrate-Bicarbonate method.
g
FeOX ¼ Iron by Acid Oxalate Method Under Darkness method.

This landscape position is directly affected by pulse flood (Junk,
2001) where redoximorphic process overlays others soils pro-
cesses. In the PT, plinthization evolutes to petroplintization process,
however it has happened in a distinct hydrological scenario from
the current. These are clay soils with the highest clay content of this
study with a range between 14 and 66%. It has a different source of
parent material than CM1, LV, and PLg (Nascimento et al., 2013),
transported by Cuiaba
River. This material is predominantly
composed of fine sediments. The pedogenectic processes related to
these soils are involved in iron, carbon, nitrogen and phosphorous
cycles (Reddy and Delaune, 2008).
Most curves were classified in the second and third type, ac-
cording Stoner and Baumgardner (1981), i.e., SNj, PT, GL1, CM2 and
GL2 (Figs. 1b, 2a and 2b, 2c, 2d). For most A horizons, spectra shows
low content of Fe oxyhydroxides and high sand content, besides
presenting convexity between 450 and 750 nm and concave
behavior from 750 to 1300 nm.
Endogleyic Arenosol (ARg - Fig. 1c) was homogenous in the
entire profile and showed similar spectra for all horizons, classified
as a second type of curve for both references used. The only dif-
ference is in the appearance of the absorption feature of crystalline
Fe at 850 nm in C horizons, not observed in the A horizon. The total
Fe content expressed as Fe2O3 of 10.8 g kg1 in the C horizon of this
soil are relatively low (Table 1). However, there is predominance of
high-degree shapes of crystallinity, according to Fe content
extracted by the solution of dithionite-citrate-bicarbonate of so-
dium of 8.6 g kg1 (Table 1). Similar effect was also observed for
occurrence of 2:1 minerals in soils from the Pantanal, where Fe
oxyhydroxides that occurred by coating the quartz grains in C ho-
rizons of ARg. Galva ~o and Vitorello (1998) determined that the OC
content enough to mask Fe spectral characteristics within the range
between 600 and 1100 nm was at least 1.7%. Therefore, the OC
content of the A horizon of ARg (21.5 g kg1 or 2.15%) was enough to
significantly reduce reflectance and mask the absorption features of
Fe oxyhydroxides, even though they were present in small quan-
tities. Indeed, subsurface soil is yellow, related with goethite and
indicated at the yellow reflectance band (Fig. 1c).
Endogleyic Arenosol (ARg), Fluvic Cambisol (CM2) and Stagnic
~o Lourenço River (ARg) and
Solonetz (SNj) are located at levees of Sa
Cuiab
a River plan (CM2 and SNj), corresponding to a landscape
position affected by pulse flood (Junk, 2001). These soils has similar
soil processes present in GL1, GL2, and PT, however it happens in a
less degree of magnitude because they are placed in a higher po-
sition and distinct hydrology. The variation of clay, silt, sand, and OC
content at CM2 (Table 2) were observed because these soil are less
developed and still keeps most of the characteristics from sedi-
mentation processes. Meanwhile, ARg was formed by coarser
sediment than others soils of this study, then it has sandy texture
and good drainage, which implies in faster iron oxidation even
during the flooding.
 J.A.M. Dematt^e et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 197 (2017) 50e62 57

For PLg, CM1 and LV soils (Figs. 1a, 1d and 2e), strong features of
Fe oxyhydroxides were identified as hydroxides at 850 nm, leading
to their classification as third type for Stoner and Baumgardner
(1981) and fourth type for Formaggio et al. (1996). These soils
had a higher expression of attributes related to Fe oxyhydroxides,
such as plinthic, chromic and other redoximorphic features. The
total Fe content in subsurface horizons ranged among 39.7 g kg1 in
the Btg horizon of PLg, 28.0 g kg1 in Bw2 horizon from CM1, and
51.5 g kg1 in Bt horizon from LV, and Fe content extracted by
dithionite-citrate-bicarbonate of sodium showed 18.5, 21.5, and
24.1 g kg1 (Tables 1 and 2), respectively. The OC content of these
soils were not the highest, however, they were enough to mask
features of Fe oxyhydroxides in these horizons.
The HS soil (Fig. 1e) displayed differentiated features because its
organic composition. The concave and ascending shape followed up
to 1100 nm, without centric concavity at 850 nm. The general
behavior of these spectra led to a reflectance reduction in the
beginning and final regions of the spectrum (up to 1100 nm and
after 1900 nm, respectively), besides there was almost absence of
absorption features, except at 1900 nm. Only in this soil class no
spectral feature of kaolinite was observed, because of the highest
OC content in the entire profile since it is not a mineral soil
(Table 1). The band at 1900 nm was attributed simultaneously to
the vibrational effects of water molecules by this wavelength and
the vibrational effect on the magnetic field of the OH of mineral
hydroxyls.

3.2. Effect of moisture in soil spectra

The comparison between dried and moist soil samples showed a

decrease in reflectance intensity (Fig. 3) in both spectra, agreeing
with Lobell and Asner (2002). However, for Bwl2 horizon of GL1
(Fig. 3b) and Bt horizon of LV (Fig. 3c) the increased of moisture
greatly changed the behavior of spectral curves, which assumed
very low intensity in rectilinear shape without defined features of
absorption. Changes in behavior of dried-to-moist samples of HS,
GL1 and LV (Fig. 3) showed the following morphological aspects: (a)
negative trend in VIS to SWIR; (b) increase and change of negative
features to H2O (1400 and 1900 nm); (c) shape change in VIS-NIR;
(d) masking of the kaolinite feature at 2200 nm; (e) decrease in
reflectance intensity across the spectrum and (f) offset of the ab-
sorption start in VIS.

3.3. Effects of mineral and organic compounds in soil spectral data

In the PLg and LV soils (Figs. 1a and 2e), there were inversions of
spectra from A to B horizons. This inversion occurred around 1600
and 1700 nm, while curves of Bt horizons (which until then had
higher reflectance intensity), decreased continuously to a level
lower than that observed for the other horizons. This inversion was
mainly attributed to the textural gradient between the surface and
subsurface horizon and where for PLg, with more expressive
gradient, the distance measured between the curves was greater
than for LV, in agreement with Dematte ^ et al. (2014). Besides that,
these soils contain Fe oxyhydroxides, which leads to a reduction in
reflectance.
In the CM1 and GL1 (Figs. 1d and 2b), inversion occurred in the
curves of A horizons, approximately between 1100 and 1200 nm,
presenting had greater reflection intensity. From 1100 nm, OC
started to interfere less, raising intensity of A horizon. Thus, hori-
zons with higher clay content tended to have their reflectance
reduced at the spectrum end.
For the SNj and PT (Figs. 1b and 2a), spectra of A horizons
remained below those belonging to subsurface horizons along the
wavelengths, and there was no inversion. This behavior is related to
Fig. 3. Spectral characterization of dry and wet samples of soil horizons (a) Oe-i2 -
Sapric Histosol (HS), (b) Bwl2 - Plinthic Gleysol (GL1), and (c) Bt - Cutanic Luvisol (LV).
the coating of sand grains by OC, which tended to decrease
reflectance intensity, because both A horizons presented sand
content of 82 and 84%, respectively (Tables 1 and 2). In the case of
ARg and HS soils (Fig. 1c and 1e), homogeneity of the spectral curve
was attributed to particle size composition and OC content,
respectively, which hindered inversion of curves (Table 1).
Soils with OC content greater than 2% mask features mainly in
VIS (Galva~o et al., 1997), which has been corroborated by Zheng
et al. (2016). In the horizons assessed, values ranged from 4.1 to
180 g kg1 (Tables 1 and 2), that is, some horizons presented OC
content greater than 2%. All spectral curves of surface horizons
showed lower reflectance intensity mainly at 400 and 1100 nm
(VIS) (Figs. 1 and 2). On the other hand, OC also acted in the rest of
the electromagnetic spectrum and absorbed energy. Changes in
intensities between horizons were intrinsically related to attribute
characteristics occurring in the horizons.
58 J.A.M. Dematt^e et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 197 (2017) 50e62

Regarding the PLg (Fig. 1a), reflectance intensity increased from

the A to E horizons, because it decreased the clay and OC content.
The shape of curves in these horizons was ascending and it featured
a crossover with the A horizon at 1900 nm. This indicates the
occurrence of textural gradient. In fact, there was an increase of the
clay content from 8 to 37% in the subsurface (Table 1). The spectral
curve of Btg horizon with higher clay content showed less reflec-
tance at 1900 nm onward due to influence of bands absorption of
OH groups. Textural gradient of PLg features can therefore be
detected by the curves (Fig. 1a). The sandier horizon with 6% of clay
showed greater reflectance intensity at 0.55 and appearance of
ascending aspect of spectral curve. The OC content of 9.3 g kg1 of
the A horizon was decisive in the concave aspect of the curve within
the range 400e1000 nm, in agreement with Jensen (2009). On the
other hand, other horizons with the OC content greater than
4.0 g kg1 changed the features of spectral curve to convex. This
disagrees with all literature to date and will be further discussed
(Formaggio et al., 1996; Stoner and Baumgardner, 1981).
The SNj (Fig. 1b) show high OC content in the A horizon
(19.1 g kg1), two times greater than in the A horizon in the PLg
(Fig. 1a). The spectral curve starts a formation almost rectilinear at
low intensity. Even though the sample had sand content equal to
that of the A horizon of PLg, the OC content was higher in the A
horizon in SNj than in PLg, reducing the reflectance intensity in SNj.
Still, it is possible to observe that the OC effect is stronger between
400 and 1100, while quartz acts from 1100 to 2500 nm.
The ARg (Fig. 1c), by definition, presented clay content lower
than 15% in all horizons (IUSS/WRB, 2015). This soil featured OC
content of 21.5 and 7.5 g kg1 in A and 4Cr horizon, respectively
(Table 1). The classical sequence remained where the curve of the A
horizon with greater OC and clay content showed less intensity. The
shape from 400 to 500 and from 900 to 1100 nm tended to con-
cavity and convexity between 500 and 900 nm.
The CM1 (Fig. 1d) showed a curve in the A horizon with low
reflectance intensity and ascending concave shape (400e1100 nm)
typical of soils with high OC content (2%). Despite having the
same OC content of the A horizon of ARg, the shape is different. This
confirmed that the shape between 400 and 1100 nm had greater
effect due to the OC content, which gave the curve a concave shape.
However, the result of the shape reflected the interaction with
mineralogy and textural class. In fact, the CM1 soil showed the OC
content equal to that of ARg, but it presented the clay content twice
as high as and more than half of the sand content (Table 1).
The HS (Fig. 1e) presented the highest OC content reaching Fig. 4. (a) Spectral curves of surface horizons from main soil classes, (b) Mean spectral
180 g kg1 in Oe-i horizon with the clay content ranging from 3 to curves of O, A, and B horizons and (c) Spectral curves of soil samples varying organic
78% in the horizons. The spectra showed the strength of C in the carbon (OC), sand and clay content.
curve shape, which was ascending concave with increasing in-
tensity from 500 to 600 nm.
shape. This occurred because the high OC content absorbed more
The PT (Fig. 2a) showed an absorption feature at 550 nm due to
energy and pushed the curve down from 350 to 1100 nm. This did
Fe concentrations (plinthite and petro-plinthite), confirmed by
not imply that the OC did not act in the rest of the spectrum. The OC
high iron oxide values (Table 2). The GL1 soil (Fig. 2b) showed high
did actually act, but with less influence. In the VIS-NIR, soil samples
clay content throughout the profile (54e84%) with consequent
with the high OC content presented strong concave shape passing
variability in intensity and spectral curve shapes. This soil occurred

River in an environment of lentic to rectilinear and reaching convex in samples with low OC content
in the plains of the Cuiaba
(Fig. 4b). Similarly, high OC content influenced the features at 1400,
deposition, favoring the deposition of clay-sized sediment
1900 and 2200 nm, and reduced clarity of OH absorptions of
(Nascimento et al., 2013). The CM2 soil (Fig. 2c) showed drastic
kaolinite. In fact, the decrease in the OC content allowed high-
alteration shape between 400 and 1100 nm, moving from concave
lighting aspects of mineralogy in the curve in Fig. 4a, which showed
to straight and then convex shape in the sequence of horizons. This
features at 2200 nm. In this case, the curves with lower OC content
variation was related to changes in the OC and clay content, which
(9.3 and 19.7 g kg1) presented well-defined features of kaolinite,
decreased at depth. This highlights the occurrence of fluvic feature,
unlike the samples with high OC content (up to160 g kg1).
inherited from the sedimentation process and the incipient action
In SWIR from 1900 nm onward, soil samples with greater sand
of pedogenetic processes in this soil class (Nascimento et al., 2013).
content showed higher intensity despite the high OC content
Different OC content changed shape and intensity of the spectral
(Fig. 4c). This occurred because, within this range, quartz presented
curve (Fig. 4a). The OC content changed from 160 to 52.8 g kg1 and
its greatest influence despite the high OC content. The A horizon in
from 19.7 to 9.3 g kg1, moving from long concave to slightly convex
 J.A.M. Dematt^e et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 197 (2017) 50e62
GL2 with 52.8 g kg1 of OC content had higher reflectance in SWIR
due to quartz (60% of sand content), while in the 2Bwlv horizon of
GL2 with OC content of 7.0 g kg1, there was less reflectance due to
the lower quartz content (2% of sand content) (Table 1). These
factors indicated that even in soils with high OC content, it was
possible to detect spectral information related to other soil
properties.
3.4. Continuum removed and principal components analysis
A strong concavity was observed (between 350 and 1100 nm) in
soil samples with the high OC content (Fig. 5a and 5b). It also
highlighted the bands at 1400, 1900 and 200 nm due to OH groups
and H2O (Fig. 5a). In the specific case of CM2 (Fig. 5b), the influence
of the OC content reached up to 950 nm, and the influence of iron
Fig. 5. (a) Mean continuum removed of spectral curves of A, B, and O horizons, (b)
Continuum removed of horizons from CM2 and (c) Loading variation for the three
main principal components. OC: Organic carbon.
59
oxides was less intensely in VIS, agreeing with Clark and Roush
(1984). Fig. 5c represents the loading variation for the three main
principal components (PC). The loading represented the covariance
between spectral samples. Therefore, the PC identified the spectral
bands that contributed to the spectral patterns related to soil at-
tributes. The soil samples analyzed, in most part, had high OC
content (2%). The presence of this attribute changed the spectral
features primarily in the visible (VIS). Therefore, corroborating this
information, loading values showed important peaks in the region
of OC features (520e620 nm).
3.5. Distinguishing soils from wetlands and dryland by PCA
The three first principal components were responsible by
explaining 96.77% of the spectral data variability. According to the
eigenvectors (Fig. 6a), the first principal component (PC 1 ¼ 80.59%)
was related to the reflectance intensity variability (Galva ~o et al.,
1995) with almost the same contribution over wavelengths,
which has been assigned to the variations in soil particle distribu-
tions and soil OC content (Dematte ^ and Terra, 2014). The PC 2
explained 13.81% of spectral data variability and mainly repre-
sented changes in the absorption features regarding to electronic
transition of iron in goethite (related numbers with Fig. 6a []) (at [1]
425 nm, [2] 480 nm, and [4] 600 nm) and to non-fundamental vi-
brations of hydroxyl (OH1) in 2:1 and, mainly, 1:1 phyllosilicates
(at [7] 1414 nm and [9] 2205 nm) (Fig. 6a). The PC 3 was responsible
to explain (2.37%) variations in the absorptions related to electronic
transition of iron in hematite (at [5] 750 nm and [6] 1050 nm), to
non-fundamental vibrations of OH in 2:1 phyllosicate or structural
water (at [8] 1917 nm), to non-fundamental vibrations of aluminol
(Al-OH) in gibbsite (at [10] 2230 nm), and to some organic com-
pounds (at [11] 2316 nm and [14] 2448 nm) (Fig. 6a) (Terra et al.,
2015).
According to Fig. 6, by the PCA was possible to distinguish soils
from different environments, where samples from drylands
(although outside Pantanal) were visibly separated of samples from
wetlands. Some clusters could be observed as those composed by
high weathered Ferrasols with oxidic clay content (Fig. 6b and 6c)
and those composed of organic soils (Histosols) and some surface
horizons with high OC content (Fig. 6b and c). Even Quartzipsam-
ments from dry and wet environments were separated from each
other. There was some confusion for soils with increasing sand
content and with predominance of 2:1 phyllosilicates (smectite,
illite, and vermiculite) independent on the environment. This
confusion occurred only for some soil samples corresponding to
horizons of Acrisol, Cambisol, Luvisol and Alfisol.
3.6. Modeling of wetland soil's properties
The modeling of OC content achieved significant value of 0.90 R2
(Table 3), far higher than that reported in other studies (Zheng et al.,
2016; Baldock et al., 2013; Bartholomeus et al., 2008; Gomez et al.,
2008). With a considerable higher processing procedure, Guerrero
et al. (2016) achieved until 0.95 R2 for this same soil property,
which gave emphasis in the low necessity of huge database to
assure good results. A considerable value of R2 (0.68) was also ob-
tained by spectral modeling (Table 3). On the other hand, clay and
sand quantification reached R2 values of 0.50 and 0.55, respectively
(Table 3). This result disagrees with the ones reported in several
studies, where clay quantification always obtained high R2 values
(Terra et al., 2015; Araújo et al., 2014). This fact is closely related to
the specific characteristics of this soils database with very high OC
content.
Although OC content has affect more evident between 400 and
1100 nm and soil particle size at SWIR range, it was not enough to
60 J.A.M. Dematt^e et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 197 (2017) 50e62

Fig. 6. Principal component analysis of wetland and soils outside this area. PLg - Endogleic Planosol, SNj - Stagnic Solonetz, ARg - Endogleyic Arenosol, CM1 - Fluvic Cambisol, HS -
Sapric Histosol, PT - Pisolithic Plinthosol, GL1 - Plinthic Gleysol, CM2 - Fluvic Cambisol, GL2 - Plinthic Gleysol, LV - Cutanic Luvisol, LVAd - Red Yellow Ferralsol, dystric, LVdf - Red
Ferralsol, dystric, ferric, NVdf - Red Nitosol, dystric, CXbd - Ferralic Cambisol, LVd - Red Ferrasol, dystric, LVe - Red Ferrasol, eutric, PVAe - Red Yellow Acrisol, eutric, PVAvd - Red
Yellow Acrisol, dystric, LVd - Red Ferrasol, dystric, LVef - Red Ferrasol, eutric, ferric, LVef - Red Ferrasol, dystric, ferric, LVAd - Red Yellow Ferralsol, dystric, LAd - Yellow Ferrasol,
dystric, LVAd - Red Yellow Ferralsol, dystric and RQo e Arenosol.

Table 3
Statistical analysis of quantification of soil properties from wetland soils.

Soil property Coefficient of determination (R2) Root Mean Square Error Ratio of Percentage Deviation Standard Deviation of the Error

Sand (%) 0.55 19.68 2.00 33.10

Clay (%) 0.50 16.93 2.20 22.50
Cation exchange capacity (mmolc kg1) 0.68 33.14 1.36 20.02
Organic carbon (g kg1) 0.90 7.49 2.30 43.40

obtain an ideal model that related to the soil attribute. Still, despite
all the masking effect caused by OC, R2 of 0.50 for clay expressed the
importance of particle size effects in SWIR, according to Madeira
Netto and Baptista (2000) and White et al. (1997).
Therefore, for OC, the band 400e800 nm in the spectral curve
had greater weight in the estimation model of this attribute,
agreeing with Krishnan et al. (1980), who observed that the
wavelengths of 632.6 and 564.4 nm were related to OC. For Pirie
et al. (2005), bands from 615 to 1000 nm showed the best corre-
lation for this attribute, whereas for Islam et al. (2003) was from
587 to 585 nm. On the other hand, the spectral range between 1850
and 2350 nm showed higher contribution to the estimation model
of CEC.
An important explanation for the lower estimative of clay is
given by Zheng et al. (2016). The authors indicate that OC content
over 19 g kg1 (or 1.9%) masks many absorption features. As an
example, we observe several values over this limit (Tables 1 and 2).
For example, spectral curve of horizon A of PT (Fig. 2a) has low
reflectance because high OC content (19.1 g kg1) (Table 2).
On the other hand, the quantification of OC and clay content
using a population of 57 samples was possible with a 0.8 and 0.61
R2 and 20.08 and 161.94 RMSE, respectively (Table 4). The
morphological evaluation showed that high OC content display
unique shapes and intensities on spectra. In fact, it decreases
reflectance intensity and promote a concave behavior. While OC
content decreases in soil, shapes alter. Indeed, we observed that,
 J.A.M. Dematt^e et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 197 (2017) 50e62 61

Table 4
Predictions of clay and OC taking into account a reduction in the soil database by removing maximum values of organic carbon.

Soil sample Maximum organic Coefficient of Root Mean Square Coefficient of determination Root Mean Square Error of
carbon (g kg1) determination of clay Error of clay of organic carbon organic carbon

All soil samples 180.00 0.61 161.94 0.80 20.08

Without Oe-i (HS) 160.00 0.62 158.85 0.89 13.08
Without Oi-e (HS) 140.00 0.61 160.07 0.91 10.98
Without Oa2 (HS) 130.00 0.64 152.28 0.93 8.70
Without Oe-i2, Oe-i3, Oa (HS) 124.13 0.71 131.99 0.97 3.18
Without O (CM2) 80.00 0.69 133.57 0.95 2.73
Without Oe-i4 (HS) 52.78 0.71 129.43 0.88 2.82
Without A (GL2) 29.58 0.71 130.71 0.81 2.45
Without A (LV) 21.46 0.70 131.99 0.79 2.18
Without A (ARg) 20.30 0.69 133.53 0.77 2.11
Without A1 (CM1) 19.72 0.70 134.68 0.83 1.68
Without A (PT), A (SNj), A (CM2) 15.08 0.68 141.45 0.70 1.47
Without Bwl (GL2) 13.92 0.69 140.06 0.81 1.03
Without A (GL1) 12.76 0.68 141.56 0.76 1.03
Without AB (SNj) 10.44 0.67 145.61 0.71 0.99
Without AE (LV) 9.86 0.68 145.97 0.73 0.91
Without A2 (CM1), E (LV) 9.28 0.69 146.79 0.85 0.60
Without A (PLg) 8.70 0.67 150.53 0.81 0.64
Without AB (PT) 8.12 0.67 152.53 0.85 0.54
Without AC (ARg), 2Bwl (PT) 7.54 0.64 161.15 0.81 0.57
Without Btg, 2Btg (SNj), 4Cr (ARg), 4Bwlv 6.96 0.70 142.14 0.84 0.39
(PT), Bwl1, Bwl2 (GL1)

while we take out samples with higher OC content of the popula-
tion, R2 increases from 0.61 to 0.71 on the quantification of clay
content (Table 4). This increase started to get stable with an OC
content maximum of 124.13 and 19.72 g kg1. Indeed, 20 g kg1 is
the value of OC content that authors such as Stoner and
Baumgardner (1981) indicated as a maximum, from with more
than these spectra would be altered. On the other hand, OC had 0.8
R2 of quantification with all samples in population. When taking
out the same samples, we found the best shape with on about 0.97
R2 with a population with OC maximum of 124.13 g kg1. After this,
results start to get stable and lower. Thus results indicate that, in
this population, it would be the best model using the maximum of
124.13 g kg1 of OC to estimate this attribute and clay in simulta-
neous. A higher OC content seems to alter significantly spectra and
lose the ability on quantification.
4. Conclusions
1 A relationship between spectral behaviors of soils from wetland
and their pedogenesis and landscape positions is observed by
typical spectral morphology where oxi-reduction environments
can be identified by reflectance spectroscopy making it an useful
tool for environmental monitoring.
2 The variations observed in the soil spectral behaviors of wet-
lands occurred due to the soil properties according to the
following order of importance organic carbon content, particle
size distribution, and mineralogical composition, in special Fe
oxides. The distribution of smectites (2:1 clay) and Fe oxides,
forming coatings on other minerals, may have influenced some
behaviors and led to overestimation of these minerals in soils
from Pantanal.
3 Spectral data of wet soil samples presented the following
spectral characteristics: low-intensity reflectance across the
spectrum, concave shape between 400 and 1100 nm, increased
intensity and shapes at 1400 and 1900 nm bands, masked
feature at 2200 nm, and high energy absorption, especially in
SWIR.
4 It is possible to discriminate soils developed in wetlands of soil
from outside areas by reflectance spectroscopy, and identify
their specific signatures. That indicates their importance to
environmental monitoring at low costs, reduced time, and with
environmental quality.
5 The quantification of soil properties showed R2 of 0.90, 0.68,
0.55, and 0.50 for organic carbon, cation exchange capacity, sand
and clay, respectively. The population of soil samples with
organic carbon content over 2% would mask the quantification
of soil properties, especially clay. Below this value of carbon
organic, clay raises from to 0.97 R2 with low error.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank SESC Pantanal, S~ ao Paulo Research
Foundation (FAPESP) e Pantanal Project (2009/50276-0). We also
thank the Research Group of Geotechnologies in Soil Science
(GeoCis - http://esalqgeocis.wixsite.com/english), Coordination for
the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES) and
Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Devel-
opment (CNPq).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.03.014.
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