Introduction 1.1 Definition and Scope Remote sensing, in the simplest words, means obtaining information about an object without being in touch with the object itself. It has two facets: the technology of acquiring data through a device which is located at a distance from the object, and analysis of the data for interpreting the physical attributes of the object, both these aspects being intimately linked with each other. ‘Taking the above definition literally, various techniques ‘of data collection where sensor and object are not in contact with each other could be classed as remote sensing, e.g. ooking through a window or reading a wall-poster, as also ‘many standard geophysical exploration techniques (aeto- ‘magnetic, clectromagnetic induction, etc.), and @ host of other methods. Conventionally, however, the term remote sensing has come to indicate that the sensor and the sensed object are located quite remotely apart, the distance between the two being of the order of several kilometres or hundreds of kilometres. In such a situation, the intervening space is filled with air (aerial platform) or, even partly, vacuum (space platform) and only electromagnetic (EM) radiation is able to serve as an efficient Tink between the sensor and object. Practically, therefore, remote sensing has come imply data acquisition of electromagnetic radiation (commonly between the 0.4 jm and 30cm wavelength range) from sensors flying on aerial or space platforms, and its inter- pretation for deciphering ground abject characteristics 1.2 Development of Remote Sensing Remote sensing has evolved primarily from the techniques of aerial photography and photo interpretation. It is a rela- tively young scientific discipline, and is an area of emerging technology that has undergone phenomenal growth during the last nearly five decades. It has dramatically enhanced man's capability for resource exploration, mapping and © Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany 2018 monitoring of the Earth’s environment on local and global scales (Renez. 1999; Lillesand et al. 2015; Thenkabail 2015). Systematic and concise timelines of key developments in platforms and sensors for Earth observations are given by Green and Jackson (2009). ‘A major landmark in the history of remote sensing was the decision to land man on moon. As a sequel to this, the space race between the US and the erstwhile USSR began, which led to rapid development of space systems. The US National ‘Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has Ted the development of many aerial and spacebome programmes which have provided remote sensing data world-wide. In addition, the European Space Agency (ESA) and national space agencies of a number of countries, such as Canada, Japan, India, China, Brazil, Russia and S. Korea have also developed remote sensing systems, All these missions have provided a stimulus to the technology and yielded valuable data and images of the Barth from space, “The first space photography of the Earth was transmitted by Explorer-6 in 1959, This was followed by the Mercury Program (1960), which provided orbital photography (70-mm format colour) from an unmanned automatic cam- era. The Gemini mission (1965) provided a number of good quality, stereo, vertical and oblique photographs, which formally demonstrated the potential of remote sensing techniques in Earth resources exploration (Lowman 1969), Later, the experiments in the Apollo program included Earth coverage by stereo vertical photography and multispectral 70-mm format photography. The above series of photo- graphic experiments finally paved the way for unmanned space orbital sensors. Meanwhile, sensors for Earth observations had been developed for meteorological purposes (TIROS-I, ITOS and NOAA series) and also were in orbit in the early 1960s. The payload of the weather satellite (NOAA) was modified for inclusion in the first Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS-1), With the launching of ERTS-1, in 1972 (later renamed Landsat-1), began a new era in the history of remote sensing RP. Gupa, Remote Sensing Geology, hips: omp/0,1007/978-3.662-55876.8_12 1 Introduction of the Earth. ERTS-I carried on-board a four-channel mul- tispectral scanning system (MSS) and a tape recorder, which captured extremely valuable data of world-wide distribution, Because the period from 1970 to the early 1980s includes the first availability of MSS image data and image bands with ‘good geometric and radiometric quality, world-wide cover- age, and low user costs, it marks an important evolutionary stage in the history of remote sensing, At the same time, valuable data were accumulating on the spectral behaviour fof the atmosphere, as well as on spectral signatures of minerals, rock materials, soil and vegetation. Based on this, knowledge, a new sensor called the Thematic Mapper (TM), was developed and launched in 1982 aboard Landsat-4 ‘A further modified version, the Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM#) instrument was launched in subsequent years on Landsat-7. Because of theit good spatial resolution and appropriately selected spectral channels the TM/ETM+ type satelite sensor data have been extensively used in remote sensing world-wide since 1982. Concurrently, developments in space transportation sy tems and reusable space shutles came on the scene. Space shuttles provide orbital platform that allow an on-board modular approach for experimental trial of different sensors ‘The most important of these have been the Metric Camera, Large Format Camera, electronic scanner MOMS, and the ‘Shuttle Imaging Radar seties (SIR-A, -B, -C). Developments in clectronic technology led to the design of solid-state CCD Tinear array scanners, the first of these being the German space mission MOMS-1, flown on the NASA's space shuttle. Subsequently, many multispectral sensors uti- lizing this technology have been placed in orbit on free-Alying platforms. Examples include the French SPOT series, the Indian IRS series, the Japanese MOS PRISM and AVINIR, and the China—Brazil CBERS series. The launch of ‘Tem-ASTER in 1999 that carried a combination of pushb- room and optomechanical sensors can be Said to be the most important milestone for geological remote sensing from space asitcartied sensors spectrally well suited for geologic studies. ‘The decade of 1980s saw the emergence of CCDICMOS, area arrays that lead to digital imaging eameras, Tt became & tuming point in the evolution of imaging technology, as photography soon became obsolete and outdated. Digital imaging cameras have now fully replaced photographie films for aerial remote sensing, as also in all walks of life. The unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) or mini-UAY carrying dig- ital cameras are fast emerging as new platforms for acquiring images with very high spatial resolution (a few centimetres) in ‘cost competitive manner for smaller project areas. During the last nearly two decades, there has been a fast technological development leading to large linear CCD arrays with several thousand detector cells. This technology forms the heart of very high resolution sensors with sub-meter spatial resolution from space, such as Ikonos, QuickBird, Eros series, Cartosat series, Geo seties and Pleiades series. Another major milestone has been the development of hhyperspectral imaging sensors from aerial and space plat- forms. These sensors capture images in several hundred ‘wavelength bands und the image data have utility in lithologic identification and possibly quantification of mineral content. ‘The use of Side-Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) imaging, techniques in the 1960s and early 1970s demonstrated their great potential for natural resources mapping and micro-rlief discrimination from aerial platforms. Seasat (1978) was the frst free-lying space sensor which provided radar imagery. Sub- sequently, a series of shuttle imaging radar experiments (SIR-A, -B, -C) were flown to understand the radar response in varying modes, for example, multi-frequency, mult-polarization and ‘multi-look configurations. The ESA’s ERS-1/2, Envisat and Sentinel series, Japanese JERS and ALOS, Canada’s Radarsat, India’s RISAT, German Tera-SAR and Italy's Cosmo- SKYMED series programmes have provided imaging radar dala ofthe Earth from space.' Besides, during the last some 10 15 years, considerable progress has been made in the field of ‘SAR polarimetry and tomography that is finding applications in forestry and vegetation studies. Further, interferometric synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data processing has advanced the use of radar technology in remote sensing, allowing monitoring of ground terrain changes from space with an accuracy in the range of centimetres. Side-by-side, during the past few years, developments in ‘micro-clectronics have revolutionized the computerized data analysis scene. Satellite images have been presented for free ‘viewing over the web through services such as Google Earth, and image data from several satellites are available free of charge world-wide, Image-processing facilities, which were earlier restricted to selected major research establishments, have now become widely available. These factors have also been responsible for greater dissemination of remote sensing image processing knowledge and capability world-wide ‘The modern trend in satellite remote sensing is to create constellations of satellites, both of the very high resolution ‘optical type, and synthetic aperture radar type, for daily repeat/revisit observations, Eye, WorldView 1.3. Fundamental Principle ‘The basic principle involved in remote sensing methods is that, in different wavelength regions of the electromagnetic spec~ trum, cach type of object reflects or emits a certain intensity of, radiation, which is dependent upon the physical or "A list of important past and present remote sensing platforms and sensors ix available on several websites such as: WW¥-C0080.1.2. Fundamental Principle 1 S 3 REFLECTANCE (*/.) —= 5 WATER (CLEAR) ae ol 04 06 08 +0 WAVELENGTH (um) —= 12 16 tonne ee ory soit a re | VEGETATION V6 18 20 22 24 26 Fig. 1.1. “Typical spectral reflectance curves for selected common natural objects—wete, vegetation, soil and limonite compositional attributes of the object (Fig. 1.1). Figure 1.2 shows a set of multispectral images in blue, red and near-infrared bands of the same area and illustrates that var- ious features may appear differently in different. spectral bands. Thus, using information from one or more wavelength intervals, it may be possible to differentiate between different types of objects (e.g. dry sol, wet soil, vegetation, etc), and ‘map their distribution on the ground. ‘The curves showing the intensity of radiation emitted or reflected by objects at different wavelengths, called spectral response curves, constitute the basic information required for successful planning of a remote sensing mission, Fig. 1.2 Multispectral images ina blue, b red and e near-infrared bands of he same area: note diferences in spectral characters of various objects inthe tee specval hands (TRS-LISS-TI sensor images ofa pat ofthe Himalayan foothills and Gangetic plains)4 1 Introduction 1.4 Advantages and Challenges Major advantages of remote sensing techniques over meth- ods of ground investigations are due to the following: 1. Synoptic overview: Remote sensing permits the study of various spatial features in relation to cach other, and delineation of regional featurev/trends/phenomena (Fig. 1.3). Feasibility aspect: As some areas may not be accessible to ‘ground survey, the only Feasible way to obtain information about such arcas may be from remote sensing platforms, 3. Time saving: The techniques save time and manpower, as, information about a large area is gathered quickly. 4, Multispectral approach; Data are available in many spectral bands, providing information well beyond the visible part of the EM spectrum, S. Repeat data availability: Satellite remote sensing pro- vides repeat coverage of the same target area offering the possibility of easy monitoring and change detection. 6. Global coverage: Satellite data facilitate quantitative estimation of physical attributes for global mapping and modeling, 7. Permanent reliable archive: The images provide a per- ‘manent archive of baseline data and information against which more recent observations can be compared and contrasted, 8, Multidiseiplinary applications: The same remote sensing data can be used by researchers/workers in different disciplines, such as geology, forestry, land use, agricul ture, hydrology ete., and therefore the overall benefit-to- cost ratio is higher. ‘There are additional specific advantages associated with, individual sensors, namely: the photographic systems are ‘marked by analogy to the human eye and have high geo- metric fidelity; scanners provide remote sensing data such thatthe digital information is directly telemetered from space to ground; and imaging radars possess the unique advantages of all-weather and all-time capability. Such specific advan- {ages are highlighted for various sensor types, at appropriate places. Remote sensing technologies pose challenges: some ongoing 1. Changing technologies: Keeping up-to-date with sensor technology, new hardware, software tools, data handling. techniques requires constant effort, 2. Data management: Data volumes from past and current satellites are huge and will only grow in future making data management a challenge. Changing data formats and complexities, and development in techniques for data processing, integration, analysis and presentation are areas of continuing research, 3. Increasing resolution: The desire to acquire data at higher spatial, spectral, temporal and radiometric reso- lutions poses new issues in data analysis and interpreta tion, Newer images may provide far more detail than ‘optimal for delineation of features much larger than the spatial resolution of the source image. 4, Societal benefits: Taking remote sensing techniques from a research environment to operational settings where derived products can be useful for effective decision making in near-real time remains @ constant challenge, Fig. 13 One of the chief advantages of remote sensing lies in providing a synoptic overview—an ahiogetber diferent scale of, ‘servation, which may give new insights into the problem; thie iustation shows the Richat secure in Mauritania, a sit-photo rossi, and b satelite image (Berepovoi etl. in Kats el. 1979)15 _A Typical Remote Sensing Programme 5 1.5 A Typical Remote Sensing Programme ‘A generalized schematic of energy/data flow in a typical remote sensing system is shown in Fig. 1.4. Most remote sensing programmes utilize the sun's energy, which is the predominant source of energy at the Earth’s surface. In addition, some remote sensors also utilize the blackbody radiation emitted by the Earth, Also, active sensors such as radars and lasers illuminate the Earth from artificially gen- crated energy. ‘The clectromagnetic radiation travelling through the atmosphere is selectively scattered and absor bed, depending upon the composition of the atmosphere and the wavelength involved. ‘Sensors such as photographic cameras (earlier days), scanners or radiometers mounted on suitable platforms (a) SW suv ACTIVE source record the radiation intensities in various spectral channels ‘The platforms for remote sensing data acquisition could be of various types: arial (balloons, helicopters and airerat) and space-bome (rockets, manned and unmanned satellites) ig. 1.5). Unmanned aerial systems (UAS), particulsriy Jow-altiude platforms, are becoming increasingly popular for data acquisition over hazardous areas. Terrestrial plat- forms are sed to generate ground truth data, The remotely sensed data are digitally processed for rectification and enhancement, and integrated with ‘ground truth” and other reference data. The processed products are interpreted for identfication/discrimination of ground objects. Thematic ‘maps may be integrated with other multidiseiplinary spatial data and ground truth data and used for decision making by scientists and managers. souan akoaRsaase RADIATION. srmospHEnic % A ESONS nervectes warupaL cae pace x GROUND TRUTH © © @ o | o 1 | evoroismnn) | ape é SPACE wyacins ANALOUGE VISUAL LL LJ L+ user saenint Theane RADIOMETER] | S&S eS MAPS CASE STORAGE (ESTA weDrs DIGITAL TERRESTRIAL Fig. 144 a-t, Scheme of atypical emote sensing programme. a Sources of ration snd interaction. b Platforms. ¢ Sensor. d Data prot ¢ Interpretation and analysis. f Output (Modified after Llleand ets. 2015)10% ke 10%em 10% km stim 10m 1 km 100m MAN hvoRAULIC. PLATFORM| BALLOON, HELICOPTER 1 Introduction Unmanned] AERIAL SYSTEM AIRCRAFT ROCKET UNMANNED SATELLITE METEOROLOGICAL SATELLITE Fig. 15 Remote sensing platforms for Earth resources investigations (modified after Barzegar 1983) 1.6 Field Data (Ground Truth) Ground sruth implios reference field data collected to control and help remote sensing image interpretation, In the early days of remote sensing research, ground investigations were used (0 verify the resulls of remote sensing interpretation, eg. the soil type, condition of agricultural crops, distribution of diseased trees, water ponds ete. Hence the term ground truth came into vogue. The same term (ground truth) is still ‘widely applied in remote sensing literature, although some- ‘what erroneously, asthe reference data may now be obtained from diverse sources, not necessarily involving ground investigations. ‘The main purposes of field data collection are. the following 1 To calibrate a remote sensor b. To help in remote sensing data correction, analysis and interpretation cc. To validate the thematic maps and quantitative parame- ters derived from remote sensing. ‘The parameters/physical properties of interest are different in various parts of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum, from visible, near-IR, thermal-IR to the microwave region (for ter- ‘minology, see Sect. 2.2.3). Table 1.1 gives a brief overview.1.5. Fleld Data (Ground Truth) Table 1.1. Main physical properties for sudy during field data collection “A General Topography slope and aspect Atmospheric-meteorological condition: cloud, wind, ain ee Solar illumination: Sun azimuth, elevation . Solar reflection region (osble-near infrared) Special reflectance Sun-objc-sensor angle Bidirectional reflectance dstbotion function Surface coatings, Ieachings,encrustatons Soi: texture, moist, humus, soil mineralogy Rock type, structure Vegetation characterises, and useflnd cover types, dstbution Thermak-infared region Ground temperature isivity Soil: texte, moisture, hums, soil minerlogy ‘Vegetation characteristics, land usefland cover pes, and dstbution Rock type, mineralogy, souctre D. Microwave region ‘Microwave roughness (surface and sub-surface) Volume settering and complex dielectric constant Rainfall psten/surface moistre ‘There are four main considerations while planning the ground truth part of a remote sensing project: Timing of ground truth data collection ‘Sampling ‘Types of field data GPS survey. 161 Ti ig of Field Data Collection Ground data can be collected before, during or after the acquisition of remote sensing data. The field data may ‘comprise two types of parameters: (a) intrinsic and (b) time variant. An intrinsic parameter is a time-stable parameter that could be measured any time, eg. albedo, spectral emissivity, rock type, structure ete. A time-variant (or time-critical) parameter varies with time and must be mea- sured during the remote sensing overpass, e.g. temperature, rain, condition of crop ete. Generally, data on meteorological conditions are collected for about one week before and during the remote sensing overpass; this is particularly ‘important for thermalIR surveys. 1.6.2. Sampling Different methods of sampling ground truth may be adopted depending upon the time and resources available (Townshend 1981). The most commonly used method of sampling is purposive sampling. In this method, observa- tions are made in linear traverses in such frequency and intensity as seems appropriate to the field worker. It utilizes the skills and local knowledge of the field worker. The ‘method is time and cost effective. It is well suited to making point observations and interpretations, and interpreting anomalous features observed on remote sensing images, However, the drawback is the difficulty in statistically extrapolating results and deducing quantitative results for the whole study area. Other methods include probability sampling, random sampling, systematic sampling ete., which are more time and cost consuming (for details, see Townshend 1981). 1.6.3 Types of Field Data ‘The ground data may be derived from a variety of sources, such as: (a) dedicated field measurements/surveys; (b) aerial photographic interpretation; and (c) library recordstepors. These may be considered to be of two main types: (1) the- matic maps and (2) spectral data, 1, Thematic Maps: show distribution of features which may be of interest for a particular remote sensing project, eg. landforms, drainage, distribution of agricultural crops, water bodies, lithological boundaries, structure ete. In addition, field data may also involve maps exhibiting special features, such as landslides, oF suspended silt1 Introduction distribution in an estuary, or isotherms on a water body etc. Such thematic maps may be derived from aerial photographic interpretation, existing recordsfreports, or ‘generated through dedicated field surveys. 2, Spectral data: are generally not available in the existing reportsecords and have almost invariably to be specif- ically collected. The instruments could be ficld-portable, ‘or may be mounted on a hydraulic platform or used on an aerial platform. Instrumentation for generating field spectral data is different in various parts of the EM spectrum, However, they all have in common two com- ponents: an optical system to collect the radiation, and a detector system (0 convert radiation intensity into elec~ tical signal. Usually, a PC notebook is integrated t0 record the data, which provides flexibility in data storage and display In the solar reflection region (visible, near-IR, SWIR), two types of instument are used: (@) multichannel radiometers, and (b) spectroradiometers. Multichannel radiometers generate spectral data in selected bands of ‘wavelength ranges, which commonly correspond to satellite sensor bands (such as the Landsat TM/ETM+, IRS-LISS, SPOT-HRVs etc.). Some instruments permit calculation of band ratios and other computed parameters in the field, in teal time. Data from multichannel field radiometers help in interpreting the satellite sensor data. Spectroradiometers (e.g. Fig. 1.6) are used to generate spectral response curves, commonly in the wavelength range of 0.4-2.5 jm. The system usually acquires @ continuous Fig. 1.6 typical eld specworadiometer (Courtesy of Geophysical snd Environmental Research) spectrum by recording data in more than 1000 narrow spectral bands. Further, matching spectra to a library of, previously recorded/stored spectra is also possible in some instruments, In the solar reflection region, we have a typical bidirec- tional arrangement in which illumination is from one direction and observation from another (Fig. 1.7). Taking a general case, sunlight incident on an object is scattered in various directions, depending upon the reflection character- istics of the material. The intensity of light in a particular viewing direction depends upon the angle of incidenc angle of view and the reflection characteristics. Therefore, the sun—target—sensor goniometric geometry has a pro- found influence on the radiance reaching the sensor. For the ‘same ground surface, the radiance reaching the sensor may be different depending upon the angular relations, This property is given in terms of the bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) of the surface, which mathe- ‘matically relates reflectance for all combinations of illumi- nation and viewing angles at a particular wavelength (e.g. Silva 1978). A goniometer is used for field measurements of BRDF (Fig. 1.8). This consists of a semi-circular arch on which a specroradiometer is mounted, The spectrora- ddiometeris moved over the arch from one side tothe other to view the same ground area from different angles. In this way, reflectance data can be gathered to describe the BRDF for the surface, In the thermal region, field surveys are carried out 10 ‘measure two ground parameters: (a) ground temperature, and (b) spectral emissivity. Suitable thermometers (0.1 °C least count) are commonly used for measuring ground temperatures. Temperature measurements are made for several days at a point, of along traverse lines at the same time, as per the requirement, Measurement of spectral “ait sun i NORMAL weioeNt od Fig. 1.7 Geometry region of Didivectional arrangement in solar reflection1.5. Fleld Data (Ground Truth) ot = AZIMUTH: ANGLE P= ZENITH ANGLE Fig. 1.8 Goniometer for messuting BRDF; a spectoradiometer is ‘mounted on the semi-circular arch ofthe goniometer; measurements of feflctance are made for various combinations of zenith and zinth angles to generate BRDF or the surface ‘emissivity in the field is done through a reflection arrangement. Spectral reflectance (R,) over narrow spectral ranges is measured in the field and spectral emissivity (&) is computed (& = 1 ~ R,) on the basis of Kirchofl’s Law. In addition, it i also important to monitor the heat energy budget, for which a host of parameters are measured (sce Sect, 123.23) In the microwave region (SAR sensors) the main parameter of interest is the back-scattering coefficient, Scatterometers which can be operated at variable wave- lengths and incidence angles are used to gather the requisite field data (also see Sect. 16.7.2). 1.6.4 GPS Survey Global Positioning System (GPS) devices are used to exactly locate the position of field observations. The GPS is a satellite-based navigation system, originally developed by the US Department of Defense, It includes a group of nominally 24 satellites (space vehicles, SV), that orbit the Earth at an altitude of about 20,200 km, with an orbital period of 12h, There are six orbital planes (with four satellites in each), equally spaced 60° apart along the equator and inclined at $5° from the equatorial plane. The orbits are nearly circular, highly stable and precisely known. In all, there are often more than 24 operational satellites at any point in time (as new ones are launched to replace the older satellites) (Fig. 1.9). The satellites transmit time-coded radio signals that are reconted by ground-based GPS receivers (Fig. 1.10). At any given time, at least four and generally five to eight SVs are visible from any point on the Earth (except in deep mountain gorges) (Fig. 1.11), The method of satellite ranging is used to compute distances and locate the posi- tion, Four GPS satellite signals are used to compute the position of any point in three dimensions on the Earth's surface, Basically this works on the principle of measuring the time for a signal to travel between the SV and the GPS. receiver. With the speed of light known (3 x 10° mi), the distance ean be calculated, 2 receiver (courtesy of Garmin Corp.)‘There may be errors due to the clock (errors in clock synchronization, called clock biss), uncertainties in the satellite orbit, errors due to atmospheric conditions (influencing the travel of EM radiation through the atmo- sphere), GPS receiver errors etc, The exact ephemeris (or- Dital) data and SV clock corrections are monitored for each ‘SV and also recorded by the ground GPS receiver. This Table 1.2. Organization scheme: remote sensing geology nd ed.) 1 Introduction corrects for the corresponding errors (for fuller details on GPS, refer to Kaplan and Hegarty 2006; Leick et al. 2015). Differential GPS method aims at eliminating the above errors and providing refined estimates of differential or rel- ative distances on the ground. It involves one stationary or base GPS receiver and one ot more roving (moving) recei- vers. Simultaneous signals from SVs are recorded atthe base z z ; a Sar1.5. Fleld Data (Ground Truth) u g Fig. 1.11 Signals from four GPS satellites being received ata field and rover GPS receivers. As positional errors are similar in base and rover GPS receivers, itis possible to obtain highly refined differential estimates of distances, Accuracies using GPS depend upon the GPS receiver and data processing, both of which are governed by project cost. Some estimates are as follows Low cost, single receiver: 10-30 m = Medium cost, differential receiver: 50 em-5 m © High cost, differential GPS: 1 mm to 1 em, 1.7. Scope and Organization of This Book Remote sensing techniques have proved to be of immense value in mapping and monitoring various Earth's surface features and resources such as minerals, water, snow, agri- culture, vegetation ete., and have attained an operational status in many of these disciplines. Details of broad- spectrum applications for these can be found elsewhere (e.g. Thenkabail 2015). Here, in this work, we concentrate specifically on geological aspects including sensors, inves- tigations and applications. ‘The organization of this book is schematically shown in Table 1.2. In this chapter, we have introduced the basic principles involved in remote sensing. Chapter 2 discusses the physical principles, including the nature of EM radia- tion and the interaction of radiation with matter. Chapters 3, =14 present various aspects of remote sensing in the optical region of the EM spectrum, whereas Chaps. 15-17 discuss radar remote sensing. Chapter 18 deals with the GIS approach of image-based data integration. Finally, Chap. 19 gives examples of thematic geological applications. References Barzegar F (1983) Eth resources remote sensing platforms, Pho- togramm Eng Remote Sens 49:169 Green K, Jackion MW (2009) Timeline of key developmen: in Platforms and sensors Yor Earth observations. In: Jackson MW (ed) Earth observing platforms and sensors, manual of remote Sensing, vol L.1, 3rd ed. American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ASPRS), Bethea, MD, pp 1-48. Kaplan ED, Hegary Ci (eds) (2006) Undersunding GPS: principles ‘and applications, 2nd edn. Amtech House Publishers, Boston, p 703 Kats ¥, Ryubukhin AG, Trofimov DM (1976) Space methods ology. Moscow State University, Moscow. p 248 (in Russian) Lowman PD Jr (1969) Geologie exit photography: experience from ‘he Gemini Program. Photogrammetica 24:77—106 Leick A, Rapopat L, Tasmikow D (2018) GPS ssellite surveying, 4h si. Wiley, p 840 Lillesand TM, Kiefer RW, Chipman JW (2015) Remote sensing and image imerpreation, Th edn, Wiley ener AN (ed) (1999) Remote sensing for the earth sciences. Mans fof remote sensing, vol 3, 3rd eda. American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Wiley Silva LF (1978) Radiation and instrumentation in remote sensing. In Swain PH, Davis SM (eds) Remote seasing: the quantitative approach. McGraw Hil, New York, pp 21-125 ‘Thenkabail PS (ed) (2015) Remote sensing handbook (Three volume set), CRC Press Townshend JRG (ed) (1981) Terrain analysis and remove seasing George Allen & Unwin, London, pp 38-54