Catena 212 (2022) 106113

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Catena
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Paleosols record dry and humid paleoenvironments during the Upper

Pleistocene in the Brazilian Pantanal
Francisco Sérgio Bernardes Ladeira a, *, Patricia Colombo Mescolotti b,
Fabiano do Nascimento Pupim c, Laura Milani Dias Mathias de Faria a, Mario Luis Assine b
a
Laboratory of Pedology (LabPed), Department of Geography, Institute of Geosciences, UNICAMP, R. Carlos Gomes, 250, Campinas, São Paulo 13083-855, Brazil
b
Departament of Geology, Institute of Geosciences and Exact Sciences-UNESP, Avenida 24A, 1515, Rio Claro 13506-900, Brazil
c
Department of Environmental Sciences, Federal University of São Paulo, Diadema, Rua São Nicolau, 210, São Paulo, SP, 09913-030, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Information on Quaternary landscapes and paleoenvironmental changes in the interior of Brazil are scarce. One
Paleoclimate of such areas, particularly sensitive to these variations, is the modern tropical Pantanal wetland, whose alluvial
Pedocomplex deposits record paleoenvironmental and paleoclimatic changes during the late Quaternary. Based on detailed
Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL)
pedological and sedimentological descriptions, stimulated optical luminescence dating and analytical data we
described a well-exposed sedimentary succession that crops out in slope terraces of the Aquidauana River,
located in the southern area of the Pantanal. We interpret environmental changes that have occurred since the
beginning of the Upper Pleistocene, and which affected sedimentation and biogeochemical processes. Basal
deposits comprise cross-stratified sands, which record active fluvial sedimentation from ~106 to ~70 ka, a
period of probable increased river discharge. Fluvial channel facies are overlaid by pedogeneized floodplain
deposits, in which we recognized a pedocomplex composed of a sequence of three late Pleistocene truncated
paleosol profiles and a Holocene soil profile. The two lower paleosols are Vertisols with mottling, slickensides,
rhizolites and septarian glaebules of carbonate. These characteristics indicate prolonged drought periods under
semi-arid to arid climates ca. ~70 and ~30 ka. The upper paleosol profile is a Planosol (Ultisol) with block
structure, waxiness, iron glaebules, and manganese films, pointing to prevailing humid climates during the
terminal Pleistocene (since ~30 ka). Covering this truncated Planosol is a layer of fine to medium-grained
Holocene sands, with development of a horizon A of an Arenosol (Entisol). These paleoenvironmental changes
correlate with regional changes in precipitation deduced from speleothems in nearby plateaus and in south­
eastern Brazilian sites.

1. Introduction pedocomplex (Morrison, 1967; Stremme, 1998; Karlstrom et al., 2008;

Vertical and horizontal relationships between pedogenesis and
sedimentation are complex in areas of active sedimentation, where the
development of soils records non-deposition events. The interaction of
processes can obliterate or even erase sediments deposited, or soils
formed. The non-preservation of soils and sediments is a consequence of
soil surface truncation by erosive processes, obliteration of sedimentary
structures, and granulometric modifications by pedogenetic processes
(Kraus, 1999; Retallack, 2019). Different soil profiles may present
superimposed pedogenetic processes, e.g. where the deposit that over­
laps the profile is thin or when the pedogenetic processes of the upper
deposit reach the lower profile. These relationships are named
Feng and Wang, 2006; Jacobs et al., 2009), and their analysis is a central
issue in studies that relate processes of sedimentation and pedogenesis.
Although widely used in pre-Quaternary paleosols (Alekseeva et al.,
2016), Quaternary deposits are an ideal field of observation for these
relationships (Zhao, 2003; Karlstrom et al., 2008), as the processes that
form soils/sediments are active or have striking relict characteristics in
the landscape, thus, are models for studies of pre-Quaternary units.
The Brazilian Pantanal is a large tropical wetland of the world
(Assine, 2015a), an interesting area to study the relationships between
soils and sediments. It encompasses a wide variety of modern alluvial
environments and past sedimentary deposits (Assine and Soares, 2004;
Assine et al., 2015a, b) that significantly affect pedogenetic processes

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ladeira@unicamp.br (F.S.B. Ladeira).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2022.106113
Received 28 April 2021; Received in revised form 24 January 2022; Accepted 1 February 2022
Available online 17 February 2022
0341-8162/© 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
F.S.B. Ladeira et al.
and soil formation (Oliveira Junior, et al. 2017). The Pantanal is char­
acterized by the presence of fluvial megafans, systems in which rivers
frequently change their course due fluvial avulsion (Assine, 2005; Assine
et al, 2014; Assine et al., 2016). Several proxies are being used for
paleoenvironmental reconstructions, with data from lake sediment cores
(Whitney et al., 2011; Metcalfe et al., 2014; Fornace et al., 2016; McGlue
et al. 2012, 2017), geomorphological and geochronological data (Assine
et al, 2014; Pupim et al., 2017), and O18 delta isotope data obtained
from speleothems inside caves in the high areas surrounding the basin
(Novello et al. 2016, 2017).
In fluvial megafans, small topographic variations produce distinct
soil types, as exemplified in the northern Pantanal where topographi­
cally low-amplitude sand ridges present conditions of satisfactory
drainage with associated Arenosols, and with clayey soils between the
elevations, through where water flows during wet periods (Zeilhofer and
Schessl, 2000; Pupim et al., 2017). Soils associated with active megafans
were studied by several authors, as well as paleosols from the Pleisto­
cene and in older stratigraphic units (Mohindra et al. 1992; Mohindra,
1995; Srivastava and Parkash, 2002; Srivastava et al., 2007; Fontana
et al., 2008; Latrubesse et al., 2012; Trendell et al., 2013).
In the Pantanal, studies relating soils with distinct geomorphological
features of fluvial megafans are relatively recent (Sousa and Souza,
2013, Nascimento et al., 2013, Cardoso et al., 2016, Oliveira Junior,
2017). They are especially focused on soils developed in the Holocene,
seeking to associate the development of soils with recent depositional
processes.
Soil/sediment relationships are complex in ancient sedimentary
units (Mack and James, 1994; Tabor and Myers, 2015; Zhou et al., 2015)
including paleosols in old fluvial megafans deposits (Trendell et al.,
2013). Interpretation of past environmental changes using pedological
analysis are rare for the Pantanal wetland due to the scarcity of outcrops
and the lack of geochronological data needed to accurately determine
the age of sedimentary deposits and rates of pedogenetic processes that
have acted over time.
Despite these difficulties, the discovery of an excellent exposure in
slope terraces of the Aquidauana River megafan (Anhumas vertical
section), allowed us to measure a vertical stratigraphic section and
recognize events of fluvial sedimentation and pedogenesis that took
place from the Upper Pleistocene to the Early Holocene. Three sequen­
tial Upper Pleistocene paleosol profiles and a Holocene soil profile were
recognized and several questions were addressed: a) the time intervals in
which pedogenesis developed; b) the importance of deposits in defining
the morphological characteristics of pedological horizons, as well as the
identification of diagnostic horizons; c) the association of paleosols with
paleoclimates; d) the comprehension of pedocomplexes in this type of
system and their importance in soil morphology; and e) the correlation
with regional paleoenvironmental events.
2. Physical settings
The Pantanal is an active sedimentary basin with a sedimentary
succession over 500-m-thick (Assine and Soares, 2004; Assine et al.
2015a, b), housing one of the largest tropical wetlands in the world (Por,
1995; Assine, 2015; Assine et al. 2015), and an area of approximately
150,000 km2. The modern depositional systems tract in Pantanal is
characterized by fluvial and lacustrine systems mainly related to fluvial
megafans (Assine et al., 2015a, b). Megafans present different charac­
teristics of alluvial fans and tributary river systems in terms of di­
mensions, gradient, textural characteristics, and depositional processes
(Leier et al., 2005; Trendell et al., 2013). They also present specific
characteristics in terms of soil and soil/sediments (Hartley et al., 2013).
Soil diversity and complexity are great in the Pantanal, and ten soil
orders according to the Brazilian soil classification system have already
been identified (Brasil, 1982a, b; Fernandes et al. 2007). The diversity of
soils is due to small variations in local characteristics of soil formation
factors and is associated with the dynamics of deposits in the megafan.
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Catena 212 (2022) 106113
The association between soils/sediments/terrain morphology was
pointed out by Nascimento et al. (2013) and Oliveira Junior et al.
(2019), who identified deposits from the Upper Pleistocene in the
northern area of the Pantanal. They highlighted that Quartzipsammets
are associated with paleochannels; Natrustalfs and Albaqualfs are
associated with the old marginal dikes and small elevations; and
Aquents, Aquepts, Plinthaquults, and Fluvaquentic Inceptisols are
developed in old floodplains.
The Aquidauana River megafan is in the southern part of the modern
alluvial depositional tract (Fig. 1). In the catchment basin located to the
east, on the Maracaju plateau - Campo Grande, the river carves Paleo­
zoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks of the Paraná Basin, whose sedi­
ments are the main source of sediments for the megafan (Facincani and
Assine, 2010; Assine et al., 2015a). A secondary source is the sediment
from small rivers present on the left bank of the Aquidauana River,
whose catchment area is in crystalline Precambrian terrains located to
the south. The Aquidauana River flows towards NNW, at the top of the
megafan, deflecting west at the bottom where it forms the current
depositional lobe. In the upper part of the megafan, the Aquidauana
River flows in a confined valley, where it forms a modern meander belt.
The belt is limited by marginal terraces that reach six meters in height in
the uppermost part of the megafan, but that decrease downstream until
disappearing at the entrance of the current depositional lobe. In the
depositional lobe, the river acquires a distributional pattern with
deflection and several channel-levee complexes with higher altitudes
than the surrounding floodplains, standing out in the landscape
(Facincani and Assine 2010; Assine et al., 2015a). The climate is tropical
with a dry winter season (Aw), according to the Köppen-Geiger system
(1928). The rainy season is between November and April, followed by a
dry season between May and October. July is the driest month. Its
annual averages for temperature, precipitation, and evapotranspiration
are 23.3 ◦ C, 1323 mm, and 1171 mm, respectively (INMET, 2017).
Prance and Schaller (1982) point out the diversity of the Pantanal
vegetation. Its richness of plant species may be due to a mosaic of
permanently flooded areas, others that are seasonally flooded, and non-
flooded lands, besides its distinct plant domains. According to Pott et al.
(2011), the vegetation cover of the Pantanal sedimentary plain is
characterized by a mosaic of aquatic plants, flooded fields, riparian
forests, cerrado (Brazilian Savanna), cerrado woodland, and deciduous
forests. The literature presents few studies on Pantanal paleosols and
even fewer on paleosols in the Aquidauana fan region. A particular study
stands out (Facincani et al., 2009), describing calcretes and Calcic
Vertisols in the research area.
The studied area is located at the coordinates 20◦ 20′ 48′′ S and
55 53′ 25′′ W, with an altitude of 140 m (Figs. 1 and 2), in the megafan
◦
upper portion. The exposure is significant as the river erodes the mar­
ginal terrace that is constituted by Pleistocene deposits.
3. Materials and methods
3.1. Description and sampling
A vertical section of 7.3 m exposed on the slope of the marginal
terrace of the Aquidauana River was selected for analysis (Fig. 2 A, B).
The description of sedimentary features and interpretation of deposi­
tional processes were based on sedimentary textures and structures and
lithological contacts (Fig. 3). The criteria for collecting samples for
dating by Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) prioritized sampling
in different sedimentary features and pedological horizons.
Soil description followed the Manual for Describing and Collecting
Soil in the Field (Santos et al., 2013) and the Field Book for Describing
and Sampling Soils (Schoenerberger et al., 2012). The description
included thickness of the horizons, transition between them, soil color
(according to the Munsell Soil Color Chart), structure, texture, consis­
tency, waxiness, glaebules (nodules and concretions), slickenside, and
presence of rhizolites. Deformed samples were collected from all
F.S.B. Ladeira et al.
Fig. 1. Location of the study area (modified from Assine et al., 2015).
horizons of all profiles described, and granulometric, chemical, miner­
alogical, and dating analyses were performed. We use the WRB/FAO
classification system, in its most general classification (Reference Soil
Groups) (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2015).
3.2. Optically stimulated luminescence dating
OSL dating was performed on quartz sand grains from six samples.
Samples were collected along the described vertical section (Fig. 3),
except for the sample at the top that was collected a few meters laterally
where the horizon is thicker. Sampling close to the surface is not
3
Catena 212 (2022) 106113
recommended because of bioturbation that may result in remobilization,
and underestimated ages (Bateman et al., 2003).
Sample preparation for equivalent dose (De) measurements followed
standard procedures (Aitken, 1985). Samples were wet-sieved to isolate
the 180–250 µm grain-size fractions. The target fraction was treated
with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2, 27%), and hydrochloric acid (HCl, 10%)
to remove organic matter and carbonate minerals. Heavy mineral
(>2.75 g/cm3) and feldspar (<2.62 g/cm3) grains were removed by
heavy liquid separation with lithium metatungstate solution. Then,
quartz concentrates (2.62 and 2.75 g/cm3) were etched with hydro­
fluoridric acid (HF, 40%) for 40 min to remove remnant feldspar grains
F.S.B. Ladeira et al. Catena 212 (2022) 106113

Fig. 2. A. Location of the section studied on the Aquidauana River; B. Sediment exposure due incision of the Aquidauana River channel with delimitation of
pedological profiles. C. Section studied, with delimitation of pedogenetic horizons (white dashed lines).

and etch a ~10 µm outer layer of quartz grains, thus removing the alpha
particles’ contribution from the radiation dose rate. Aliquots of quartz
grains (100–200 grains) were mounted on stainless steel cups for
luminescence measurements on an automated Risø TL/OSL DA-20
reader system equipped with a 90Sr/90Y beta source that delivered a
dose rate of 0.109 Gy/s, blue LEDs (470 ± 20 nm) operated at 90%
power (~40 mW/cm2) for stimulation, and a Hoya U-340 filter for light
detection in the ultraviolet band (290 and 340 nm) with a bialkali PM
tube (Thorn EMI 9635QB).
The single-aliquot regenerative dose (SAR) protocol (Murray and
Wintle, 2000) was used to estimate the De (Table 1). A dose recovery test
was carried out using 6 aliquots with a pre-heat temperature of 240 ◦ C
that showed a calculated-to-given dose ratio of 0.98 ± 0.02 for a given
dose of 21.8 Gy. The De calculations used aliquots with recycling ratio
values between 0.90 and 1.10, recuperation of less than 5%, and
negligible feldspar signal tested by infrared stimulation, as suggested by

4
F.S.B. Ladeira et al. Catena 212 (2022) 106113

Fig. 3. Stratigraphic section showing pedological and sedimentological data.

Table 1
Equivalent doses, radiation dose rates and OSL ages from quartz grains of the Aquidauana River, Pantanal - Brazil.
Lab Depth N U (ppm) Th (ppm) K (%) Cosmic dose rate Water sat. Total dose rate Equivalent Dose OD Age (ka)
Code (m) (Gy/ka) (%) (Gy/ka) (Gy) (%)

L0446 0.85 19 0.50 ± 1.33 ± 0.27 ± 0.18 ± 0.01 3.3 0.65 ± 0.04 5.4 ± 0.3 23 8.3 ± 0.7
0.02 0.05 0.01
L0222 0.8 12 0.53 ± 2.52 ± 0.24 ± 0.19 ± 0.01 19.1 0.64 ± 0.03 19.1 ± 1.1 15 29.8 ± 2.3
0.01 0.01 0.01
L0434 2 18 0.56 ± 2.62 ± 0.62 ± 0.15 ± 0.01 44.6 0.77 ± 0.04 44.2 ± 2.1 20 57.1 ± 4.0
0.02 0.08 0.02
L0435 5 23 0.27 ± 0.48 ± 0.22 ± 0.11 ± 0.01 0.7 0.44 ± 0.01 31.5 ± 0.6 8 72.2 ± 5.5
0.02 0.04 0.01
L0436 6.2 24 0.25 ± 0.52 ± 0.15 ± 0.09 ± 0.01 3.0 0.34 ± 0.02 23.4 ± 0.5 10 69.1 ± 4.9
0.02 0.04 0.01
L0437 7.2 22 0.35 ± 0.77 ± 0.17 ± 0.08 ± 0.01 58.6 0.27 ± 0.01 28.8 ± 0.8 13 106.7 ±
0.02 0.04 0.01 5.6

N = number of aliquots; OD = overdispersion.

Murray and Wintle (2000, 2003). Equivalent doses for age dating of each
sample were calculated through the Central Age Model (Galbraith et al.
1999).
For radiation dose-rate calculation, natural radionuclides concen­
trations were measured through gamma-ray spectrometry in a high-
purity germanium detector (HPGe; relative efficiency of 55%; 2.1 keV
energy resolution) encased in an ultralow background shield (Canberra
Industries). U, Th, and K concentrations were converted to dose rates
using factors proposed by Guérin et al. (2011). Water saturation was
determined by the ratio between water weight and dry sample weight.
The cosmic dose rate contribution was calculated using the sample
depth, elevation, latitude, and longitude, as described by Prescott and
Hutton (1994).

5
F.S.B. Ladeira et al.
3.3. Chemical analysis
The chemical analysis for pedological analysis routine followed
Camargo et al. (2009), defining the pH, exchangeable aluminum (Al+3),
saturation by aluminum, exchangeable sodium (Na+), exchangeable
sodium, calcium, and magnesium saturation index (Ca+2, Mg+2), levels
of P, K, Ca +2, Mg+2, H + Al (potential acidity), carbon, sum of bases
(SB), base saturation (V value), total cation exchange capacity (T), and
phosphorus resin (P-res). We defined the elements through X-Ray
Fluorescence Spectrometry analyzes, and sprayed samples with particle
size smaller than 200 mesh and pressed at 30 T/cm2 in 25% wax. The 8-
g-aliquot of samples were dried at 110 ◦ C before pressing. The concen­
trations of major elements, expressed as a percentage of weight, were
calculated according to Franzini et al. (1976). The error of major ele­
ments was less than 5%. The loss on ignition (LOI) was obtained by
heating the samples at 1000 ◦ C for about 3 h.
3.4. Granulometric analysis
The samples underwent mechanical disaggregation, dispersion, and
evaluation of the relative proportion of primary particles by sedimen­
tation in an aqueous medium. The granulometry was carried out in the
air-dried fine soil fraction (TFSA) with a sieve smaller than 2 mm to
determine the percentage distribution of the primary soil particles. The
pipette method was applied to determine the fractions of clay (total and
Fig. 4. Base of profile. A. Coarse pebbly sandstone, poorly-sorted, with cross-stratification; B. Intercalation of laminae of fine-grained sand and mud; C. Fine-grained
sandy deposits, well sorted, with cross stratification.
6
Catena 212 (2022) 106113
dispersed in water), silt, very coarse, coarse, medium, fine and very fine
sand, degree of flocculation, and textural class (Camargo et al., 2009).
3.5. Mineralogy
The clay fraction of the subsurface diagnostic horizons was deposited
on oriented thin films. All preparations were analyzed using a PAN­
alytical diffractometer (Empyrean) with measurements made by using
CuKα1 radiation (WL = 1.54056 Å), and Ni filter. The 2θ start angle was
3◦ , and the end angle 65◦ , with 3.8′′ step, and 0.008◦ step size (0.27◦ /s
scan speed, 30 mA current, and 40 kV voltage). The diffractograms were
interpreted using the X’Pert Highscore Plus software, by the IMA min­
eral database (Anthony et al., 2017) supported by the ICDD PDF-2
database. The samples were analyzed in their natural form after being
subjected to an atmosphere of ethylene glycol for about 48 h (glyco­
lagen), and after burning at 300 ◦ C and 550◦ C to confirm the presence of
certain mineral phases.
4. Results and interpretation
4.1. Vertical stratigraphic section
The vertical section described comprises 7.2 m of siliciclastic de­
posits (Fig. 3). The basal 7.2–6.0 m interval is a finning-upward channel
facies sequence made up of coarse-grained sand, poorly sorted, with
F.S.B. Ladeira et al. Catena 212 (2022) 106113

granules and rounded pebbles of quartz and crystalline basement rocks,
with cross-stratification and cemented by iron oxide (Fig. 4A). The facies
sequence ends in fine-grained facies, with an erosional surface on the top
(Fig. 4B).
The 6.0–3.0 m interval records a younger fluvial cycle beginning
with beds of fine/medium cross-stratified sands, which are successively
overlaid by pebbly cross-stratified sands (Fig. 4C), and a thin sand layer
of fines that records low energy clay settling. Finally, the succession is
overlaid by trough-stratified sands that grade to pedogeneized silt layers
towards the top.
Three paleosol and one soil profiles were characterized at the upper
part of the vertical section. No primary sedimentary structures are
preserved, but the contact between paleosols profiles are erosional
surfaces evidenced by truncation of carbonate rhizolites. The topmost
soil profile developed in well-sorted, medium-grained aeolian sands,
with sharp basal contact and laterally up to 1.2 m-thick, that compose
the uppermost sedimentary unit.
4.2. Morphology of soil and paleosols
The lower 3 m of the stratigraphic section corresponds to a non-
pedogenized fluvial channel sands (Horizon R, Fig. 3). The pedocom­
plex sequence comprises three successive paleosol profiles (numbered
2–4, from top to bottom) and a soil horizon at the top (profile 1),
comprising a total thickness of 4.2 m (Fig. 2, Table 2). No major
morphological changes have affected the paleosols since their incorpo­
ration into the stratigraphic archive, except the truncation of the top
profile horizons by erosion. At the top, the Profile 1 presents a sandy
horizon A with dark colors, iron glaebules at its base, overlapping the
horizon 2Bt1 abruptly (Profile 2), featuring high textural contrast.
The horizon 2Bt1 presents a strong blocky structure and very waxy.
The 2Bt1 and 2Bt2 presents abundant mottled spots, iron glaebules at
their intermediate level, and manganese films covering the peds in 2Bt2.
The base of the profile is characterized by a thin, dark horizon, associ­
ated with a high presence of manganese films (mangans) covering
fissure planes. The contact with the profile below is an abrupt and flat
transition, which separates different pedogenetic conditions, indicating
truncation of the profile positioned below.
Profile 3 (intermediate) presents two Btss horizons (the “t” was used
to indicate the presence of illuvial clay, not a textural change) with a
parallelepiped structure and without the presence of horizon A. Later­
ally in the outcrop, a great development (in dimensions and quantity) of
slickensides (usually over 1 m in size) typically associated with Vertisols
(Fig. 5 A, B). The horizons present gray color with abundant mottling,
and several rhizolites truncated in the contact with the upper profile.
Manganese films are common on the surface of the peds. Slickensides are

Table 2
Macromorphology.
Horizon Horizon Color Soil Structure Waxy Consistence Glaebules Transition
Depth Texture
(cm)

A 0–24 10YR 6/2 (d), 10YR 4/2 (m) Sandy Moderate fine and – Slightly hard, friable, Many, fine, Very
loam medium granular; slightly sticky, spherical of Fe, at Abrupt
moderate fine slightly plastic the base of the Smooth
subangular blocky horizon
2Bt1 24–33 10YR 5,5/2 (d), 10YR 5/1 Sand Strong medium and Prominent Hard, firm, – Clear
(m);38 mottled 10R 5/8 (d), clay coarse angular blocky continuous many moderately sticky, Smooth
10R 4/8 (m); black mottled loam moderately plastic
2Bt2 33–80 10YR 6/2 (d), 10YR 5,5/2 Clay Strong fine and Prominent Hard, firm, Many, medium Abrupt
(m); glebules cortex 10YR 7/ loam medium angular continuous many moderately sticky, and coarse, Smooth
8 (d), 10YR 6/8 (m); glebules blocky moderately plastic spherical of Fe
core 10YR 2/1 (d), 10YR 2/1
(m)
2C 80–92 10YR 2/1 (d m), abundant Sand Massive – Hard, very firm, Many, medium, Very
mottled 10YR 5/2 (d), clay moderately sticky, spherical of Mn Abrupt
10YR5/1(m) loam moderately plastic Smooth
3Btss1 92–170 Mottled horizon 10YR 6,5/ Sand Strong medium Prominent Extremely hard, Few coarse and Clear
2–7,5YR 6/8 − 10R 3/2 (d), clay prismatic; Strong continuous many slightly rigid, very very coarse Smooth
10YR 5/1–7,5Y 5/8 − 10R 3/ loam medium and coarse sticky, very plastic spherical
2 (m) angular blocky septarian of
CaCO3
3Btss2 170–251 Mottled horizon 10YR 6/ Clay Strong medium and Distinct Extremely hard, Few coarse and Very
2–7,5YR 6/8 − 10YR 2/1 (d), loam coarse angular blocky discontinuous extremely firm, very very coarse Abrupt
10YR 5/2–7,5YR 5/8 − 10YR common sticky, very plastic spherical Smooth
2/1 (m) septarian of
CaCO3
4Bss1 251–299 Mottled horizon 7,5YR 6/8 − Sand Strong medium Distinct Extremely hard, Few coarse and Clear
10YR 6/2 − 5YR 6/8 − 10YR clay angular blocky discontinuous slightly rigid, very very coarse Smooth
2/1 (d); 7,5YR 6/8 − 10YR loam common sticky, very plastic spherical
5/2 − 5YR 5/8 − 10YR 2/1 septarian of
(m) CaCO3
4Bss2 299–352 10YR 7/2 (d), 10YR 6/2 (m); clay Moderate fine and Distinct Extremely hard, Few coarse and Clear
mottled 10YR 6/2 (d), 7,5YR medium angular discontinuous extremely firm, very very coarse Smooth
5/8 (m); black mottled blocky common sticky, very plastic spherical
septarian of
CaCO3
4C1 352–373 10YR 8/1 (d), 10YR 7/1 (m); Sandy Massive – Extremely hard, – Abrupt
rare mottled 7,5YR 6/8 (d), loam extremely firm, Smooth
7,5YR 5/8 (m) moderately sticky,
moderately plastic
4C2 373–426 Mottled horizon 2,5YR 6/ Sandy Massive – Extremely hard, – Clear
6–10 YR 7/2 (d); 2,5YR 5/8 loam extremely firm, Smooth
− 10YR 6/2 (m) moderately sticky,
moderately plastic

(d) – dry, (m) – moist;

7
F.S.B. Ladeira et al.
Fig. 5. Pedological characteristics of the profile. A) slickenside in profile 2; B) slickenside, observed in the dry season; C, D) aggregate defined by slickenside planes;
E) CaCO3 rhizolite in profile 4; F) septarian carbonate nodule; G, H) sand injection in the slickenside planes.
abundant and define the structures (Fig. 5C, D). It presents abundant
oriented clay films not associated with slickenside. The transition with
the lower profile is abrupt, truncating the profile and eliminating hori­
zon A.
Profile 4 (bottom) presents two Bss horizons and two C horizons,
with colors similar to the horizons of profile 3, few manganese films and
less wax of illuvial origin, despite the abundant presence of slickenside
(usually over 1 m in size). Mottling is less frequent than in the upper
profile. The structure is also parallelepiped, however with smaller blocks
than the previous profile. Carbonate rhizolites are frequent (Fig. 5E) and
extend to the base of the profile (horizon 4C2). The rhizolites are trun­
cated at the top, indicating an erosive process that eliminated upper
horizons. The profile presents septarian carbonate glaebules (Fig. 5F).
The base of horizon 4Bss2 shows slickenside planes filled with sand from
the lower horizon, indicating that the wetting/drying cycles injected
sand into the slickenside planes, starting from the horizon 4C2 (Fig. 5G,
8
Catena 212 (2022) 106113
H). The 4C2 horizons are massive, sandy, and present carbonate con­
centrations and mottling. Below the horizons, the deposits show sedi­
mentary structures without evidence of pedogenesis, however, a
transition occurs where the sedimentary structures were partially
obliterated.
4.3. Granulometric and chemical data
Granulometric results are presented in Table 3. Horizons B present
values equal to or greater than 30% of clay (lower limit to classify the
profile with a horizon Bss) (USDA, 1999; IUSS Working Group WRB,
2015). The clay values exceed 44% in the 4Bss2 horizon, classifying
them as clay, clay loam, and eventually sand clay loam. Clay values are
significantly lower in horizons A, 4C1 and 4C2. Silt values are high in all
profiles, but they are significantly lower than those found by Srivastava
(2001) in Gangetic Plains in India in similar alluvial conditions. The
F.S.B. Ladeira et al. Catena 212 (2022) 106113

sand values are high, according to the characteristics already observed

g/dm3
for the Pantanal (Nascimento et al., 2013; Cardoso et al., 2016). Between
profiles 1 and 2 there is a high textural gradient, reaching 3.4, what

Hor. = horizon; CAS = gravel; AMG = very coarse sand; AG = coarse sand; AM = medium sand; AF = fine sand; AMF = very fine sand; SB = sum of bases; CTC = cation exchange capacity; V = base saturation
C

5
7
9
8
6
5
5
7
3
4
would characterize a Planosol if they were a unique profile.
X-ray fluorescence spectrometry data indicate widespread presence

24,21
11,78
36,49
66,58
71,56
82,47
91,99
93,67
88,89
91,07
of SiO2 (values above 68.81%; Table 4). The Al2O3, MnO, and CaO
V variations indicate significant pedogenetic processes. Al2O3 values are
significantly high in clayey horizons. The MnO presents low values in

17,91
15,43
11,37
13,36
16,54
19,98
25,29
4,75

11,2
the section, except in horizon 2C, where MnO values reach 0.18%,
CTC

9
coincident with the occurrence of black films on the peds. The values
indicate reducing conditions (Kämpf et al, 2009; Schulze et al., 1995)

13,64
18,38
23,69
and may correspond to a drainage impediment linked to the lower ho­
1,15
2,11
5,63
7,57
9,56

10,2
SB

8
rizon, generating a suspended water table, and indicating past drainage
conditions (Kämpf et al, 2009). The sorptive complex results indicate
0,25
0,11
0,13
0,17
0,26
0,34
0,38
0,49
that the characteristics are repeated (Table 4 and Fig. 6). Exchangeable
0,2
0,2
K

aluminum amounts are much larger in the profile 2 and decrease

significantly with depth. It directly reflects base saturation, low at the
Mg

0,3
0,4

1,8
2,5
3,5
4,5
5,2
2,3
2,8
profiles 1 and 2, and high in the profiles 3 and 4, with the profile 1 and 2
1

presenting dystrophic characteristics, and the others eutrophic. CaO

presents two relevant distinct conditions from the upper profile (profiles
13,5
0,6
1,6
4,5
5,6
6,8
9,8

5,5
7,2
cmol/Kg %
Ca

18

1 and 2), showing low values that significantly increase in the under­
lying Bss horizons, especially in the profile 4. Exchangeable calcium is
3,8
3,2
2,6
0,7
0,6
0,2

noticeably high in the lower profiles. The values reach 20 meq, being the
Al

–
–
–
–

main responsible for the base saturation of the profiles. However, CaO
values are relatively low for carbonate profiles, indicating that the cal­
pH (CaCl2)

cium in its ionic form suffered intense mobility, solubilizing, and then
precipitating, as the paleosols were humid and dried. In addition, the
3,8

4,2
4,2
4,6
5,6
5,8
5,7
5,8
Chemical Analysis

carbonate concentrations are associated with bioturbation, and not so

4

significantly with the soil matrix, indicating the association of calcium

values with vegetation growth. Thus, it indicates that the carbonate
pH (H20)

concentrations occurred when the profiles were on the surface, not

4,6
4,2
4,5
4,8
4,8
5,3
6,3
6,5
6,5
6,5

representing concentrations after burial. The carbonate concentration

associated with roots indicates dry conditions during soil evolution
(Nash and McLaren, 2003, Oliveira, 2013).
Clay

30,4
35,9
33,8
29,9
30,9
28,4
44,7
17,3
17,3
8,7

4.4. Mineralogical data

14,4

17,2
14,5

40,3
20,9
29,7
14,2
17,3
Silt

16

16

X-ray diffractograms are shown on Fig. 7. The 2Bt1 and 2Bt2 sub­
surface horizons present kaolinite. The main peak presented is 7.20 Å,
76,9
53,6
46,9
51,7
54,1
28,8
50,7
25,6
68,5
65,4

which after heating, collapses and disappears completely, confirming

AT

the presence of kaolinite. A secondary peak at 14.53 Å corresponds to

expansive clay minerals (montmorillonite). After glycolate and burning,
AMF

24,1
17,4
14,9
15,6
23,6
11,7
22,3
13,3
20,9

the peak presented a slight displacement of the basal spacing, due to the
28

dehydration of the expansive mineral layer containing water/hydroxyl.

However, the little accentuated change indicates a small contribution of
AF

30
20
18
17
20
11
19

32
25
9

the group of clay minerals in the sample, which are predominantly

kaolinite. Profiles 3 and 4 (3Btss1, 3Btss2, 4Bss1, and 4Bss2) show a
AM

3,4
9,1
5,5
7,7
3,1

8,2

predominance of clay minerals from the smectite group, especially

17
14
12

12

montmorillonite. In the profiles, the main peak is at 15.67 Å, corre­

sponding to minerals such as chlorite, montmorillonite, and vermiculite,
3,6
1,9
2,5
6,9

0,7
1,1
0,2
2,6
2,9
AG

identified after glycolate and burning. A secondary peak occurs at 7.23

Å, which spacing corresponds to the presence of kaolinite. In the gly­
AMG

colate sample, the main peak was moved to 18.15 Å, and corresponds to
Granulometry

1,9
0,4
0,3
8,8
0,2
0,2
0,5

1,4
1,8
0

the expansion of the basal spacing of 15.67 Å presented in the natural

fraction (approximately 2.5 Å expansion), confirming the presence of
Granulometry and Chemical Analysis.

10,8
CAS

montmorillonite. The expansion is significantly high, corroborating the

%

0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0

presence of extremely plastic clay minerals, and a great capacity for

absorbing cations and water. After burning, the peak collapsed to 15.67
Hor. Depth (cm)

Å, a position close to 10 Å, which corresponds to the dehydration of the

montmorillonite layer containing water/hydroxyl. The 7.23 Å peak, like
170–251
251–299
299–352
352–373
373–426
92–170

other secondary peaks, collapses and disappears completely, confirming

24–33
33–80
80–92
0–24

the presence of kaolinite (Fig. 7). The diffractograms show two distinct
situations for the occurrence of clay minerals, indicating different con­
ditions for pedogenetic formation. The occurrence of kaolinite repre­
Table 3

3Btss1
3Btss2
4Bss1
4Bss2

sents perfect conformation with hot and humid environments with

2Bt1
2Bt2
Hor.

4C1
4C2
2C
A

prolonged periods of rain, providing intense leaching, thus, the effective

9
F.S.B. Ladeira et al. Catena 212 (2022) 106113

Table 4
Major elements concentration in Anhumas profile obtained from XRF measurements.
Horizons SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5

(%)

A 91,73 1,316 2,49 3,12 0,084 0,09 0,02 0,03 0,28 0,038
2Bt1 79,46 1,484 9,11 4,94 0,024 0,24 0,05 0,03 0,32 0,047
2Bt2 74,65 1,649 10,98 6,15 0,039 0,3 0,13 0,08 0,42 0,045
2C 71,36 1,5 10,73 10,3 0,439 0,36 0,17 0,09 0,49 0,071
3Btss1 80,16 1,5 6,9 5,9 0,05 0,38 0,24 0,12 0,74 0,056
3Btss2 77,58 1,46 7,5 6,66 0,08 0,5 0,3 0,17 0,94 0,077
4Bss1 75,26 1,769 8,48 7,28 0,149 0,65 0,39 0,27 1,18 0,062
4Bss2 68,81 1,91 11,06 8,5 0,183 0,92 0,58 0,32 1,3 0,056
4C1 87,26 1,332 4,4 3 0,146 0,34 0,23 0,19 0,85 0,028
4C2 83,42 1,613 4,75 5,17 0,179 0,41 0,31 0,21 0,95 0,039

Fig. 6. Results of FRX analyzes and routine chemical analysis.

Fig. 7. Diffractograms. A. Standard for Bt horizons comparing natural sample (Bt_n), glycolate (Bt_gl), heated to 300 ◦ C (Bt_300) and 550 ◦ C (Bt1_550); B. Standard
for Bss horizons comparing natural sample (Bss_n), glycolate (Bss_gl), heated to 300 ◦ C (Bss_300) and 550 ◦ C (Bss_550).

removal of cations and SiO2 (Resende et al., 1995; Alleoni et al., 2009,
Melo and Wypych, 2009). However, montmorillonite tends to form and
remain stable in poorly drained or non-leaching environments, such as
those with long dry seasons and shallow groundwater areas (Kämpf and
Curi, 2003, Kämpf et al., 2009). Montmorillonite indicates an abundant
presence of silica, Ca, and Mg, bases that would commonly be leached in
other environments. In these areas, soils with vertic character are
common (e.g. profiles 3 and 4 of Anhumas section), as well as the natural
processes of expansion and contraction of clays that play an important
role in their genesis during dry and wet seasonal cycles.

10
F.S.B. Ladeira et al.
4.5. OSL dating
Six OSL dates were obtained (Fig. 3) to establish the chronology of
the pedo-sedimentary evolution of the Anhumas section, three in hori­
zon R, and three in the succession of paleosols and soil. The sediments
used for OSL dating present bright quartz sand grains with signal
dominated by fast component (0.8 s corresponding to ~25% of light
emission), indicating quartz with high luminescence sensitivity (Sawa­
kuchi et al., 2011). All OSL signals grow with dose, and their dos­
e–response curves are well described by fitting a saturating exponential
function. The calculated equivalent doses for the six samples range from
44.2 ± 2.1 to 5.4 ± 0.3 Gy, with De distributions showing overdispersion
from 8% to 23%, which is consistent with the reported range for well-
bleached sediments, and absence of sediment mixing after deposition
(Arnold and Roberts, 2009). Equivalent dose distributions with low to
moderate overdispersion are reported for several Brazilian rivers (e.g.,
Pupim et al., 2017; Oliveira et al., 2019), indicating low feldspar content
and well-bleached quartz grains (Sawakuchi et al., 2016). The radiation
dose rates range from 0.77 to 0.27 Gy/ka.
The estimated OSL ages indicate Holocene to late Pleistocene de­
posits, ranging from 8.3 ± 0.7 to 106.7 ± 5.6 ka (Table 1). The dating
carried out in the deposits of the lower sequence of Horizon R shows the
oldest age (106.7 ± 5.63 ka.). In the upper deposits of Horizon R, two
OSL dates were obtained, one at the base and one at the top, yielding
ages of 69.1 ± 4.9 ka and 72.2 ± 5.5 ka, respectively (Fig. 3). Consid­
ering the error margin for the ages, the two dates indicate the same
deposition age for the upper sequence of horizon R. The deposition of
both sequences of R features refers to the Upper Pleistocene, and the
record of the degrading Pleistocene paleochannel. Although all lith­
ofacies belong to the paleochannel, due to the sedimentological differ­
ences and the dates that showed a time gap of about Σ20 ka, a non-
conformity between the two feature sequences is interpreted.
The baseline age obtained for the paleosols profile was 57.1 ± 4.0 ka,
on the 3Btss2 horizon. As the top of Horizon R was dated 72.2 ± 5.5 ka,
profile 1 of the paleosol presented a maximum gap for its development
of Σ15 ka, and pedogenesis occurred in the Upper Pleistocene. The
second age in paleosols was performed at the base of horizon 2Bt2, aged
29.8 ± 2.3 ka. Thus, profile 3 of the paleosol developed in the Upper
Pleistocene, in an interval of approximately 28 ka. The younger age
obtained corresponds to horizon A, at the top of the profile 1.
5. Discussion
5.1. Pedocomplex
The sedimentary section described allows us to define two distinct
stratigraphic intervals regarding soil/sediment relationships. The lower
part essentially presents sedimentary deposits without evidence of
pedogenesis, indicating a period with no development or conservation
of soil profiles. The absence of soil profiles may be explained by envi­
ronmental conditions that did not allow formation of soils (such as
climate and short depositional gaps), continuous fluvial accumulation,
with no pause in in-channel sedimentation or by erosional processes that
eliminated the soils eventually developed before the occurrence of a new
deposit (Marriott and Wright, 1993; Kraus and Aslan, 1999; Kraus,
1999). Large temporal gaps occur if soils are partially or completely
eroded before the next depositional event.
The three paleosol profiles without any preserved sedimentary
structures may be associated with events of 103 to 104 years, which
resulted in long pauses in the deposition, as well as erosive processes
responsible for the decapitation of superficial horizons associated with
Btss and Bt, affecting the soil development (Kraus, 1999). The profiles 3
and 4 are Vertisols with significant clay values (30–40%). The erosional
surface separating these two paleosol profiles indicates an erosive pro­
cess that truncated the previous profile and generated juxtaposed pro­
files (e.g. Fedoroff et al. 2010). The sedimentary structures of these
11
Catena 212 (2022) 106113
deposits were completely obliterated. The development of soil profiles 3
and 4 was in drought areas associated with semi-arid or arid climates.
The paleosol profile 2 show very different characteristics that indi­
cate the change to a more humid climatic condition. Hydromorphic
features at the base of profile 2 (2C horizons) are associated with the low
permeability of the underlying Vertisol. The occurrence of a perched
water table is indicated by the presence of a horizon abundant in Mn
films at the base of the profile 2. Horizons Bt are common in the Pantanal
wetland, specially associated with Planosols, cover 35.06% of its area
(Couto et al., 2017), and is characterized by a high textural gradient
between A and B.
Despite the gradient between the horizon A and the underlying 2Bt1,
high gradient may be associated with processes of ferrolysis, gleization,
illuviation/eluviation, elutriation, bioturbation, granulometric/miner­
alogical differences of the source material, or simply coarse sedimentary
contribution at the top of the profile (Philips, 2004). In studied section,
the textural gradient does not imply a pedogenetic origin because there
is no genetic relation between these horizons because the horizon A
developed in a sand unit deposited in a younger depositional event.
There is a truncation surface with a gap of Σ22 ka between the A and 2Bt
horizons. Therefore, the abrupt transition surface between horizons A
and Bt is a lithological discontinuity.
In the northern Pantanal, particle size differences were interpreted as
non-pedogenetic and attributed to seasonal flood flows or associated
with avulsions (Nascimento et al., 2013). These may be responsible for
deposits of different particle sizes, creating textural discontinuities.
Regarding profiles 1 and 2, we cannot state whether the textural dif­
ference is associated or not with the dynamics of the Aquidauana River
channel. Contrary to previous studies, the present work identifies an
Arenosol at the top, over the Bt horizon (probably from a truncated
Planosol), and not only does not present genetic affiliation between
horizons A and Bt, but that it also has a significant gap between the
deposits that generated it. It does not present a pedogenesis that
inherited a lithological discontinuity as indicated in the literature and
identified by Nascimento et al. (2013) in the North Pantanal, or by
Esfandiarpour-Borujeni, et al. (2018) in Iran. On the contrary, it is a
pedogenesis that generated changes in very sandy materials (which are
identified as horizon A) over a previous pedogenesis that had generated
a profile 2, characterized by Bt horizons, whose original horizon A has
been eliminated by erosive processes. Thus, the subsurface horizons of
the Planosol indicate that they are paleosol horizons, like the profiles of
Vertisols below them.
5.2. Pedoenvironmental changes
Two evolutionary sets in distinct environmental and climatic terms
were recognized in the Anhumas paleosol profiles. One is associated
with the Vertisols and the other with the Planosol/Arenosol. According
to Buol et al. (2011), Vertisols develop associated with three basic
conditions that may or may not be associated: (a) in an arid or semi-arid
climate; (b) associated with a low permeability layer or horizon below
the vertic horizons, and (c) in low permeability settings produced by the
smectite clays that characterize the horizons. The second condition is
absent, since the Vertisol positioned at the base (profile 4) is directly in
contact with sandy deposits with high porosity, indicating that the cli­
matic and mineralogical types are what justifies the presence of Verti­
sols. The origin of expansive clay may be associated with processes of
local weathering and/or inherited by deposition. According to Pal et al.
(2009), Vertisols can occur in different climate types, as already indi­
cated by different authors (Coulombe et al. 1996; Coulombe et al. 2000,
Nordt and Driese, 2010). However, Vertisols that develop in different
climates have different characteristics.
Morphologically, the cracks are deeper in drier climates and exceed
1 m. Although the profile is truncated, the cracks reach up to 1 m in
depth (Fig. 5A, B) and are often filled with sand (Fig. 5G,H). Carbonate
concentrations occur in the form of rhizoconcretions (Fig. 5E) and
F.S.B. Ladeira et al.
carbonate glaebules (Fig. 5F), indicating environmental conditions with
significant water deficit (Pal et al., 2001). The white color, due to car­
bonate concentrations, highlights the environmental conditions. Ac­
cording to Pal et al. (2001) and Srivastava et al. (1994, 1998), white
colors in alluvial deposits point to arid and semi-arid climates, mean­
while the formation of Fe-Mn films occurs in slightly humid conditions,
generating red and black colors associated with carbonate features.
Profile 2 and 1, which overlaps the Vertisol (profile 3), presents low
saturation of bases, iron glaebules, manganese films, and kaolinite in the
clay fraction. These characteristics, completely different from Vertisols,
indicate a distinct pedoclimate, though without significant water deficit,
indicating notable presence of water in the system. They also indicate
partially impeded drainage.
The profiles 2 and 1 are more complex, in terms of paleoenvir­
onmental evolution, maybe as two overlapped soil profiles that generate
another profile, which due to organization of the horizons, is classified
as a single profile. Horizons 2Bt and 2C show deposition in 30 ka, and
the A horizon presents deposition age of 8 ka. Independently of whether
there are two deposits and two pedogenetic events or two deposits and
one pedogenesis, these indicate, in pedogenetic terms, relatively more
humid conditions. In summary, the presence of two overlapping Verti­
sols profiles indicates that their respective developments were associ­
ated with climatic and/or hydrological variations. However, between
the Vertisol and Planosol profiles, at the top a significant change in
environmental conditions occurs, especially climatic, featuring differ­
ences of allogenic character.
5.3. Paleosols and regional climate variations
The paleoenvironmental changes recognized in the Anhumas section
(Aquidauna River) in southern Pantanal may be related to regional
changes in precipitation (Cruz et al., 2005; Novello et al., 2017) and
vegetation (Whitney et al., 2011; Fornace et al., 2016). The lower part of
the studied Anhumas section consists of medium to coarse-grained sands
with trough cross-bedding strata without paleosol horizons preserved,
suggesting a dynamic fluvial system with high competence to transport
sediment. The deposition of sediments occurred from 106.7 ± 5.6 to
Fig. 8. OSL dating and climate proxy. A. OSL dating of sediments in the Anhumas section of the Aquidauna River with error interval; B. Isotopic data from the
Jaraguá Cave (Novello et al., 2017); C. Isotopic data from the Botuverá Cave (Cruz et al., 2005); D. Isotopic data from the Paraíso Cave, east of the Amazon State
(Wang et al., 2017); Marine isotope stages (MIS) are indicated at the top of the figure (Lisiecki and Raymo, 2005). LGM – Last Glacial Maximum. Top of curves - drier;
lower - wetter.
12
Catena 212 (2022) 106113
72.2 ± 5.5 ka, marked by high variability of precipitation and sparse
vegetation cover in the source areas (Fig. 8). The high variability in
precipitation during the period has been associated with weakening and
strengthening of the South American Summer Monsoon (SASM - Cruz
et al., 2005; Novello et al., 2017), whereas the colder temperatures and
decrease of CO2 in the atmosphere suggest a sparse vegetation cover
(Burbridge et al., 2004). The environmental conditions indicate high
variability in river discharge and sediment yield at the catchment area in
the surrounding plateaus, leading to a dynamic fluvial system in the
lowland areas (Hansford and Plink-Björklund, 2020). The reported
fluvial deposits with absolute ages older than 50 ka are scarce in the
literature of South American rivers. Deposition in dynamic fluvial sys­
tems (braided channels and/or distributary systems) with high season­
ality in river discharge has been interpreted for chronocorrelatable
deposits in the Paraná River, Araguaia River, Pantanal rivers, and
Amazon River and its tributaries (Stevaux, 2000; Valente and Latru­
besse, 2012; Assine et al., 2014; Rossetti et al., 2015; Pupim et al., 2017;
Oliveira et al., 2019; Pupim et al., 2019).
The Anhumas profile paleosols show a sequence of sedimentary de­
posits in which the OSL ages corroborate relative drier events and
marked environmental transitions during the Upper Pleistocene. The
paleosols originated in slightly humid conditions (profiles 3 and 4) and
with higher water availability (profiles 1 and 2), particularly in the 2Bt
horizons (Fig. 8). Our interpretation matches the Knox model (Knox,
1972), where most geomorphic processes of erosion and deposition
occur during periods of environmental transition. Therefore, the
development of soil is associated with periods of relative landscape
stability under an increase in regional humidity, in conditions equally or
wetter than today.
The sequence of well-developed Btss and Bss horizons (Vertisols with
carbonate septarian glaebules and carbonate rhizolites) highlights a
long period of arid or semi-arid conditions between ≈70 and ≈30 ka.
The drier period during the marine isotope stage 3 (MIS3) was also
interpreted from geomorphological and sedimentological records of
fluvial systems in northern Pantanal (Assine et al., 2014; Pupim et al.,
2017). Moreover, oxygen isotope records of speleothems from Paraiso
Cave (eastern Amazon; Wang et al., 2017) and Botuverá Cave (southern
F.S.B. Ladeira et al.
Brazil, Cruz et al., 2005) suggest a weakening of the SASM towards
central and northern Brazil during the MIS3, limiting the wetter con­
ditions to the south. The well-developed Bt horizons suggest relatively
wetter conditions and a stable landscape from 29.8 ± 2.3 ka to 8.3 ± 0.7
ka. Thus, an increase of the tropical summer precipitation can be
interpreted, due to the intense SASM associated with an increase in the
atmospheric CO2 concentration, during the last deglaciation (18–11.7
ka) and early Holocene (McGlue et al., 2012; Fornace et al., 2016).
Despite the limitation of our data to precisely constrain the humid
period, oxygen isotopes from Jaraguá Cave (Bonito, MS) suggest that it
extended through the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM − 26 to 18 ka)
(Novello et al., 2017). The OSL age of 8.3 ± 0.7 ka points to sediment
reworking and deposition from early to mid-Holocene. It corroborates
relatively drier conditions reported from lakes (McGlue et al., 2012;
McGlue et al., 2017) and speleothems records (Novello et al., 2017) in
the Pantanal region. The development of horizon A may be related to
modern environmental conditions that have been established since 4–2
ka with an overall increase of rainfall, due to the current monsoon
system (McGlue et al., 2012; McGlue et al., 2017).
6. Conclusions
The Anhumas outcrop in the Aquidauana River terrace records sig­
nificant diversity of paleoenvironmental information. By identifying the
processes associated with sedimentation and pedogenesis, remarkable
environmental changes from the late Pleistocene to Holocene could be
discerned. The succession of events was interpreted based on the dis­
continuities observed in the field (vertical succession of facies, horizons
and pedological features, physical discontinuities) that defined the
sample collection. The OSL dates proved the gaps defined in the field.
The sedimentary and pedogenetic processes recorded in the Anhu­
mas sequence show that the SASM plays a key role in the landscape
evolution in southern Pantanal. Data shows that most of the aggrada­
tional periods occurred over drier and transitional conditions, whereas
soil development and preservation were related to wetter and more
stable conditions. The development of Vertisols with an abundance of
carbonate glaebules occurred between Σ≈70 and ≈30 ka. It presents
well-marked, arid or semi-arid climatic conditions for the region during
MIS 4 and MIS 3 with increased aridity in the transition from MIS 4 to 3,
and from MIS 3 to 2.
Pedogenetic processes that form the Bt horizon suggest relatively
wetter conditions during the MIS 2 and early Holocene. Sedimentary
reworking during the middle Holocene points to drier conditions, which
were followed by rainfall increase during the late Holocene.
The described profiles are commonly identified in the Pantanal
pedological mappings. However, many of them can be exhumed pale­
osols as the case here documented. This helps explain the complexity
and pedological diversity that characterizes the Pantanal. The soils that
currently occur on the surface, usually associated with different envi­
ronmental conditions, can coexist on the same geomorphic surface.
Finally, we consider the Pantanal a model for paleopedology in­
vestigations of fluvial distributive deposits.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the FAPESP (grant #2014/06889-2, São Paulo
Research Foundation-Brazil) and the CNPq (grant # 432985/2018-2
National Council for Scientific and Technological Development-Brazil)
and CAPES for financial support; the Luminescence and Gamma Spec­
trometry Laboratory (LEGaL) at the University of São Paulo for OSL
13
Catena 212 (2022) 106113
dating facilities; FSBL (#307951/2018-9), FNP (#302411/2018-6) and
MLA (#304925/2017-9) are research fellows of Brazilian National
Council for Scientific and Technological Development - CNPq/Brazil.“;
the authors are grateful to Isabel Leli and José Cândido Stevaux for
fieldwork assistance; we thank an anonymous reviewer and Dra María
Sol Raigemborn for their review and suggestions that improved the
manuscript.
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