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Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science
and Technology Series
Editor-in-Chief: Robert A. Meyers

Timothy E. Lipman
Adam Z. Weber Editors

Fuel Cells
and Hydrogen
Production
A Volume in the Encyclopedia of
Sustainability Science and Technology,
Second Edition
Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science
and Technology Series

Editor-in-Chief
Robert A. Meyers
The Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology series (ESST)
addresses the grand challenge for science and engineering today. It provides
unprecedented, peer-reviewed coverage in more than 600 separate articles
comprising 20 topical volumes, incorporating many updates from the first
edition as well as new articles. ESST establishes a foundation for the many
sustainability and policy evaluations being performed in institutions
worldwide.
An indispensable resource for scientists and engineers in developing new
technologies and for applying existing technologies to sustainability, the
Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology series is presented at
the university and professional level needed for scientists, engineers, and their
students to support real progress in sustainability science and technology.
Although the emphasis is on science and technology rather than policy, the
Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology series is also a com-
prehensive and authoritative resource for policy makers who want to under-
stand the scope of research and development and how these bottom-up
innovations map on to the sustainability challenge.

More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/15436

Timothy E. Lipman • Adam Z. Weber
Editors

Fuel Cells and Hydrogen

Production
A Volume in the Encyclopedia of
Sustainability Science and
Technology, Second Edition

With 580 Figures and 128 Tables

Editors
Timothy E. Lipman Adam Z. Weber
TSRC, University of California Lawrence Berkeley Nat. Lab.
Berkeley TSRC Berkeley, CA, USA
Berkeley, CA, USA

ISBN 978-1-4939-7788-8 ISBN 978-1-4939-7789-5 (eBook)

ISBN 978-1-4939-7790-1 (print and electronic bundle)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-7789-5
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018948011

# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or
part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way,
and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
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The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
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regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Science+Business Media,
LLC part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, U.S.A.
Series Preface

Our nearly 1000-member team recognizes that all elements of sustainability

science and technology continue to advance as does our understanding of the
needs for energy, water, clean air, food, mobility, and health, and the relation of
every single aspect of this vast and interconnected body of knowledge to
climate change. Our Encyclopedia content is at a level for university students,
professors, engineers, and other practicing professionals. It is gratifying for our
team to note that our online First Edition has been heavily utilized as evidenced
by over 500,000 downloads which of course is in addition to scientists’
utilization of the Encyclopedia and individual “spin-off” volumes in print.
Now we are pleased to have a Living Reference on-line which assures the
sustainability community that we are providing the latest peer-reviewed con-
tent covering the science and technology of the sustainability of the earth. We
are also publishing the content as a Series of individual topical books for ease
use by those with an interest in particular subjects, and with expert oversight in
each field to ensure that the second edition presents the state-of-the-science
today. Our team covers the physical, chemical and biological processes that
underlie the earth system including pollution and remediation and climate
change, and we comprehensively cover every energy and environment tech-
nology as well as all types of food production, water, transportation and the
sustainable built environment.
Our team of 15 board members includes two Nobel Prize winners (Kroto
and Fischlin), two former Directors of the National Science Foundation (NSF)
(Colwell and Killeen), the former President of the Royal Society (Lord May),
and the Chief Scientist of the Rocky Mountain Institute (Amory Lovins). And
our more than 40 eminent section editors and now book editors, assure quality
of our selected authors and their review presentations.
The extent of our coverage clearly sets our project apart from other publi-
cations which now exist, both in extent and depth. In fact, current compendia
of the science and technology of several of these topics do not presently exist
and yet the content is crucial to any evaluation and planning for the sustain-
ability of the earth. It is important to note that the emphasis of our project is on
science and technology and not on policy and positions. Rather, policy makers
will use our presentations to evaluate sustainability options.
Vital scientific issues include: human and animal ecological support sys-
tems, energy supply and effects, the planet’s climate system, systems of
agriculture, industry, forestry, and fisheries and the ocean, fresh water and
human communities, waste disposal, transportation and the built environment

v
vi Series Preface

in general and the various systems on which they depend, and the balance of all
of these with sustainability. In this context, sustainability is a characteristic of a
process or state that can be maintained at a certain level indefinitely even as
global population increases toward nine billion by 2050. The population
growth, and the hope for increase in wealth, implies something like a 50%
increase in food demand by as early as 2030. At the same time, the proportion
of the population that lives in an urban environment will go up from about 47%
to 60%. Global economic activity is expected to grow 500%, and global
energy and materials use is expected to increase by 300% over this period.
That means there are going to be some real problems for energy, agriculture,
and water, and it is increasingly clear that conflicting demands among biofuels,
food crops, and environmental protection will be difficult to reconcile. The
“green revolution” was heavily dependent on fertilizers which are
manufactured using increasingly expensive and diminishing reserves of fossil
fuels. In addition, about 70% of available freshwater is used for agriculture.
Clearly, many natural resources will either become depleted or scarce relative
to population.

Larkspur, CA, USA Robert A. Meyers, Ph.D.

June 2018 Editor-in-Chief
Volume Preface

Hydrogen is an abundant element that is found in many forms on Earth. In its

molecular form of H2 (two protons and two electrons), it is not readily found
but rather needs to be extracted or “reformed” from hydrocarbon fuels, both
fossil and biological, or extracted from water using a “water splitting” process
called electrolysis. Hydrogen is a widely produced and used industrial com-
modity for fertilizer production, oil refining, food production, and metallurgy,
used at a level of tens of millions of tons per year around the world. Hydrogen
is also now being used as an energy carrier for stationary power and transpor-
tation markets using various fuel cell technologies. There are many means of
hydrogen production, from established ones such as steam methane reforming,
where half of the produced hydrogen comes from natural gas or biogas and half
comes from steam used in the reaction to grid-powered electrolysis that uses
electricity to split water molecules in hydrogen and oxygen. Various other
hydrogen production methods are becoming commercially viable, including
gasification or pyrolysis processes of various types of feedstocks (e.g., biogas,
biosolids, fossil fuel production residues, etc.), biological production through
fermentation processes, and from industrial byproducts such as in chlor-alkali
production. Further from commercialization but under active study are more
recently developed electrochemical, photo-electrochemical, and thermochem-
ical processes, with potential to produce renewable hydrogen to meet growing
demand for hydrogen use at larger scale in the future.
Fuel cells are devices that electrochemically convert the chemical free
energy of gaseous or liquid reactants into electrical energy. Due to this
electrochemical rather than thermal process, fuel cells are not limited by
Carnot efficiency, thereby allow for higher efficiencies. Furthermore, the
solid-state nature of these devices and components enables the design of
high-rate architectures, which are critical for power-dense applications such
as transportation. In addition, as they are open flow systems, unlike batteries,
they scale well for longer- and larger-scale operation. For these reasons fuel
cells are being explored and commercialized for large-scale energy conversion
and electricity generation, automotive and truck applications, materials han-
dling equipment, and auxillary power units, to name a few. Fuel cells are
classified nominally based on their electrolyte, which is highly correlated to
operating temperature. At the high end of the temperature scale are solid-oxide
fuel cells (SOFCs) that can operate on various gaseous and liquid fuels and
operate around 700  C and above with ceramic materials and oxygen anion
conducting species. At decreasing temperatures are the molten carbonate

vii
viii Volume Preface

(carbonate anions), and then the proton conducting cells including phosphoric
acid (and related high-temperature membrane) cells, and finally the polymer-
electrolyte fuel cells that require operation at 100  C or lower due to membrane
hydration. Because of this temperature requirement, these cells typically
operate on hydrogen although may work with denser carriers including meth-
anol. Overall, fuel cells offer intriguing possibilities and will play key roles in
the future green energy landscape, although some performance and durability
hurdles remain from both engineering and materials standpoints.

Berkeley, CA, USA Timothy E. Lipman

June 2018 Adam Z. Weber
Contents

Volume 1

Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Production: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Adam Z. Weber and Timothy E. Lipman

Part I Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Fuel Cell Comparison to Alternate Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Julia Kunze-Liebhäuser, Odysseas Paschos, Sethu Sundar Pethaiah
and Ulrich Stimming
Fuel Cell Systems: Total Cost of Ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Max Wei, Ahmad Mayyas, Timothy E. Lipman, Hanna Breunig,
Roberto Scataglini, Shuk Han Chan, Joshua Chien, David Gosselin
and Nadir Saggiorato
Fuel Cell Types and Their Electrochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Günther G. Scherer
Polymer Electrolyte (PE) Fuel Cell Systems .................. 99
John F. Elter
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells:
Automotive Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Shyam S. Kocha
PEM Fuel Cells: Materials and Design Development
Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Stephen J. Paddison and Hubert A. Gasteiger
PEM Fuel Cell Materials: Costs, Performance, and Durability . . . 195
A. de Frank Bruijn and Gaby J. M. Janssen
PEM Fuel Cells: Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
M. Secanell, A. Jarauta, A. Kosakian, M. Sabharwal and J. Zhou
PEM Fuel Cells and Platinum-Based Electrocatalysts . . . . . . . . . . 295
Junliang Zhang
ix
x Contents

Proton-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells with Low-Pt Content . . . 323

Anusorn Kongkanand, Wenbin Gu and Mark F. Mathias

Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEM-FC) and

Non-noble Metal Catalysts for Oxygen Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Ulrike I. Kramm, Peter Bogdanoff and Sebastian Fiechter

Membrane Electrolytes, from Perfluorosulfonic Acid

(PFSA) to Hydrocarbon Ionomers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Kenji Miyatake

Ionomer Thin Films in PEM Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

Ahmet Kusoglu

Alkaline Membrane Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439

Robert C. T. Slade, Jamie P. Kizewski, Simon D. Poynton,
Rong Zeng, and John R. Varcoe

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells: High-Temperature,

Low-Humidity Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Steven J. Hamrock and Andrew M. Herring

Polybenzimidazole Fuel Cell Technology: Theory,

Performance, and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Andrew T. Pingitore, Max Molleo, Thomas J. Schmidt and
Brian C. Benicewicz

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells for Stationary Applications . . . . . . . . . 515

Sridhar V. Kanuri and Sathya Motupally

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531

Choong-Gon Lee

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569

A. Atkinson, S. J. Skinner and J. A. Kilner

Volume 2

Fuel Cells (SOFC): Alternative Approaches (Electrolytes,

Electrodes, Fuels) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
K. Sasaki, Y. Nojiri, Y. Shiratori and S. Taniguchi

Direct Hydrocarbon Solid Oxide Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633

Michael Van Den Bossche and Steven Mcintosh

Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Materials: Durability, Reliability,

and Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
Harumi Yokokawa and Teruhisa Horita

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells: Marketing Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701

John Bøgild Hansen and Niels Christiansen

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells: Sustainability Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733

K. U. Birnbaum, Robert Steinberger-Wilckens and P. Zapp
Contents xi

Part II Hydrogen Production Science and Technology . . . . . . . 781

Hydrogen Production Science and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783

Timothy E. Lipman
Hydrogen Production Through Electrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799
Abudukeremu Kadier, Mohd Sahaid Kalil, Washington Logroño,
Azah Mohamed and Hassimi Abu Hasan
Electrochemical Hydrogen Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819
Marc T. M. Koper
Hydrogen Production from Biological Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833
Ao Xia, Xun Zhu, and Qiang Liao
Biohydrogen Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
Suphi Ş. Öncel and Ayşe Köse
Biohydrogen Production from Agricultural Residues . . . . . . . . . . . 905
Emmanuel Koukios and Ioannis (John) A. Panagiotopoulos
Genetic Optimization for Increasing Hydrogen Production
in Microalgae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
Cecilia Faraloni and Giuseppe Torzillo
Advances on Inorganic Membrane Reactors for Production
of Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 935
Adolfo Iulianelli and Angelo Basile
Hydrogen Production Through Pyrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947
Ali Bakhtyari, Mohammad Amin Makarem and Mohammad Reza
Rahimpour
Hydrogen Production from Algal Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975
Muhammad Aziz and Ilman Nuran Zaini
Hydrogen Production from Photoelectrochemical
Water Splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003
Paula Dias and Adélio Mendes
Hydrogen via Direct Solar Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055
Shamindri M. Arachchige and Karen J. Brewer
Photo-Catalytic Hydrogen Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1099
Jiefang Zhu
Hydrogen Production from High-Temperature Fuel Cells . . . . . . . 1123
Jacob Brouwer and Pere Margalef
Nuclear-Assisted Hydrogen Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1151
Rami S. El-Emam and Ibrahim Dincer
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1163
About the Editor-in-Chief

Dr. Robert A. Meyers

President: RAMTECH Limited
Manager, Chemical Process Technology, TRW Inc.
Post doctoral Fellow: California Institute of Technology
Ph.D. Chemistry, University of California at Los Angeles
B.A., Chemistry, California State University, San Diego

Biography

Dr. Meyers has worked with more than 20 Nobel laureates during his career
and is the originator and serves as Editor in Chief of both the Springer Nature
Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology and the related and
supportive Springer Nature Encyclopedia of Complexity and Systems
Science.

Education

Postdoctoral Fellow:
California Institute of Technology
Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry, University of California at Los Angeles
B.A., Chemistry with minor in Mathematics, California State University,
San Diego

Dr. Meyers holds more than 20 patents and is the author or Editor in Chief
of 12 technical books including the Handbook of Chemical Production Pro-
cesses, Handbook of Synfuels Technology, and Handbook of Petroleum

xiii
xiv About the Editor-in-Chief

Refining Processes now in 4th Edition, and the Handbook of Petrochemical

Production Processes, now in its second edition, (McGraw-Hill) and The
Handbook of Energy Technology and Economics, published by John Wiley
& Sons; Coal Structure, published by Academic Press; and Coal Desulfuri-
zation as well as the Coal Handbook published by Marcel Dekker. He served
as chairman of the Advisory Board for A Guide to Nuclear Power Technology,
published by John Wiley & Sons, which won the Association of American
Publishers Award as the best book in technology and engineering.
About the Volume Editors

Timothy E. Lipman, Ph.D, is an energy and environmental technology,

economics, and policy researcher with the University of California – Berkeley.
He is currently serving as Co-Director of the Transportation Sustainability
Research Center (TSRC), based at the Institute of Transportation Studies. He is
also a Research Affiliate with the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.
Dr. Lipman’s research focuses on electric vehicles, fuel cell technology,
combined heat and power systems, renewable energy, and electricity and
hydrogen production and distribution infrastructure. He completed a Ph.D.
degree in Environmental Policy Analysis with the Graduate Group in Ecology
at UC Davis (1999) and also holds an M.S. degree from UC Davis in
Transportation Technology and Policy (1998) and a B.A. degree from Stanford
University (1990). He is Chair of the Alternative Transportation Fuels and
Technologies Committee of the Transportation Research Board of the National
Academies of Science and Engineering, a member of the Hydrogen and Fuel
Cell Technical Advisory Committee (HTAC) for the US Department of
Energy, and on the editorial boards of Transportation Research-D and the
International Journal of Sustainable Engineering.

xv
xvi About the Volume Editors

Adam Z. Weber holds B.S. and M.S. degrees from Tufts University, the latter
under the guidance of Professor Maria Flytzani-Stephanopoulos. Next, he
earned his Ph.D. at University of California, Berkeley, in Chemical Engineer-
ing under the guidance of John Newman. His dissertation work focused on the
fundamental investigation and mathematical modeling of water management
in polymer-electrolyte fuel cells.
Dr. Weber continued his study of water and thermal management in
polymer-electrolyte fuel cells at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory,
where he is now a staff scientist and program manager for Hydrogen and
Fuel Cell Technologies. His current research involves understanding and
optimizing fuel-cell performance and lifetime including component and
ionomer structure/function studies using advanced modeling and diagnostics,
understanding flow batteries for grid-scale energy storage, and analysis of
solar-fuel generators where he is a Thrust coordinator at the Joint Center for
Artificial Photosynthesis (JCAP).
Dr. Weber has coauthored over 110 peer-reviewed articles and 10 book
chapters on fuel cells, flow batteries, and related electrochemical devices;
developed many widely used models for fuel cells and their components;
and has been invited to present his work at various international and national
meetings. He is the recipient of a number of awards including a Fulbright
scholarship to Australia, the 2008 Oronzio and Niccolò De Nora Foundation
Prize on Applied Electrochemistry of the International Society of Electro-
chemistry, the 2012 Supramaniam Srinivasan Young Investigator Award of the
Energy Technology Division of the Electrochemical Society, a 2012 Presiden-
tial Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers (PECASE), the 2014
Charles W. Tobias Young Investigator Award of the Electrochemical Society, a
Kavli Fellow in 2014, and the 2016 Sir William Grove Award from the
International Association for Hydrogen Energy. He is a Fellow of The Elec-
trochemical Society.
Contributors

Shamindri M. Arachchige Department of Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic

Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
A. Atkinson Department of Materials, Imperial College London, London,
UK
Muhammad Aziz Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of
Technology, Tokyo, Japan
Ali Bakhtyari Department of Chemical Engineering, Shiraz University,
Shiraz, Iran
Angelo Basile Institute on Membrane Technology of the Italian National
Research Council (CNR-ITN), University of Calabria, Rende, CS, Italy
Brian C. Benicewicz Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of South Carolina, University of South Carolina NanoCenter, Columbia, SC,
USA
K. U. Birnbaum Institute of Energy Research, Forschungszentrum Jülich,
Jülich, Germany
Peter Bogdanoff Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie
GmbH (HZB), Institut für Solare Brennstoffe und Energiespeichermaterialien,
Berlin, Germany
Hanna Breunig Sustainable Energy Systems Group, Energy Analysis and
Environmental Impacts Department, Environmental Energy Technologies
Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
Karen J. Brewer Department of Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
National Fuel Cell Research Center, University of
California, Irvine, CA, USA
Shuk Han Chan Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of
California, Berkeley, CA, USA

xvii
xviii Contributors

Joshua Chien Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of

California, Berkeley, CA, USA
Niels Christiansen Topsoe Fuel Cell A/S, Lyngby, Denmark
A. de Frank Bruijn Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands, Groningen,
The Netherlands
Paula Dias LEPABE – Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto,
Porto, Portugal
Ibrahim Dincer Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, University of
Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa, ON, Canada
Rami S. El-Emam Faculty of Engineering, Mansoura University, Mansoura,
Egypt
Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Ontario Institute of
Technology, Oshawa, ON, Canada
John F. Elter Sustainable-Systems, LLC, Latham, NY, USA
Nanoscale Engineering, College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering
SUNY Albany, Albany, NY, USA
Cecilia Faraloni Istituto per lo Studio degli Ecosistemi, Sede di Firenze,
Firenze, Italy
Sebastian Fiechter Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie
GmbH (HZB), Institut für Solare Brennstoffe und Energiespeichermaterialien,
Berlin, Germany
Hubert A. Gasteiger Department of Chemistry, Technische Universität
München, Munich, Germany
David Gosselin Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of
California, Berkeley, CA, USA
Wenbin Gu Fuel Cell Business, General Motors Global Propulsion Systems,
Pontiac, MI, USA
Steven J. Hamrock 3M Fuel Cell Components Program, 3M Company,
St Paul, MN, USA
John Bøgild Hansen Haldor Topsøe A/S, Lyngby, Denmark
Hassimi Abu Hasan Department of Chemical and Process Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, National University of
Malaysia (UKM), Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
Andrew M. Herring Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering,
Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, USA
Teruhisa Horita National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and
Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
Adolfo Iulianelli Institute on Membrane Technology of the Italian National
Research Council (CNR-ITN), University of Calabria, Rende, CS, Italy
Contributors xix

Gaby J. M. Janssen Energy and Sustainability Research Institute

Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands, Petten, The Netherlands
A. Jarauta Energy Systems Design Laboratory, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
Abudukeremu Kadier Department of Chemical and Process Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, National University of
Malaysia (UKM), Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
Mohd Sahaid Kalil Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Fac-
ulty of Engineering and Built Environment, National University of Malaysia
(UKM), Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
Sridhar V. Kanuri Doosan Fuel Cell America, South Windsor, CT, USA
J. A. Kilner Department of Materials, Imperial College London, London, UK
Jamie P. Kizewski Department of Chemistry, University of Surrey,
Guildford, UK
Shyam S. Kocha Hydrogen Technologies and Systems Center, National
Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA
Anusorn Kongkanand Fuel Cell Business, General Motors Global
Propulsion Systems, Pontiac, MI, USA
Marc T. M. Koper Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, Leiden,
The Netherlands
A. Kosakian Energy Systems Design Laboratory, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
Ayşe Köse Department of Bioengineering, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey
Emmanuel Koukios Department of Synthesis and Development of
Industrial Processes, School of Chemical Engineering, National
Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Ulrike I. Kramm Brandenburg University of Technology Applied Physics
and Sensors, Cottbus, Germany
Julia Kunze-Liebhäuser Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of
Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
Ahmet Kusoglu Energy Conversion Group, Energy Technologies Area,
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
Choong-Gon Lee Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering,
Hanbat National University, Daejeon, South Korea
Qiang Liao Key Laboratory of Low-grade Energy Utilization Technologies
and Systems (Ministry of Education), Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
Institute of Engineering Thermophysics, Chongqing University, Chongqing,
China
xx Contributors

Timothy E. Lipman Transportation Sustainability Research Center,

University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
Washington Logroño Department of Biotechnology, University of Szeged,
Szeged, Hungary
Centro de Investigación de Energías Alternativas y Ambiente, Escuela
Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo, Chimborazo, Ecuador
Mohammad Amin Makarem Department of Chemical Engineering, Shiraz
University, Shiraz, Iran
Pere Margalef National Fuel Cell Research Center, University of California,
Irvine, CA, USA
Mark F. Mathias Fuel Cell Business, General Motors Global Propulsion
Systems, Pontiac, MI, USA
Ahmad Mayyas Department of Civil Engineering, Transportation
Sustainability Research Center, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
Steven Mcintosh Department of Chemical Engineering, University of
Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
Department of Chemical Engineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, USA
Adélio Mendes LEPABE – Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do
Porto, Porto, Portugal
Kenji Miyatake Clean Energy Research Center, University of Yamanashi,
Kofu, Yamanashi, Japan
Azah Mohamed Department of Electrical, Electronic and System
Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, National
University of Malaysia (UKM), Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
Max Molleo Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of
South Carolina, University of South Carolina NanoCenter, Columbia, SC,
USA
Sathya Motupally Doosan Fuel Cell America, South Windsor, CT, USA
Y. Nojiri International Research Center for Hydrogen Energy, Kyushu
University, Fukuoka, Japan
Suphi Ş. Öncel Department of Bioengineering, Ege University, Izmir,
Turkey
Stephen J. Paddison Department of Chemical and Biomolecular
Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
Ioannis (John) A. Panagiotopoulos Elin Biofuels SA, Athens, Greece
Odysseas Paschos BMW AG, Munich, Germany
Sethu Sundar Pethaiah Gashubin Engineering Private Limited, Singapore,
Singapore
Contributors xxi

Andrew T. Pingitore Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry,

University of South Carolina, University of South Carolina
NanoCenter, Columbia, SC, USA
Simon D. Poynton Department of Chemistry, University of Surrey,
Guildford, UK
Mohammad Reza Rahimpour Department of Chemical Engineering,
Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
M. Sabharwal Energy Systems Design Laboratory, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
Nadir Saggiorato Sustainable Energy Systems Group, Energy Analysis and
Environmental Impacts Department, Environmental Energy Technologies
Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
K. Sasaki International Research Center for Hydrogen Energy, Kyushu
University, Fukuoka, Japan
International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research (WPI), Kyushu
University, Fukuoka, Japan
Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
Roberto Scataglini Sustainable Energy Systems Group, Energy Analysis
and Environmental Impacts Department, Environmental Energy Technologies
Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
Günther G. Scherer Electrochemistry Laboratory, Paul Scherrer Institute,
Villigen, Switzerland
Thomas J. Schmidt General Energy Research, Laboratory of
Electrochemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, Villigen, Switzerland
M. Secanell Energy Systems Design Laboratory, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
Y. Shiratori International Research Center for Hydrogen Energy, Kyushu
University, Fukuoka, Japan
Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
S. J. Skinner Department of Materials, Imperial College London, London,
UK
Robert C. T. Slade Department of Chemistry, University of Surrey,
Guildford, UK
Robert Steinberger-Wilckens School of Chemical Engineering, University
of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Ulrich Stimming Newcastle University, Chemistry – School of Natural and
Environmental Sciences, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
S. Taniguchi International Research Center for Hydrogen Energy, Kyushu
University, Fukuoka, Japan
xxii Contributors

Giuseppe Torzillo Istituto per lo Studio degli Ecosistemi, Sede di Firenze,

Firenze, Italy
Michael Van Den Bossche Department of Chemical Engineering, University
of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
John R. Varcoe Department of Chemistry, University of Surrey, Guildford,
UK
Adam Z. Weber Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA,
USA
Max Wei Sustainable Energy Systems Group, Energy Analysis and Environ-
mental Impacts Department, Environmental Energy Technologies Division,
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
Ao Xia Key Laboratory of Low-grade Energy Utilization Technologies and
Systems (Ministry of Education), Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
Institute of Engineering Thermophysics, Chongqing University, Chongqing,
China
Harumi Yokokawa Advanced Research Laboratories, Tokyo City Univer-
sity, Tokyo, Japan
National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST),
Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
Ilman Nuran Zaini Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of
Technology, Tokyo, Japan
P. Zapp Institute of Energy Research, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich,
Germany
Rong Zeng Department of Chemistry, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
Junliang Zhang Fuel Cell Business, General Motors Global Propulsion
Systems, Pontiac, MI, USA
J. Zhou Energy Systems Design Laboratory, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
Jiefang Zhu Department of Materials Chemistry, Ångström Laboratory,
Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
Xun Zhu Key Laboratory of Low-grade Energy Utilization Technologies and
Systems (Ministry of Education), Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
Institute of Engineering Thermophysics, Chongqing University, Chongqing,
China

Fuel Cells and Hydrogen
Production: Introduction
Adam Z. Weber1 and Timothy E. Lipman2
1
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory,
Berkeley, CA, USA
2
Transportation Sustainability Research Center,
University of California Berkeley, Berkeley,
CA, USA
Article Outline
Hydrogen Production Section
Fuel Cell Section
Bibliography
Hydrogen is a widely produced and used com-
modity, now being used as an energy carrier for
stationary power and transportation markets. Tens
of millions of tons of hydrogen are produced each
year globally, mostly for large-scale industrial
uses. As awareness grows for the need to reduce
greenhouse gases and enable new energy para-
digms, hydrogen is being seen as playing a critical
role as shown in Fig. 1 [1]. Hydrogen provides
chemical storage of electrical energy and can be
efficiently converted to electricity on demand for
distributed applications, thus enabling the global
electrification trends. The H2@SCALE initiative
in the United States, the commercialization of
hydrogen technologies in Japan, and the focus
on power-to-gas and hydrogen utilization in
Europe all point toward a renaissance for hydro-
gen generation and utilization based on its ability
to improve efficiency and reduce emissions across
many sectors.
Major uses of commercial hydrogen are for oil
refining, where hydrogen is used for “upgrading”
of crude oil as part of the refining process to
improve the hydrogen-to-carbon ratio of the fuel,
food production (“hydrogenation”), treating
metals and semiconductor manufacturing, and
# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2019
T. E. Lipman, A. Z. Weber (eds.), Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Production,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-7789-5_1051
Originally published in
R. A. Meyers (ed.), Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology, # Springer Science+Business Media LLC 2018
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2493-6_1051-1
producing ammonia for fertilizer and other
industrial uses. There are many means of hydro-
gen production, from established ones such as
steam methane reforming, where half of the pro-
duced hydrogen comes from natural gas or bio-
gas and half comes from steam used in the
reaction, and grid-powered electrolysis that
uses electricity to split water molecules in hydro-
gen and oxygen. Various other hydrogen produc-
tion methods are becoming commercially viable
and still others are emerging or being tested in
laboratories. Emerging options include various
pathways using biogas or other bio-feedstocks
such as wood waste using gasification or pyrol-
ysis processes, along with newly developed
electrochemical, photo-electrochemical, and
thermochemical processes. These include using
microbial electrolysis cells as well as tailored
molecules and integrated assemblies that can
facilitate the splitting of water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen with lower energy require-
ments than conventional electrolysis. Other
concepts include hydrogen production from
bio-algae systems, thermo-chemical water split-
ting processes, and through high-temperature
nuclear-power system combined processes.
Concomitant with hydrogen production is its
efficient utilization via fuel cells, as well as
additional concepts such as power-to-gas (where
hydrogen is produced from excess renewable
electricity and injected into natural gas pipelines)
and methanization processes to produce
bio-methane.
Fuel cells are devices that electrochemically
convert the chemical “free energy” of gaseous
or liquid reactants into electrical energy. The
basic concepts of fuel cell chemistry have been
known for nearly 200 years where they were
conceptually identified first in the late 1830s.
Christian Friedrich Schönbein recognized and
described the appearance of “inverse electroly-
sis” [2], shortly before Sir William Grove, the
inventor of the platinum/zinc battery, constructed
his first “gas voltaic battery” that is recognized as
1
2 Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Production: Introduction

Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Production: Introduction, Fig. 1 Schematic illustration of hydrogen production and
utilization. (Figure adapted from H2@SCALE vision courtesy of Bryan Pivovar) [1]

the first example of an early fuel cell device
[3]. Grove had previously used platinum elec-
trodes and a dilute sulfuric acid as a proton-
conducting electrolyte. It is interesting to note
that modern low-temperature polymer-electrolyte
fuel cells still make use of related materials
(carbon-supported platinum and perfluoro-
sulfonic-acid (PFSA)-ionomer membranes).
The basic concept for high-temperature fuel
cells dates back to the 1930s, about 100 years
after the existence of the lower temperature
concepts. In an attempt to prove the concept of
“Brennstoff-Ketten mit Festleitern” (fuel chains
with solid conductors), Emil Baur and Hans
Preis tested different solid electrolytes [4], and
they came to the conclusion that the “Nernst-
Masse” is “unübertroffen” (unrivaled). At that
time “Nernst-Masse” had the composition 85%
ZrO2 and 15% Y2O3, and this is still close to
what is used in current SOFCs (solid oxide fuel
cell) as electrolyte material. Moreover, even in
these initial experiments they tested “masses”
containing Ceria (CeO2), and this is still
discussed as a base for alternative SOFC elec-
trolyte materials.
As in a battery or electrolysis cell, the reac-
tants/products are prevented from chemically
reacting by separating them with an electrolyte,
which is in contact with electro-catalytically
active porous electrode structures (Fig. 2). Apart
from effectively separating the anode and cathode
gases and/or liquids (i.e., fuel and air), the elec-
trolyte mediates the electrochemical reactions tak-
ing place at the electrodes by conducting a specific
ion at very high rates during operation. In the
simplest case of a fuel cell, operating with hydro-
gen (fuel) and oxygen (air) as reacting gases, a
proton or hydroxide or oxide ionic current is
driven through the electrolyte and converted to
electronic current at the electrodes, which can
then be used to perform work (see Fig. 2). Run-
ning a similar device in the opposite direction (i.e.,
electrolysis) can be used to generate hydrogen.
When run in both electrolysis and fuel-cell
mode, a unitized energy-storage-system can be
realized.
During the operation of polymer-electrolyte
fuel cells, many interrelated and complex phe-
nomena occur. These processes include mass and
heat transfer, electrochemical reactions, and ionic
Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Production: Introduction
Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Production: Introduction, Fig. 2 Schematic illustration of electrochemical energy-
conversion fuel-cell architecture. (Schematic designed and provided by Ahmet Kusoglu)
and electronic transport. Most of these processes
occur in the through-plane direction as shown in
Fig. 2. This sandwich comprises multiple layers
including diffusion media that can be composite
structures containing a macroporous gas-diffusion
layer and microporous layer, catalyst layers, flow
fields or bipolar plates, and a membrane. During
operation fuel is fed into the anode flow field,
moves through the diffusion medium, and reacts
electrochemically at the anode catalyst layer to
form hydrogen ions and electrons. The oxidant,
usually oxygen in air, is fed into the cathode flow
field, moves through the diffusion medium, and is
electrochemically reduced at the cathode catalyst
layer by combination with the generated protons
and electrons. The water, either liquid or vapor,
produced by the reduction of oxygen at the cath-
ode exits the cell through either the cathode or
anode flow field.
The electrons generated at the anode pass
through an external circuit and may be used to
perform work before they are consumed at the
cathode. An electrolysis cell is essentially the
same but where electrons are supplied and the
reverse reactions occur within the catalyst
layers. Because of the applied voltage for this
process, materials are often different in terms of
catalysts and backing layers in the oxygen
electrode.
3
A fuel cell converts the intrinsic chemical
energy of a fuel into electrical and heat energies,
whereas an electrolyzer takes electrical energy
and converts that into chemical energy. Thus,
both are energy-conversion and not storage
devices (i.e., a fuel cell by itself is not a battery).
From the first law of thermodynamics,
DH ¼ Q  W s (1)
one sees that the net release of energy is in the
form of heat (Q) or work (Ws). The work
performed by the system is simply the power as
expressed by the cell current multiplied by its
operation voltage:
P ¼ IV (2)
The net energy due to the electrochemical reac-
tion is the difference between the heat of forma-
tion of the products and reactants, DH, which can
be converted to an electrochemical potential,
resulting in the enthalpy potential,
DH
UH ¼ (3)
zi F
where zi is the charge number of species i and F is
Faraday’s law. Using the above power equation,
the expression for the heat released becomes
4 Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Production: Introduction

Q ¼ i ðU H  V Þ (4)

Thus, if the cell potential equals the enthalpy

potential, there is no net heat loss, which is why
the enthalpy potential is often termed the thermo-
neutral potential. However, the enthalpy energy is
not fully accessible as it is composed of both
reversible or entropic (Qrev = TDS) as well as
irreversible components. The maximum energy
that is convertible to electrical energy is related
to the free energy of the fuel,

DG ¼ DH  TDS (5) Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Production: Introduction,

Fig. 3 Thermodynamic based potentials for H2 + ½O2 -
The potential corresponding to the Gibbs free > H2O
energy is defined as the equilibrium potential,
Looking at fuel cells in such a principal way
DG
Uy ¼ (6) as above may lead one to the conclusion that they
zi F
are perfect energy-conversion systems superior
to any heat engine, for which the efficiency is
Usually, the fuel cell is operated at a temper-
strictly limited due to the Carnot cycle. However,
ature greater than the standard temperature of
the issue is more complex in practical systems,
25  C, which can be accounted for by integrating
and it is still an open question what role fuel cells
the state properties. For hydrogen and oxygen
will play in future energy supply systems. The
reacting to become water, the enthalpy and equi-
reason is that when current flows, the available
librium potentials are shown in Fig. 3 as calcu-
energy or potential of the cell decreases for fuel
lated from handbooks [5]. Depending on whether
cells due to losses in the cell. Such losses are
the product water is vapor or liquid, one arrives at
termed overpotentials and are derived from resis-
different potentials due to the latent heat and free
tances to electron and ion migration, surface
energy difference between liquid and vapor
concentrations that differ from the bulk due to
water as the reaction product. Thus, as the cell
mass-transfer limitations, and intrinsic losses in
temperature increases, the amount of usable
the kinetic reaction steps. Thus, the net heat lost
work from the fuel decreases (assuming the gen-
from the cell is
erated heat is expelled to the atmosphere), while
the amount of heat generated increases for a
given operating potential. Figure 3 clearly Qloss ¼ Qrev þ Qirrev
   
shows how significant the latent heat of water ¼ i UH  Uy þ i Uy  V (8)
can be (~200 mV).
To account for local concentration changes, which is summarized in Fig. 4 for a polymer-
one can use a Nernst equation for the reaction electrolyte fuel cell. Thus, if the cell operates at a
 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi potential between the equilibrium and enthalpy
RTy
pH2 pO2 potentials, the process is endothermic; whereas if
U¼U  ln (7)
2F pH2 O the operating potential is above the enthalpy poten-
tial or below the equilibrium potential, the process
where R is the ideal-gas constant, T is the temper- is exothermic. So for fuel cells, the operation is
ature, and pi is the partial pressure of species i. almost always exothermic, whereas electrolyzers
Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Production: Introduction
Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Production: Introduction,
Fig. 4 Efficiency and heat generation of a fuel cell
(devices that convert water to hydrogen and oxy-
gen with application of electrical current) are typ-
ically operating much closer to thermo-neutral.
Also as shown in Fig. 4, for fuel cells, the
efficiency of the cell, eff, is typically defined
relative to the maximum free energy available
for electrical work,
V
eff ¼ 1  (9)
U
One must also be cognizant of whether the
efficiency is defined in terms of the equilibrium
or enthalpy values, and what the reference state is
for the calculation (i.e., vapor or liquid water).
This is especially important when comparing dif-
ferent fuel cells as well as with fuel cells to other
systems. For example, solid-oxide fuel cells oper-
ate at temperatures (600–900  C) where the heat
generated can be recovered to electrical energy,
thereby making efficiency greater than 100% pos-
sible using the definition above. Thus, it is more
advisable to use the heating-value or enthalpy or
enthalpy potential of the fuel as the metric for
efficiency since this also allows for a better com-
parison among technologies (e.g., combustion
engines to fuel cells). This is also often used as
the efficiency value when looking at electrolysis.
Notwithstanding the above efficiency consid-
erations, we note that the thermodynamic effi-
ciency limits of all relevant fuel cell reactions are
5
actually below unity (in the range 80–100%) and
that irreversibilities (losses) occur in practically
all parts of the cells as mentioned above. None-
theless, electric efficiencies of more than 50%
(hydrogen to electricity in fuel cells) and greater
than 70% (electricity to hydrogen in electrolyzers)
have been demonstrated commercially. Consider-
ing the fact that heat engines (e.g., steam turbines)
reach such high efficiencies only for very large
units operating at high temperatures, the high fuel
efficiency of both large and small fuel-cell sys-
tems appears to be a unique feature (see Fig. 5)
and enables distributed devices and networks.
The potential expanded use of hydrogen
involves many technical and infrastructure-
related challenges. For example, dispensing
hydrogen to wider consumer and fleet-use mar-
kets, such as for private and fleet vehicles and for
stationary power uses, includes issues related to
hydrogen’s low energy density (by volume) and
other unusual characteristics (i.e., small mole-
cule size, relative ease of ignition in air, metals
embrittlement behavior, need for high gas purity
when used in certain applications such as in
polymer fuel cells, etc.). Hydrogen storage and
advanced fuel dispensing and safety systems are
active areas of research. Also important are
ongoing efforts to study the full economics and
lifecycle emissions implications of various
hydrogen production and use pathways through
total cost of ownership (TCO) and life-cycle
impact assessment (LCIA) methods. Various
analyses have shown that the capital costs and
TCO of both high and low temperature fuel cells
systems can be greatly reduced as a function of
higher production volume, and with significant
overall environmental and social cost benefits
when used in different applications.
Over the past 20 years, there has been great
progress in fuel-cell system cost reduction,
increases in power density, and extended system
durability. These improvements have brought
commercial fuel cells into specialized applica-
tions (e.g., materials handling, military, and
remote power applications) as well as initial
entry into potentially much larger transportation
6 Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Production: Introduction

Fuel Cells and Hydrogen 70

e
Production: with turbin
Introduction,
Fig. 5 Efficiency versus 60
power for different fuel cell el ce
ll l cell power pl
ant
oxide fu r a ne fue team
types compared to other o l i d e m b s /s
50 s te m ga
energy conversion ctroly m tur
bine
ly m er ele l en g i ne stea
technologies po diese

efficiency / %
40 phosphoric acid fuel cell
turbine
gasoline engine gas
30

20

expected technological limit

10
current technology

0
0.1 1 1.0 100 1000
power / MW

(including cars, vans, buses, trucks, and rail sys-
tems) and stationary power markets. However,
widespread use of the different types of fuel cell
systems still requires further fundamental research
and engineering efforts. This volume provides
detailed insight into the current status of the
diverse hydrogen-production and fuel cell tech-
nologies and identifies future directions based on
critical analyses of the state of the art.
Hydrogen Production Section
While hydrogen is the most abundant element on
earth, it is not readily found in its basic molecular
form and has to be produced through one of a
variety of processes. This is however also a ben-
efit as it can be produced in many different ways
and using a variety of feedstocks. Major efforts
are now exploring the options for expanded use
of hydrogen for industrial, power generation, and
transportation systems (e.g., H2@Scale by US
DOE as shown Fig. 1) as well as additional recent
work on hydrogen produced using renewable
resources (e.g., the US DOE HydroGen – Advanced
Water Splitting Materials Consortium).
As discussed above, a range of potential hydro-
gen production methods and pathways include
reformation, gasification, electrolysis, and other
advanced processes. The most common pathway
today is steam reforming of natural gas, but it is
mainly produced as an industrial input; that is,
hydrogen is not being used extensively as an
energy carrier. Electrolysis of water to produce
hydrogen is well proven at small and larger scales
but remains an active area of continued research
for improved efficiency and capital cost
reduction (chapters ▶ “Electrochemical Hydrogen
Production” and ▶ “Hydrogen Production Through
Electrolysis”). There is a need to leverage the under-
standings gained and knowledge developed in fuel
cells for further development of next-generation
electrolyzer systems.
Production of hydrogen from biomass and
algae sources using a variety of gasification and
pyrolysis technologies is also a very active area of
research, using local feedstocks and appropriate
processes (chapters ▶ “Hydrogen Production from
Biological Sources”, ▶ “Biohydrogen Production
from Agricultural Residues”, ▶ “Hydrogen Produc-
tion Through Pyrolysis”, ▶ “Hydrogen Production
from Algal Pathways”, and ▶ “Genetic Optimiza-
tion for Increasing Hydrogen Production in
Microalgae”).
Moving forward, some countries are even
considering the use of excess nuclear energy
(electricity and heat) for producing hydrogen (chap-
ter ▶ “Nuclear-Assisted Hydrogen Production”),
Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Production: Introduction
and others want to rely completely on renewables
such as wind and solar (chapters ▶ “Hydrogen via
Direct Solar Production” and ▶ “Photo-catalytic
Hydrogen Production”). Making large quantities
of hydrogen with sunlight, directly or indirectly, is
still some years away, but this is possible at a
range of scales from kilowatts to many megawatts
with only solar energy and water as inputs.
Some of the latest hydrogen-generation tech-
nologies utilize electrons and electrochemical
devices including more advanced concepts
where they are combined with thermochemical
processes (chapter ▶ “Hydrogen Production from
High-Temperature Fuel Cells”). In addition to
traditional electrolyzers, there has been a recent
focus on utilizing solar light in an electrochem-
ical cell (chapter ▶ “Hydrogen Production from
Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting”), where
efficiencies of solar to hydrogen of around 20%
are now demonstrated, although longevity and
associated durability concerns remain. Addi-
tional concepts include improved hydrogen
production through improved chemical reactor
systems that can be applied to different feed-
stocks and settings (chapter ▶ “Advances on
Inorganic Membrane Reactors for Production
of Hydrogen”).
Fuel Cell Section
In an overall sense, fuel cells can be classified by
their type of electrolyte (chapter ▶ “Fuel Cell
Types and Their Electrochemistry”). The electro-
lyte type is highly correlated with the operating
temperature regime of the fuel cell as the ions used
must be mobile in order to conduct the ionic
current. Lower temperature fuel cell systems
tend to use relatively pure hydrogen as the reac-
tant fuel, but for higher temperature solid-oxide
and molten carbonate fuel cells, other fuels
including hydrocarbon fuels can be reacted more
directly (chapter ▶ “Direct Hydrocarbon Solid
Oxide Fuel Cells”). Durability and reliability
issues are critical for higher temperature fuel
cells (chapter ▶ “Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Materials:
Durability, Reliability, and Cost”) as are the main
components and architectures (chapters ▶ “Fuel
7
Cells (SOFC): Alternative Approaches (Electro-
lytes, Electrodes, Fuels)”) and ▶ “Solid Oxide
Fuel Cells”). At the higher temperature range,
molten-carbonate fuel cells also are commercially
available after decades of development (chapter
▶ “Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells”), and at lower
temperatures, polymer electrolyte membrane
(PEM), phosphoric acid (chapter ▶ “Poly-
benzimidazole Fuel Cell Technology: Theory,
Performance, and Applications”), and poly-
benzimidazole (used as a matrix for phosphoric
acid) (chapter ▶ “Polybenzimidazole Fuel Cell
Technology: Theory, Performance, and Appli-
cations”) types are also well established.
The most researched and deployed fuel-cell
technology to date is the PEM technology that
uses a sulfonic acid membrane and noble-metal
catalyst material coated on the electrodes and
operates traditionally at about 80 C, below the
boiling point of water. While tremendous progress
has been made over the past few decades, there are
still several critical materials issues related to cost
and durability requirements, especially for automo-
tive applications, that must be overcome (chapter
▶ “PEM Fuel Cells: Materials and Design Devel-
opment Challenges”). The electro-catalyst layers
are a key cost and performance component,
where there is a current need for higher perfor-
mance and more durable materials (chapter
▶ “PEM Fuel Cells and Platinum-Based Electro-
catalysts”). Experiments have shown that one can
reduce the amount of noble catalyst, but that at least
thus far this is not without drawbacks in terms of
performance (chapter ▶ “Proton-Exchange Mem-
brane Fuel Cells with Low-Pt Content”). Alterna-
tively, non-noble metal catalysts are increasingly
being researched (chapter ▶ “Polymer Electrolyte
Membrane Fuel Cells (PEM-FC) and Non-noble
Metal Catalysts for Oxygen Reduction”) to reduce
overall cell cost.
A key material for realizing gains in low tem-
perature systems is the PEM itself (chapter
▶ “Membrane Electrolytes, from Perfluoro-
sulfonic Acid (PFSA) to Hydrocarbon Ionomers”)
and its interplay with environmental conditions
(chapter ▶ “Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel
Cells: High-Temperature, Low-Humidity Opera-
tion”). A better ability of fuel cells systems to
8 Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Production: Introduction
adapt to local environmental conditions may help
to reduce the system cost, especially by reducing
the size of the cooling system, the amount of
noble-metal catalyst, and the purity requirements
for the fuel used (relatively pure hydrogen).
Efforts are also constantly underway to find cost
reductions by using non-noble metal catalysts,
potentially through use of more effective anion
or hydroxide exchange membranes (chapter
▶ “Alkaline Membrane Fuel Cells”). Beyond the
polymer electrolyte as a membrane separator,
there is an increasing focus on its existence as
thin films in the catalyst layers and potential
swelling of the layers over time that can inhibit
performance (chapter ▶ “Ionomer Thin Films in
PEM Fuel Cells”).
As noted, fuel cells are complex devices and to
understand the various interplays and complexi-
ties researchers are routinely turning to mathemat-
ical modeling (chapter ▶ “PEM Fuel Cells:
Modeling”). Fuel cells act as energy-conversion
modules in various systems and applications
(chapter ▶ “Polymer Electrolyte (PE) Fuel Cell
Systems”), especially automotive for polymer-
electrolyte fuel cells (chapter ▶ “Polymer Electro-
lyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells: Automotive
Applications”) and stationary for solid-oxide fuel
cells. Of course, when discussing the system
aspects one must be aware of the cost and design
issues (chapters ▶ “PEM Fuel Cell Materials:
Costs, Performance, and Durability” and
▶ “Solid Oxide Fuel Cells: Marketing Issues”),
including LCA (chapters ▶ “Fuel Cell Systems:
Total Cost of Ownership” and ▶ “Solid Oxide
Fuel Cells: Sustainability Aspects”) and compar-
isons to alternative technologies (chapter ▶ “Fuel
Cell Comparison to Alternate Technologies”).
We conclude this introduction by noting
that various types of power systems based on
heat engines and electrochemical energy
devices (mainly batteries but now including
fuel cells as well) have existed side by side
since the late 1800s. Over the intervening
years the abundance of fossil fuels has driven
the development of combustion engines and
turbines and slowed the development of more
efficient and cleaner energy conversion
devices. As the “oil age” continues but is
expected to wane over time, the transition
may include an increase in the importance of
an array of now commercially available sys-
tems for a cleaner and more efficient future
energy system. These include solar photovol-
taic, wind power, geothermal, and biomass-
based renewable energy systems, as well as
transitional solutions based on natural gas
and nuclear power, amid which hydrogen and
fuel cells have an important role to play.
Bibliography
1. Pivovar B (2017) H2@Scale, National Renewable
Energy Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy Fuel
Cell Technologies Office
2. Schöenbein CF (1839) X. On the voltaicpolarization
of certain solid and fluid substances. Philos
Mag Ser 3 14(85):43–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/
14786443908649658
3. Grove WREMAMRI (1839) XLII. On a small vol-
taic battery of great energy; some observations on
voltaic combinations and forms of arrangement;
and on the inactivity of a copper positive electrode
in nitro-sulphuric acid. Philos Mag Ser
3 15(96):287–293. https://doi.org/10.1080/1478644
3908649881
4. Baur E, Preis H (1937) Über Brennstoff-Ketten Mit
Festleitern, Ztschr. Elektrochem 43(9):727–732
5. Perry RH, Green DW (1997) Perry’s chemical engi-
neers’ handbook. McGraw-Hill, New York
 Part I
Fuel Cells

Fuel Cell Comparison to
Alternate Technologies
Julia Kunze-Liebhäuser1, Odysseas Paschos2,
Sethu Sundar Pethaiah3 and Ulrich Stimming4
1
Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of
Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
2
BMW AG, Munich, Germany
3
Gashubin Engineering Private Limited,
Singapore, Singapore
4
Newcastle University, Chemistry – School of
Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle
upon Tyne, UK
Article Outline
Glossary
Definition of the Subject and Its Importance
Introduction
Classical Heat Engines
Electrochemical Systems
Electromobility: An Example for Combining Key
Energy Technologies
Future Directions
Bibliography
Glossary
Battery A battery or voltaic cell consists of one
or more electrochemical cells which store and
convert chemical energy into electric energy.
Electrochemical capacitor An electrochemical
capacitor (supercapacitor, ultracapacitor, or
double-layer capacitor) is an electrochemical
device that can store and convert energy by
charging/discharging the electrochemical
double-layer of two electrodes with large surface
areas and thus large double layer capacitances.
Electromobility Electromobility is a mobility
concept in which electric vehicles instead of
vehicles powered by internal combustion
engines are used.
# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2019
T. E. Lipman, A. Z. Weber (eds.), Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Production,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-7789-5_157
Originally published in
R. A. Meyers (ed.), Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology, # Springer Science+Business Media LLC 2017
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2493-6_157-3
Fuel cell A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell
that can convert the chemical energy stored in a
given fuel into electrical energy.
Ragone plot A Ragone plot compares the per-
formances of different energy storing devices
by plotting power densities or specific power
[W/kg] versus energy densities or specific
energy [Wh/kg].
Definition of the Subject and Its
Importance
The actual energy demand and consumption
issues make it necessary to critically discuss and
compare different energy conversion and storage
systems. At present, only one third of the primary
energy is converted into end energy, for example,
electrical energy. Losses are associated with a
high consumption of fossil fuels and large CO2
emissions. They can be avoided by considering
important electrochemical processes for energy
conversion, using batteries, fuel cells, super-
capacitors and electrochemical photovoltaics and
by incorporating energy storage, employing
rechargeable batteries, supercapacitors, genera-
tion of hydrogen via electrolysis, and generation
of methanol.
Fuel cells can offer clean power generation and
have the potential to convert fuels directly into
electrical energy with high efficiencies. Today,
however, they cannot compete with heat engines
because of much higher costs, inferior power per-
formance, and insufficient durability and lifetime.
As yet, no single electrochemical power source
can match the characteristics of the internal com-
bustion engine. A competitive system in compar-
ison to heat engines can be envisioned when
available electrochemical power systems are com-
bined. In such hybrid electrochemical power sys-
tems, batteries and/or supercapacitors would
provide high power and the fuel cells would
deliver electricity with high efficiency. The con-
sequence would be to considerably reduce costs of
the electrochemical systems.
11
12
Moreover, when we compare different sys-
tems, we face the genuine problem of geometry
and thus the costs related to the space needed for
the processes involved. The latter explains the so
far success of thermodynamic-based systems
(e.g., heat engines) compared to alternative
energy technologies (e.g., fuel cells). This is also
evident when the power output of a coal power
plant which lies in the GW range is compared to
the power that a fuel cell can deliver which lies in
the MW range. A possible strategy would be to
develop highly efficient fuel cell systems that can
push their power to larger outputs. Current
research is aiming at increasing the power output
of a fuel cell without compromising its efficiency;
however, the advantages of conventional systems
cannot be ignored.
Introduction
Our present situation concerning major (fossil)
energy carriers and energy consumption is char-
acterized by limited reserves and resources as well
as emission problems, considering crude oil, nat-
ural gas, coal, and uranium as primary energy
sources. At the same time, the worldwide demand
for electrical energy has increased from 8.3 mil-
lion GWh in 1980 to 18.9 million GWh in 2006
and is estimated to further increase up to 30.7
million GWh in 2030 ([1] (Fig. 1).
The problem of the energy management is of a
rather complex nature. Increasing contributions of
renewable energies such as wind power, solar
power, and wave power tend to complicate the
grid management. Therefore, generation of elec-
trical energy is only part of the challenge. The
management and storage of electrical energy will
become essential in order to maintain the present
grid quality [2].
Energy conversion processes today are under
special consideration because of two issues asso-
ciated with them:
1. The limited availability of primary energy
carriers
2. The emission of pollutants with local and
global negative effects on the environment
Fuel Cell Comparison to Alternate Technologies
trillion kilowatthours
40
Nuclear
Renewables
Natural gas
30 Coal
Liquids
20
10
0
2007 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035
Fuel Cell Comparison to Alternate Technologies,
Fig. 1 Worldwide demand for electrical energy (From
Ref. [1])
On average, energy conversion processes
aiming at generating electrical power reveal effi-
ciencies not much higher than 30%. This indicates
that losses in the form of heat or chemical sub-
stances amount to more than two thirds of the
primary energy. Conventional processes, for
example, those in a heat engine-based power
plant, are volume processes such as combustion,
which results in mechanical and then in electric
energy. By contrast, other technologies such as
photovoltaics, batteries, fuel cells, or super-
capacitors are based on interfacial transfer of
energy and/or charge. In contrast to the perfor-
mance of heat engines which is limited by the
Carnot efficiency, interfacial reactions are usually
of much higher thermodynamic efficiency.
Classical Heat Engines
Thermodynamic considerations lead to the first
heat engines that were used to generate mechani-
cal or electrical energy. Since the eighteenth cen-
tury, conventional reciprocating steam engines
have served as mechanical power sources, with
notable improvements being made by James Watt.
The first commercial central electrical generating
stations in New York and London, in 1882, used
steam engines [3]. These first-generation heat
engines are still serving as power plants today.
Fuel Cell Comparison to Alternate Technologies
Further developments lead to the introduction
of combined cycle power plants. Here, usually a
combination of several cycles, operating at differ-
ent temperatures yields considerably higher sys-
tem efficiency. Heat engines are only able to use a
portion of the energy, usually 35–41%. The
remaining heat is generally wasted.
In a combined cycle power plant (CCPP), or
combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) plant, a gas
turbine generator produces electricity and the
waste heat is used to make steam for generating
additional electricity via a steam turbine; this last
step enhances the efficiency for electricity gener-
ation to about 60%, because the temperature dif-
ference between the input and output heat levels is
higher leading to an increase in the Carnot effi-
ciency. Most modern power plants in Europe and
in North America are of this type.
If the waste heat of a conventional thermal
power station is utilized for district heating, it is
called cogeneration. This heat gives an additional
efficiency of about 40–50% which leads to an
increase of the overall efficiency to ~90%. The
fuels used in these engines comprise black and
brown coal and nuclear power.
In contrast to the stationary systems described
above, mobile engines are needed in many energy
production applications. The best known mobile
engines are the four-stroke (Otto), the diesel, and
the Stirling engine.
Heat engines have limited efficiencies which
are determined by the Carnot cycle. Practical
issues reduce the efficiency of steam engines,
due to limits of convective heat transfer and
viscous flow (friction). There are also mechan-
ical considerations, for example, limitations
imposed by the materials such as nonideal prop-
erties of the working gas, thermal conductivity,
tensile strength, creep, rupture strength, and
melting point.
Electrochemical Systems
Energy Conversion and Storage
Alternatively to conventional Carnot-based heat
engines, electrochemical systems have the poten-
tial to be employed to generate and store energy.
13
Important electrochemical processes for energy
conversion are considered in batteries, super-
capacitors, electrochemical solar cells, and fuel
cells, and energy storage is incorporated by
employing rechargeable batteries, supercapacitors,
generation of hydrogen via electrolysis, and gener-
ation of methanol from electrochemically generated
hydrogen and CO2/CO – containing synthetic gas.
Electrochemical energy conversion systems
are not subject to the Carnot cycle limitations
and may operate with much higher efficiencies
than combustion engines and related devices.
Heat engine cycle processes are volume pro-
cesses, whereas all electrochemical systems that
are used for energy conversion and storage are
based on reactions that take place at an interface.
This makes them dependent on the surface mor-
phology and its physical and chemical properties.
A fuel cell is an electrochemical conversion
device. It produces electricity from fuel on the
anode side and an oxidant on the cathode side,
which react in the presence of an electrolyte. Fuel
cells can operate continuously as long as the nec-
essary flows of reactants and reaction products are
maintained [4]. They are thus thermodynamically
open systems. Many combinations of fuel and
oxidant are possible. A hydrogen cell uses hydro-
gen as fuel and oxygen, usually from air, as oxi-
dant. Other fuels include hydrocarbons and
alcohols. Other oxidants include chlorine and
chlorine dioxide. The principle of fuel cells is
already known for 165 years. In 1838, Christian
Friedrich Schönbein discovered that an electrical
voltage is measured between two platinum wires
in an electrolyte solution surrounded by hydrogen
and oxygen. He published these results under the
title “On the Voltaic Polarization of Certain Fluid
and Solid Substances.” Sir William Robert Grove
investigated the new effect intensely and was the
first to develop useful fuel cells. He connected
several elements in series and called these systems
“gas batteries.” The further development of this
concept to a really efficient electrical source pro-
ved to be so difficult that it took 100 years until it
improved essentially. After the design of the first
electrical dynamo by Werner von Siemens in
1867, electrical generators were energy sources
that efficiently delivered electricity in almost
14
a b
1 Maximum efficiency of a H2/O2 fuel cell
0.9
h 0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3 Carnot efficiency
0.2
0.1
0.0
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
T [K]
Fuel Cell Comparison to Alternate Technologies,
Fig. 2 (a) Ideal thermodynamic efficiency of polymer
electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) compared to
unlimited amounts. This was the reason why fuel
cells were practically replaced completely. Fuel
cells have the potential for high conversion effi-
ciencies of chemical energy into electrical energy;
at the moment the attainable efficiency is up to
65%, depending on fuel and conditions. Fuel cells
can substitute other technologies or be operated in
synergy, for example, with combustion engines in
cogeneration of electricity and of heat and cold, in
residential or mobile applications.
Figure 2 shows a comparison of the thermody-
namic efficiencies of a hydrogen/oxygen fuel cell
and of a Carnot cycle. In the future, fuel cells
might be able to convert the used fuels into elec-
trical energy with efficiencies of >70%. The dif-
ference between the theoretical and practical
energy storage capabilities is related to several
factors, including (1) inert parts of the system
such as conductive diluents, current collectors,
containers, etc., that are necessary for its opera-
tion, (2) internal resistances within the electrodes
and electrolyte and between other cell compo-
nents, resulting in internal losses, and (3) limited
utilization of the active masses, as, for example,
parts of the fuel in a fuel cell leave the cell without
reaction or as, for example, passivation of elec-
trodes makes them partially electrochemically
inactive. Fuel cells offer a very clean power gen-
eration. They are quiet in operation and can be
located close to the application. They produce
much less greenhouse emissions and can be
more efficient in conversion of the energy in a
fuel into power than gasoline engines or utility
thermal power plants. Fuel cells are best utilized
Fuel Cell Comparison to Alternate Technologies
>50%
Electrical
Fuel
energy
100% –100%
–40%
Co
r
o
m
rat
Hot Turbine
bu
ne
gas rotation
sti
Ge
on
Turbine
Chemical Thermal Mechanical Electrical
energy energy energy energy
that obtained in the Carnot process. (b) Comparison of
processes in a cogenerated heat engine with fuel cell per-
formance (From Ref. [2])
as a steady energy source and not as a power
source to supply dynamic demands. For applica-
tions that require varying power demands, such as
automotive propulsion, the use of the fuel cell in a
hybrid configuration with a battery or an electro-
chemical capacitor is envisioned. The fuel cell
provides steady power delivery while the battery
or the electrochemical capacitor handles the surge
for regenerative breaking and acceleration as well
as initial start-up. There is a certain number of fuel
cells under development. Usually fuel cells are
classified by the electrolyte that they are using.
The electrolyte is a major component of the fuel
cell since it determines the operating temperature,
fuel, oxidant, poisons, catalysts, electrode design,
and system design. According to the type of elec-
trolyte that is used, fuel cells can be classified into
six major categories.
The polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell
(PEMFC) uses a solid-type electrolyte that typi-
cally cannot withstand high temperatures, and the
relatively low operating temperature results in
slow reaction rates. The operating temperature of
a PEMFC is typically between 50
C and 100
C.
The slow reaction rate is overcome by using
highly active catalysts such as platinum. The
fuel utilized is pure hydrogen and the electrical
power that it produces is typically less than
250 kW. The fuel and oxidant must be free of
carbon monoxide, which is a poison because it
gets strongly adsorbed by the catalyst reducing the
active surface area. To overcome this issues pre-
sent research is focused onto high-temperature
proton exchange membrane [HTPEM] fuel cell
Fuel Cell Comparison to Alternate Technologies
Fuel Cell Comparison to 1.0 1.2
Alternate Technologies, hvoltage U [V]
Fig. 3 Conversion of
chemical energy in fuel 0.8 1.0
cells (voltage efficiency
voltage vs. current density 0.8
0.6
i). Black line: cell voltage U;
gray line: power density P 0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.0 0.0
0.0
technology. HTPEM has better CO tolerances in
hydrogen feeds, so reformed hydrogen gas can be
used instead of purified hydrogen. Moreover heat
and water management also simplified and reac-
tion kinetics are faster at higher temperatures.
Hence, HTPEM is a suitable technology for trans-
port applications [5].
The direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) is sim-
ilar to the PEMFC but methanol is used as a fuel
instead of hydrogen. It can be used for portable
applications such as laptops, cell phones, and
MEMS devices. Maximum power of DMFCs is
typically less than 10 kW.
Figure 3 shows a typical polarization curve of a
low-temperature PEMFC. The curve is similar for
all the other types of fuel cells as same trends are
observed. At high operation voltages, the power
output of a fuel cell is controlled mainly by the
electrocatalytic properties of the catalyst. In this
region (>0.8 V), the current density is controlled
by the charge transfer and the dissipated heat is
minimized. Challenges in fuel cell catalyst
research are to obtain high electric power density,
high electric conversion efficiency, and low mate-
rial costs. At high electric power density, mass
transport is the dominant factor affecting the fuel
cell operation. This region can be expanded by
careful engineering design of the fuel cell system.
A general research trend is to obtain as high
current densities as possible at high operation
voltages.
For high electric conversion efficiency, one
should aim at the use of less cogenerated heat
15
0.6
P [W cm–2]
Power output @ 0.8 V: Heat
0.14 We/0.08 Wth
0.4
Max power @ 0.44 V:
0.46 We/0.83 Wth
Nominal power @ 0.7 V: 0.2
0.26 We/0.20 Wth
Electricity
0.0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
i [A cm–2]
which would also allow for a simplification of
the design and the need of less fuel (hydrogen)
for the same electrical energy. To guarantee low
material costs, less noble metal should be incor-
porated, because high catalyst utilization is
needed, and highly efficient catalysts are needed
for anode and cathode side. The goal in fuel cell
research must therefore be a deeper understanding
of the parameters controlling electrocatalytic
activity which would enable us to propose rational
structures for catalysts in fuel cells in the future.
Alkaline fuel cells (AFCs) were used to pro-
vide electrical power for many manned space-
crafts. The electrolyte is KOH and the catalysts
include silver, nickel, and different metal oxides.
AFC catalysts are relatively inexpensive com-
pared to catalysts used for other types of fuel
cells. The fuel and oxidant used in an AFC must
be completely free of CO2 since even a small
amount reacts strongly with the electrolyte, pro-
ducing forms of carbonates that poison the ionic
conductivity of the electrolyte. Therefore, pure
hydrogen and oxygen must be used, limiting the
use of the AFC to special applications, like space-
crafts and submarines, where cost of the fuel and
oxidant is not a major issue.
The phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) was the
first fuel cell to be commercialized and shares
some technologies with the PEMFC, such as the
porous electrodes and the platinum catalysts. The
liquid phosphoric acid allows high operating tem-
peratures, around 200
C. Fuels must be free
of carbon monoxide, as with the PEMFCs. With
16
rated power over 50 kW, PAFC systems are used
for stationary applications.
Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) operate
at temperatures around 650
C. The electrolyte is
a mixture of molten carbonate salts, such as
lithium and potassium carbonate. At the operat-
ing temperature, the carbonates melt and become
conductive to carbonate ions. Due to the high
temperature, high reaction rates can be achieved
with low-cost catalysts such as nickel. Rated
power for MCFC systems is typically greater
than 1 MW.
The last fuel cell system is the solid oxide fuel
cell (SOFC). Typical operating temperature for
the SOFC is between 600
C and 1000
C. It has
the same advantages of the MCFC (high reaction
rates, inexpensive catalysts, and natural gas can be
used as a fuel). The electrolyte is in solid form, the
most common kind being yttria (Y2O3) stabilized
with zirconia (ZrO2), which is a ceramic and
therefore makes the fabrication process complex
and difficult. The power output can be greater than
200 kW, making the SOFC ideal for large station-
ary applications, such as power stations.
High-temperature fuel cells such as molten
carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) or solid oxide fuel
cells (SOFC) deliver off heat at high temperature
level (T >600
C). This can be used in high-
temperature fuel cell cogeneration for district
heating (heat extraction), for absorption refrigera-
tors and heat pumps. As the energy demand in
residential applications is complementary for
heating and for cooling over the year, such a
combination would be very useful.
A battery or voltaic cell consists of one or more
electrochemical galvanic cells which store and
convert chemical energy into electric energy.
Since the invention of the first voltaic pile in
1800, the battery has become a common power
source for many household and industrial appli-
cations. The name “battery” was coined by Benja-
min Franklin for an arrangement of multiple Leyden
jars, an early type of capacitor. There are different
types of batteries which comprise nonrechargeable
batteries (primary batteries) in which chemical
energy is stored internally, the discharging reaction,
that takes place at the electrode/electrolyte interface,
is irreversible, and rechargeable batteries or
Fuel Cell Comparison to Alternate Technologies
accumulators (secondary batteries) having a
reversible discharging reaction [6].
In the nineteenth century, no difference was
made between batteries and fuel cells. Today the
definitions have been refined: batteries convert
and store electrical energy and hence represent a
thermodynamically closed system; energy storage
and conversion occur in the same compartment.
Fuel cells are open systems where the anode and
cathode are just charge-transfer media and the
active masses undergoing the redox reactions are
delivered from outside the cell, either from the
environment, for example, oxygen from air, or
from a tank, for example, fuels such as hydrogen
and hydrocarbons. Energy storage (in the tank)
and energy conversion (in the fuel cell) are thus
locally separated.
Electrochemical capacitors (EC), also called
supercapacitors, store energy using either ion
adsorption or fast surface redox reactions. In the
first case, they are called electrochemical double
layer capacitors (EDLC), in the second case they
are called pseudocapacitors. They can comple-
ment or replace batteries in electrical energy stor-
age and harvesting applications, when high power
delivery or uptake is needed. Several types of ECs
can be distinguished, depending on the charge
storage mechanism as well as the active materials
used. EDLCs, the most common devices at pre-
sent, use carbon-based active materials with high
surface areas. Pseudocapacitors or redox super-
capacitors use fast and reversible surface or near-
surface reactions for charge storage. Transition
metal oxides as well as electrically conducting
polymers are examples of pseudocapacitive active
materials. Electrochemical capacitors currently
fill the gap between batteries and conventional
solid state and electrolytic capacitors. They store
100–1000 times more charge than the latter due to
a much larger surface area (1000–2000 m2 g1)
available for charge storage in EDLC. They have a
lower energy density than batteries, and this limits
the optimal discharge time to less than a minute,
whereas many applications clearly need more
[7]. Since the early days of EC development in
the late 1950s, there has not been a good strategy
for increasing the energy density; only incremen-
tal performance improvements were achieved
Fuel Cell Comparison to Alternate Technologies
Fuel Cell Comparison to
Alternate Technologies,
Fig. 4 Simplified Ragone
plot of the energy storage
domains for the various
Specific power / W kg–1
electrochemical energy
conversion systems
compared to an internal
combustion engine and
turbines and conventional
capacitors (From Ref. [9])
from the 1960s to 1990s. The increase in perfor-
mance that has been demonstrated in the past few
years is due to the discovery of new electrode
materials and improved understanding of ion
behavior in small pores, as well as the design of
new hybrid systems combining faradic and capac-
itive electrodes [8].
To compare the power and energy capabilities
of fuel cells, batteries, and supercapacitors, a rep-
resentation known as the Ragone plot has been
developed. The terms specific energy [Wh/kg] and
energy density [Wh/L] are used to compare the
energy contents of a system, whereas the rate
capability is expressed as specific power [W/kg]
and power density [W/L]. A simplified Ragone
plot (Fig. 4) discloses that fuel cells can be con-
sidered to be high-energy systems, whereas super-
capacitors are considered to be high-power
systems. Batteries have intermediate power and
energy characteristics. There is some overlap in
energy and power of supercapacitors or fuel cells
with batteries. Batteries with thin-film electrodes
exhibit power characteristics similar to those of
super capacitors.
Not all systems can be described using these
definitions, since there are also combined systems
such as metal-air batteries [10–12] which contain
a battery electrode (metal anode) and a fuel cell
electrode (air cathode), or redox flow batteries
[13, 14] which are a form of rechargeable battery
in which electrolyte containing one or more
17
107
Capacitors
106
Combustion
engine, Gas
105
turbine
104
103 Super
capacitors
100 Batteries Fuel
cells
10
1
0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 1 5 10 50 100 500 1000
Specific energy / Wh kg–1
dissolved electroactive species flows through an
electrochemical cell. Additional electrolyte is
stored externally, generally in tanks, and is usually
pumped through the cell of the reactor. Redox
flow batteries (RFBs) are classified by the sol-
vated ions they employ for their low- and high-
potential half-cell [15, 16]. The first system that
can be called RFB was the Fe/Cr system devel-
oped by the NASA in the 1970s. The ferrous/
ferric redox couple with a standard potential of
U0 = 0.77 V versus NHE is employed for the high
potential side, while chromic/chromous ions
(U0 =  0.41 V vs. NHE) form the low potential
half-cell. The system suffers from a relatively low
open-circuit potential as well as crossover of sol-
vated ions through the membrane. This leads to
chemical contamination and self-discharge. By
mitigating the significance of the crossover prob-
lem, the all-vanadium RFB was a real step for-
ward and is the most successful system today
[17]. It makes use of the many oxidation states
of vanadium ions and uses V (II)/V (III) ions in the
low-potential half-cell and V(IV)/V(V) ions in the
high potential half-cell. Therefore, crossover
causes only a loss in efficiency, but no chemical
contamination and the initial concentrations can
be restored during charge. Contemporary prob-
lems are the relatively low energy density
(25–35 Wh/l) and the low power density. The
low obtainable current densities are an immediate
result of the sluggish electron transfer kinetics of
18
the VO2+/VO2+-reaction [15, 18]. Energy density
is limited by the solubility of the VO2+-ions and
therefore additives such as HCl are mixed into the
electrolyte to enhance solubility [19], or the vana-
dium on the high potential side is replaced by
bromine. The latter approach was reported to
yield a significantly improved energy density of
35–70 Wh/l [20]. Since toxic bromine-vapor can
potentially be released complexing agents need to
be added to the electrolyte. Despite their short-
comings in terms of energy – and power density
RFBs show some intrinsic advantages. Energy
content and obtainable power scale indepen-
dently, larger electrolyte storage tanks increase
the capacity of the battery while a bigger power-
converter (larger electrode-electrolyte interface)
boosts current density and hence power. RFBs
are said to be relatively inexpensive and efficient
storage systems. A recent study analyzing the cost
sensitivity of an all-vanadium RFB found that the
electrolyte is the most expensive single compo-
nent (37% capital cost) for a 12 MWh system.
Depending on the power capacity the capital cost
per kWh varies between 370 US$ (1000 kW) and
750 US$ (3000 kW) [21]. For comparison, auto-
motive Li-Ion cells are estimated to cost about
400 US$/kWh while the full battery pack is priced
at roughly 800 US$/kWh. This is large overhead
is due to the need for electronic and thermal man-
agement [22]. Flow batteries can be rapidly
recharged by replacing the electrolyte while
simultaneously recovering the spent material.
Due to the overlapping properties of batteries
and fuel cells, it is nowadays considered to find a
definition that recombines the two systems again,
to no longer differentiate between batteries and
fuel cells like in former times. In order to bridge
the gap between batteries and electrochemical
capacitors, a capacitive or pseudocapacitive elec-
trode can be combined with a battery electrode.
Batteries exhibit usually high energy densities,
while capacitors can deliver high power at the
cost of low energy storage. Research efforts have
been focused to increase the gravimetric energy of
electrochemical capacitor electrodes by using
materials with enhanced gravimetric capacitances
(gravimetric charge storage per volt) [23]. The
latter can be achieved by using carbon
Fuel Cell Comparison to Alternate Technologies
subnanometer pores for ion adsorption or by
incorporating the pseudocapacitance of nano-
structured transition metal oxides. A recent report
by S.W. Lee et al. [24] demonstrated that by using a
novel class of electrodes for lithium storage high
gravimetric energy (200 Wh kg electrode1) was
delivered at a high power of 100 kW kg electrode1.
Those electrodes were based on functionalized
multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) that
included stable pseudocapacitive functional
groups and were assembled using a layer-by-
layer technique. Therefore, it was shown that it
is possible to benefit from both the capacitor and
the battery properties.
A critical parameter of fuel selection is its
energy density. The latter should be as high as
possible. Additionally, the choice of fuel is also
affected by the ease of transportation and storage
which in general should be as easy and uncompli-
cated as possible. The choice of the fuels deter-
mines which problems, including environmental
problems, will arise.
Figure 5 shows the theoretical specific energies
[(kWh)/kg] and energy densities [(kWh)/l] of var-
ious rechargeable battery systems in comparison
to fuels, such as gasoline, natural gas, and hydro-
gen. The inferiority of batteries is evident. These
values are an indication for the maximum energy
content of certain systems. The practical values
are significantly lower than the theoretical ones.
A rechargeable battery has a practical energy con-
tent which is 25% of its theoretical value while a
primary battery normally yields more than 50% of
its theoretical value. The theoretical efficiencies of
fuel cells for the conversion of fuels into electrical
energy are higher than 70%. A number of factors
influence the observed differences between theo-
retical and practical energy storage capabilities.
The systems contain inert parts such as conductive
diluents, current collectors and containers, and
internal resistances which results in internal losses
and limited utilization of the active masses. Parts
of the fuel can, for example, leave the fuel cell
without having reacted or partial passivation of
the electrodes can make parts of the surface area
inactive. For practical use, however, as batteries
and fuel cells are not subject to the Carnot cycle
limitations, they may operate with much higher
Fuel Cell Comparison to Alternate Technologies 19

Specific energy
10 Energy density 10

Liquid fuels Gases: Batteries

Composite 8
8
Specific energy [kWh/kg]

pressure

Energy density [kWh/l]

vessels

6 6

4 4

2 2

0 0
Methanol

L-H2

--

CNG (300 bar)

H2 (300 bar)

Ti-Fe-Hydride

Na / S

Pb / PbO

NiCd

NiH

Li-lon
Diesel

Gasoline

Ethanol

Fuel Cell Comparison to Alternate Technologies, compared to fuels, such as gasoline, natural gas, hydrogen,
Fig. 5 Theoretical specific energies [k Wh/kg] and energy and alcohols
densities [k Wh/l] of various rechargeable battery systems

efficiencies than combustion engines and related majority carriers accumulate at the backside of the
devices. The efficiencies of PEMFCs, batteries, semiconductor, minority carriers travel to the
and supercapacitors are summarized for compari- semiconductor-electrolyte interface. The majority
son in Table 1. carriers are collected with a charge-collecting sub-
Electrochemical photovoltaics are a specific strate and transported to the counter electrode
type of photovoltaic systems to convert solar where they electrochemically react with the
energy, that is, solar radiation into electrical redox couple in the electrolyte. In the 1970s,
energy. Today, there is a variety of solar cells wet-type electrochemical photovoltaic cells were
already on the market. Difference must be made discovered [25–27]. Michael Grätzel demon-
between electrochemical photovoltaic cells and strated that dye molecules can be adsorbed onto
conventional silicon (Si)-based photovoltaic nanocrystalline TiO2 working electrodes and thus
cells; in electrochemical photovoltaic cells two extended the concept to dye-sensitized solar cells
interfaces exist at which charge transport switches (DSSCs) [28–31].
from electronic to ionic and back. In photo- It is noteworthy that electrochemical photo-
electrochemistry a photoactive semiconducting voltaic cells without dyes have working
working electrode is used together with a metallic (semiconductor) and counter electrodes that are
counter electrode. Both are immersed in an elec- both immersed in the redox electrolyte. After the
trolyte containing a suitable redox couple. Upon formation of electron/hole pairs, specific reactions
radiation of the semiconductor-electrolyte inter- occur at the semiconductor electrode and at the
face with light having a higher energy than the metal counter electrode. Charge balance is
bandgap of the semiconductor, electron-hole maintained via oxidation and reduction processes,
pairs are formed and separated. Photogenerated and electrodes are often instable in aqueous
20
Fuel Cell Comparison to Alternate Technologies,
Table 1 Practical efficiencies of fuel cells, batteries, and
supercapacitors
System Process Efficiency (%)
PEMFCs Electrolysis-H2 40
storage – FC
operation
Batteries Charging – 80
discharging
Supercapacitors Charging – 95
discharging
media. Photoelectrochemical photovoltaic cells
could only replace Si-based photovoltaics if a
stable semiconductor material with a bandgap of
1.4 eV is found [32–35]. In dye-sensitized solar
cells, a dye-sensitized porous nanocrystalline
TiO2 photoanode with a 1000-fold surface area
compared to flat electrodes has been used. Fur-
thermore, the charge transport of the photo-
generated electrons passing through all the
particles and grain boundaries is highly efficient
[36]. The conversion efficiency of DSSCs has
improved to 11.5% [37] since it was first reported
with an efficiency of 7.1% [35]. Their efficiencies
are now comparable with amorphous silicon solar
cells [38] but at a much lower cost.
Electromobility: An Example for
Combining Key Energy Technologies
Concerns about global warming and the depletion
of petroleum resources demand a shift in automo-
tive transportation from petroleum-based internal
combustion engines to electrically driven vehicles
(EVs). In the concept of electromobility, all the
abovementioned technologies should be united
and combined in order to synergistically provide
power to an EV.
Hybrid electric vehicles are a first step, where
an internal combustion engine is assisted by a
battery-driven electric motor, enabling increased
fuel efficiencies when using high-power and low-
energy (ca. 1 kWh) batteries. Further reduction or
even elimination of petroleum-based fuels can be
achieved by successively increasing the onboard
stored electrical energy, thus enabling plug-in
Fuel Cell Comparison to Alternate Technologies
hybrid electric vehicles, short-range electric vehi-
cles and, ultimately, long-range electric vehicles.
Such a development would be the perfect solution
to realize electric traction in general.
Together with batteries and supercapacitors,
fuel cells are a key component that must be inves-
tigated in order to build electric vehicles suitable
for continuous use, especially in public transport.
Fuel cells have the potential to offer clean power
generation, are quiet in operation, and can be
located close to the application. They produce
much less greenhouse emissions and can be
more efficient in conversion of the energy in a
fuel into power than gasoline engines or utility
thermal power plants. Fuel cells are best utilized
as a steady energy source and not as a power
source to supply dynamic demands. For applica-
tions that require varying power demands, such as
automotive propulsion, the use of the fuel cell in a
hybrid configuration with a battery or an electro-
chemical capacitor is required. The fuel cell pro-
vides steady power demand while the battery or
the electrochemical capacitor handles the surge
for regenerative breaking and acceleration as
well as initial start-up. This makes fuel cells an
essential component for hybrid vehicles with ade-
quate ranges as they are required for public trans-
port and goods traffic.
Fuel cells, batteries, and supercapacitors have a
similar configuration, that is, two electrodes sep-
arated by an electrolyte. The latter are designed
for high power and long life service. Currently
nonetheless, the status of batteries, supercaps, and
fuel cells does not allow for a satisfactory use in
electric vehicles due to tremendous weight and
safety issues, too high costs, and too short ranges.
Thus, fundamental research is necessary to
develop novel battery, supercapacitors, and fuel
cell concepts for a new generation of electric
vehicles.
Nowadays, also concepts are developed in
which photovoltaic cells integrated on the roof
or in the windows of EVs can be used to recharge
the batteries. It is known from literature that EVs
suffer from too short ranges and too high weight
[9, 39]. Fig. 6 shows typical driving ranges of
battery-powered cars compared to ranges of cars
powered by modern combustion engines. As it
Fuel Cell Comparison to Alternate Technologies
can be seen, for EVs powered with any secondary
battery system (i.e., lead acid, nickel metal
hydride, sodium sulfur, and lithium ion), the driv-
ing ranges that they possess are inferior compared
to those of conventional combustion engines.
Therefore, it is illustrated clearly why rather fuel
cells and not batteries should be considered for
replacement of combustion engines.
Fuel cells and batteries can be used to build full
electric vehicles and thus provide pure electrifica-
tion solutions for different mass and usage seg-
ments of automotive application. Battery powered
EVs based on lithium ion technology will be lim-
ited to small-vehicle low-mileage-per-day appli-
cations which is due to the low specific energy and
long charging times. The required 300 mile range
has been reached with hydrogen fuel cell vehicles
and the latter have also been proven to be able to
operate in all climates. Nevertheless, the costs
of the Pt-based catalysts needed in a fuel cell are
too high, the hydrogen infrastructure is not pre-
sent, and cost-effective renewable sources of pri-
mary energy are not yet efficiently used. Drastic
decreases in the amount of Pt used are required
which is put into practice via a number of strate-
gies currently under development [39].
A very promising approach to energy conver-
sion in electric vehicles is the use of metal-air
batteries, for example, Li-air systems. As was
discussed in the earlier section, the metal-air bat-
tery combines fuel cells with batteries. In the latter
example, substitution of the conventional lithium
intercalation cathode with an air cathode is pro-
jected to increase the cathode specific capacity by
a factor of 3.5. Additionally, the concept of
Li-air systems has another major advantage; it
can drastically decrease the weight of the battery
pack. Specifically, for the case of short-range EVs
(25 kWh), the total battery would weigh only
40 kg. For the case of a full-range EV, the
projected Li-air battery-pack weight is only
120 kg. This is significantly smaller compared to
the minimum weight of 330 kg for a best case
Li-ion battery pack. Therefore, the Li-air battery
technology would be a very promising and
enabling technology for full-range EVs. Li-air
batteries give promise of extending the range,
but scientists and engineers will have to face
21
many challenges in order to prove the research
in this area effective.
The electrical energy required on board to
travel a certain range before refueling is provided
by the energy storage/generation system and is
determined by the total gross energy consumed
minus the energy recovered from regenerative
braking (Whnet/mile). All loads on board can be
major drains of energy since they are powered by
the electrical storage/generation system which
affects the driving range. Loads that severely
affect the driving ranges are heating and cooling
devices in the car. The vehicle mass (m) including
the mass of the powertrain system and of the
passengers, the frontal area (A), the drag coeffi-
cient (Cd), and the drive cycle are elements that
influence the Whnet/mile requirement to the elec-
tric motor the most. Furthermore, the rolling resis-
tance and the ancillary loads mentioned above
have strong influence.
An equation has been developed to correlate
the different parameters [40]:
Energy required ¼ a1  m þ a2  Cd  A
þ a3
a1, a2, and a3 are obtained from modeling
results. The model is primarily based on the green-
house gases, regulated emissions, and energy use
in transportation (GREET) software developed by
the Argonne National Lab [40]. In Table 2 [39],
estimates are listed that start from a small subcom-
pact car (Cd  A = 0.6 m2) with a total vehicle
mass of 1200 kg for which the energy required to
drive the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) city or highway cycle is 138 or
156 Whnet/mile, respectively. The energy required
for a van (Cd  A = 1.56 m2) weighing 2500 kg is
283 or 361 Wh/mile for city or highway cycle,
respectively. The energy requirement for driving
in the city is lower because the vehicle has less
resistance to overcome at lower speed, electricity
generation is more efficient at lower loads, and the
use of regenerative braking preserves these advan-
tages for the city cycle [39].
The above given examples show that the range
problem is the most severe problem of batteries
used to power electric vehicles. Fuel cells have the
22
Fuel Cell Comparison to
Alternate Technologies,
Fig. 6 Comparison of the
Nickel systems
driving ranges for a vehicle
powered by various battery Sodium systems
systems or a gasoline-
powered combustion Lithium-ion systems
engine (From Ref. [9])
Combustion engine
potential to overcome this issue. On one hand,
rather cheap materials are used in Li ion batteries,
while on the other hand they require a very large
surface area of very finely controlled thin layers,
interfaces, and separators. Li ion batteries are
already mass produced for use in portable elec-
tronic devices and thus, many of the opportunities
for cost reduction through scale have already been
taken. Nowadays, the development and imple-
mentation of improved materials must be the
way to further reduce costs.
In fuel cells, however, more expensive mate-
rials are employed even though their amount can
be tremendously reduced. The total geometric
surface area of the cells shows a 30-fold decrease
due to higher current densities obtained with more
conductive fuel cell electrolytes. Fuel cells can be
built in a bipolar construction with cells stacked in
series with the negative current collector of one
cell serving as the positive current collector of the
adjacent cell. Fuel cells require a hydrogen tank
and an air compressor which makes their balance
of plant more complex.
Strong investment is necessary to develop EVs
based on the concept of electromobility. The
advantages of all available energy conversion
and storage technologies need to be utilized in
order to achieve efficient full vehicle electrifica-
tion. It is very likely that both battery and fuel cell
technologies will be developed for automotive
application, since batteries are well suited for the
use in small short-range vehicles and fuel cells are
able to deliver electric power for long-range vehi-
cles. Super capacitors can aid with their high
power density output whenever it is needed, for
example, for regenerative breaking and accelera-
tion. Photovoltaics integrated in the EV can
Fuel Cell Comparison to Alternate Technologies
Lead systems
Battery weight:
350 kg
Tank: 501
0 200 400 600 800
Driving range/Km
convert the solar energy and charge the batteries.
The main point is that until now no single tech-
nology shows the potential to monopolize the
implementation into an electrical vehicle. For
fuel cells specifically, research needs to focus
into identifying novel catalyst materials that can
reduce the amount of expensive catalysts cur-
rently used (e.g., Pt). Additionally, it faces lot of
challenges in the areas of hydrogen production,
storage, infrastructure development, transporta-
tion, and cost. Hence, fuel cell technologies
based on alternative fuels other than hydrogen
need to be developed. For all suited energy tech-
nologies applicable in EVs, the key challenge is
their smart combination in order to build long-
range vehicles which produce less greenhouse
gas emissions than cars powered by combustion
engines.
Future Directions
In summary, even though the world is becoming
aware of an upcoming energy crisis, according to
all statistical data currently available, most of the
worldwide energy demand is still delivered via
fossil fuels, while renewables unfortunately still
account only for a small part. It is a fact that use of
fossil fuels results in greenhouse gas emissions to
the atmosphere. For this reason, the industrialized
states, under the Kyoto protocol, have committed
themselves to reduce their greenhouse gas emis-
sions by a total of 5% in the period of 2008–2012
compared to 1990.
Most of the CO2 emitted is a result of the inef-
ficient conversion and distribution systems that
we use. The current system efficiencies for energy
Fuel Cell Comparison to Alternate Technologies
Fuel Cell Comparison to Alternate Technologies, Table 2 Electrical energy required as a function of the vehicle
type and mass (analysis assumes 70% recovery of braking energy through regenerative braking)
Vehicle type Mass (kg)a Cd  A (m2)
Subcompact 1200 (2)
Compact car 1400 (4)
Midsize car 1550 (4)
Full-size car 1700 (5)
Minivan 2200 (7)
Van 2500 (8)
Taken from Ref. [39]
a
The mass includes 65 kg passengers weight shown in parentheses
conversion and distribution allow approximately
only 30% of the primary energy to be delivered
as usable energy. If we manage to increase the
system efficiency, CO2 emissions will be reduced
drastically. Therefore, there is the urgent need to
develop efficient energy conversion and distribu-
tion systems that emit either no or very little CO2.
A technology that has the potential to help in the
reduction of CO2 emissions is fuel cells.
Fuel cells have the potential to efficiently con-
vert chemical energy to electricity. Even though as
discussed the concept of fuel cells is not new and
research efforts worldwide have been devoted to
advance the technology, there are still many ways
that need to be covered before bringing them into
the market. Some of the key issues related to fuel
cells that need to be tackled before even
discussing about a broad commercialization of
the technology are:
1. Low efficiency at high power densities
2. Use of hydrogen which is only a secondary
energy carrier
3. Large amount of noble metal required for
widespread applications
4. Cost and availability of Pt which is commonly
used as catalyst
5. Durability and lifetime of the system
The first issue is the low efficiencies at high
power densities of current fuel cell systems. For
example in PEMFCs, typical power densities
delivered are 1 W cm2 at 0.7 V operating
voltage. That accounts for a voltage efficiency
of 56% while the overall system efficiency is
23
City (Whnet/mile) Highway (Whnet/mile)
0.60 138 156
0.64 154 171
0.67 166 183
0.71 178 194
0.93 224 250
1.56 283 361
even lower. The power output at the high voltage
regime is controlled by electrocatalytic properties
and suffers from losses attributed mainly to the
slow kinetics of the oxygen reduction reaction.
In order to achieve a high-power, high-efficiency
system, it is necessary to identify and develop
highly active catalyst materials that could push
the power output to 1 W cm2 at 0.85–0.9 V.
The second issue relates to hydrogen which is
the employed fuel for low-temperature fuel cells.
The advantage of using hydrogen is that water is
the only product. Nonetheless, we need to take
into consideration that hydrogen is only a second-
ary energy carrier which is not freely available and
is currently produced by “nonclean” methods, for
example, reforming of natural gas. Hydrogen can
be produced by regenerative sources but those
suffer from low efficiencies. It would be beneficial
to fabricate systems that can directly convert alter-
native fuels such as bioderived alcohols which
have higher energy densities and can be produced
efficiently. Direct methanol fuel cells are a starting
point but at their current status not a satisfying
solution. Bioethanol is a very attractive candidate.
It can be produced by cellulosic biomass, has high
energy density, is nontoxic, and its liquid form
allows using the current fuel infrastructure.
Research should also aim at identifying highly
active catalysts toward ethanol oxidation and elec-
trolytes with low ethanol permeability that will
result in designing an efficient system that will
directly convert ethanol to electricity.
The last three issues refer to the current mate-
rial systems used in fuel cells. Pt supported on
carbon (Pt/C) is commonly used in PEMFCs as
24
catalyst and in order to achieve desirable power
densities high amounts of noble metal are
required. Even though Pt possesses high catalytic
activity, it is also associated with limited resources
and high price. Efforts to reduce the metal loading
and alloy Pt with other inexpensive and more
abundant elements, that is, metals, rare earths
have shown improvements; however, there is no
system found that would lead PEMFCs to a
broader commercialization. Carbon is commonly
used as support material in several fuel cell sys-
tems since it is inexpensive with high electronic
conductivity and high availability. Carbon though
is the main reason of the low lifetime since it
undergoes corrosion. Efforts to nanostructure car-
bon, that is, nanotubes, nanofibers, have shown
only unsubstantial improvements. Pt and C are
materials that have been extensively investigated
for many years but have not brought fuel cells to
the market. Therefore research should focus to
identify novel catalyst/support systems that
would replace Pt and C.
Two possible future scenarios for stationary
electricity production and road traffic can be
envisioned. For the first scenario small units
(<1 MW) based on SOFC with natural gas, bio-
gas, or ethanol could be implemented. In niche
markets, electricity storage could be achieved
with electrolysis to produce hydrogen that could
subsequently be stored and then used in a fuel cell
system. For larger units (>10 MW), SOFCs could
be used with natural gas, biogas, carbon from
biomass. For the latter, a negative CO2 effect is
possible (electricity will decrease CO2 concentra-
tion in the atmosphere). For the second scenario of
road traffic, two options are possible.
City travel could be handled with battery-
operated motor bikes and small cars, possibly in
combination with a small (1–5 kW) fuel cell.
Long-range travel could be achieved with larger
vehicles using mid-temperature (200–300
C)
bioethanol fuel cells hybridized with batteries. In
both systems, supercapacitors could be employed
to handle the high power needs. For both scenar-
ios, all other energy conversion technologies
(e.g., solar, wind) can be used in order to convert
and subsequently store energy (i.e., battery
recharging).
Fuel Cell Comparison to Alternate Technologies
In conclusion, higher targets need to be set for
the future and achieved before fuel cells can be a
commercially viable technology. There have been
numerous efforts to improve fuel cells but all
solutions proposed so far are only small steps
that address partially only one of the above-
mentioned issues. High-risk, high-profit solutions
are required that will drastically improve the cur-
rent fuel cell status and will lead them to their
broad commercialization. In fuel cell develop-
ment, we need to match the available energy
source with the application. Hydrogen does not
seem to be an option. A direct conversion of an
available fuel in a fuel cell would be more desir-
able. For example, alcohol oxidation at all tem-
peratures and (hydro-) carbons could be used at
high temperatures. In all situations, fuel cell
research has to acknowledge the fuel problem.
Therefore, if one believes that we are close to the
end of research for fuel cells and other energy
technologies then the reality is different . . . we
are only at the beginning.
Bibliography
1. DOE/EIA-0484 (2010) National energy information
center, EI-30, U.S. Energy Information Administra-
tion, Forrestal Building, Washington, DC 20585
2. Kunze-Liebhäuser J, Stimming U (2009) Electro-
chemical versus heat engine energy technology: a
tribute to Wilhelm Ostwald’s visionary statements.
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3. Black WZ, Hartley JG (1985) Thermodynamics.
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4. Sundar Pethaiah S, Paruthimal Kalaignan G,
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bien en chêne. Ne trouvez-vous pas plaisir à explorer tout cela
ensemble... plus qu'à Pompéi?»
George se retourna encore une fois pour regarder la vue.
«Il y a huit cents acres dépendant de la propriété—m'a dit le vieux.
Cinq fermes en tout. Rocketts en fait partie.
—J'adore Mrs. Cloke. Mais comment s'appelle la vieille maison?»
George se mit à rire.
«C'est une des choses qu'on s'attend à ce que vous sachiez. Il ne l'a
pas dit une seule fois.»
Les Cloke furent plus communicatifs. Ce soir-là, et les jours suivants
durant une semaine, ils débitèrent aux Chapin toute l'histoire
officielle, telle qu'on la débite aux hôtes de passage, de Friars
Pardon, la maison et ses cinq fermes. Mais Sophie posa tant de
questions, et George témoigna d'une si sincère curiosité, que, la
confiance venant, ils se lancèrent, sans omettre le détail transmis et
observé, dans le récit de la vie, de la mort et des hauts faits des
Elphicks, des Moones, et de leurs collatéraux, les Haylings et les
Torrells. Ce fut une histoire racontée avec suite au prochain numéro,
par Cloke dans la grange, ou sa femme dans la laiterie, les derniers
chapitres réservés pour les soirs à la cuisine, au coin du grand feu,
lorsque le couple avait passé la moitié de la journée à explorer la
maison où le vieil Iggulden à la blouse bleue ricanait et s'esclaffait de
les voir. Les motifs qui avaient régi les caractères étaient en dehors
de leur compréhension; les destinées qui les déroutaient, autant de
dieux qu'ils n'avaient jamais affrontés; les jours de côté que Mrs.
Cloke projetait sur tel acte ou tel incident dépassaient en chose
stupéfiante tout ce qu'on pouvait se rappeler. Aussi les Chapin
écoutaient-ils avec délices, bénissant Mrs. Shonts.
«Mais pourquoi—pourquoi—pourquoi—Un Tel faisait-il comme ceci
ou comme cela?» interrogeait Sophie de son siège près de la
crémaillère; et Mrs. Cloke de répondre en se lissant les genoux:
«Pour la terre.»
«J'y renonce, fit George, un soir, dans leur chambre. On dirait que
dans ce pays les gens ne sont rien en comparaison du lieu qu'ils
habitent. A l'entendre, Friars Pardon fut une sorte de Moloch.
—Pauvre vieille chose! (Ils venaient, comme d'habitude, de faire le
tour des fermes avant le thé.) Pas étonnant, s'ils l'aimaient. Pensez
aux sacrifices qu'ils ont faits pour elle! Jane Elphick a épousé le
second Torrell afin de la garder dans la famille. Le salon octogone,
au plafond à moulures, contigu à la grande chambre à coucher, était
le sien. Mais lui, que vous a-t-il raconté en donnant à manger à ses
cochons? demanda Sophie.
—C'est à propos des cousins Torrell et de l'oncle qui est mort à
Java. Ils habitaient à Burnt House—derrière High Pardons, là où il y
a ce ruisseau tout obstrué.
—Non. Burnt House est sous le bois de High Pardons, avant
d'arriver à Gale Anstey, corrigea Sophie.
—Soit. Le vieux Cloke disait...»
Sophie ouvrit la porte toute grande, et d'en haut cria dans la cuisine,
où les Cloke étaient en train de couvrir le feu:
«Mrs. Cloke, est-ce que Burnt House n'est pas sous High Pardons?
—Oui, ma chère petite, cela va sans dire, repartit distraitement la
voix aux accents mollets. (Une petite toux.) Je vous demande
pardon, madame. Qu'est-ce que c'était donc, que vous disiez?
—Rien. Je préfère la première manière, répondit Sophie en riant.
—Et George lui resservit le chapitre manquant, tandis qu'elle
écoutait, assise sur le lit.
—Ici aujourd'hui, et demain ailleurs, fit Cloke, d'un ton sentencieux.
Ils ont payé leur premier mois, mais nous n'avons pour garantie que
cette lettre de Mrs. Shonts.
—Personne de ceux qu'elle a envoyés ne nous a encore trompés.
Cela m'a échappé, tout à l'heure. C'est une jeune dame fort honnête.
Ils vont s'en aller d'ici peu. Et vous aussi, vous avez parlé beaucoup
trop, Alfred!
—Oui, mais les Elphicks sont tous morts. Personne n'est plus là
pour me retourner les paroles que je lâche. Mais pourquoi qu'ils
continuent à rester et rester comme cela?»
En temps voulu, George et Sophie se posaient réciproquement cette
question, puis la laissaient de côté. Ils prétendaient que le climat—
un composé gris-perle, sans rien de commun avec les brûlantes et
froides férocités de leur pays natal—leur convenait, de même que
convenait certainement à George le lourd calme des nuits. Il lui était
épargné jusqu'à la vue d'une de ces routes empierrées, qui, menant,
selon toutes probabilités, aux affaires, éveillent le désir chez un
homme; et le bureau de télégraphe du village de Friars Pardon, où
l'on vendait des cartes postales illustrées et des toupies, se trouvait
distant de deux milles à pied à travers bois et champs. Pour tout ce
qui concernait son passé parmi ses semblables, ou le souvenir que
ceux-ci avaient conservé de lui, il eût tout aussi bien pu habiter une
autre planète; et Sophie, dont la vie s'était fort amplement dépensée
parmi des femmes aussi dépourvues de mari que pourvues de
superbe idéal, n'éprouvait nul désir de quitter ce qu'elle considérait
comme un présent de Dieu. Les repas non précipités, la
connaissance des heures délicieusement désœuvrées qui
suivraient, les étendues de ciel tendre sous lesquelles ils se
promenaient ensemble et ne comptaient le temps qu'au gré de leur
faim ou de leur soif; sous les pieds, cette bonne herbe qui se riait
des milles; leurs découvertes, toujours ensemble, dans les fermes—
Griffons, Rocketts, Burnt House, Gale Anstey, et la ferme de la
maison, où Iggulden à la blouse bleue les guettant au passage, ils
fouillaient encore une fois la vieille demeure; les longs après-midi de
pluie, où ils s'allongeaient les pieds sur le rebord profond de la
fenêtre, vis-à-vis des pommiers, et causaient ensemble comme
jamais jusqu'alors ils n'avaient encore trouvé le temps de causer—
tout cela contentait l'âme de la jeune femme, et son corps en
profitait.
«Vous rendez-vous compte, demanda-t-elle un matin, que voilà
trente-quatre jours que nous sommes ici absolument seuls?
—Les avez-vous comptés? demanda-t-il pour toute réponse.
—Vous ont-ils plu? répliqua-t-elle.
—Sans doute. Je n'y ai guère réfléchi. Oui, cependant. Il y a six
mois, je me serais rongé à en être malade. Vous vous rappelez, au
Caire? Je n'ai eu que deux ou trois mauvais moments. Vais-je
mieux, ou est-ce la décrépitude finale?
—Le climat, rien que le climat.
Sophie, assise sur la barrière d'où le regard dominait Friars Pardon,
derrière la grange des Cloke, balança ses bottines anglaises
neuves.
—Il faut cependant faire quelque chose, ici-bas, dit-il, quand ce ne
serait qu'histoire de ne pas se perdre la main. (Ses yeux, en
parcourant les champs dépouillés, ne vacillaient plus.) Est-ce vrai?
—Organisez un golf sur Gale Anstey. Je suppose qu'il vous serait
possible de louer Gale Anstey.
—Non, je ne suis pas Anglais à ce point. Cloke prétend que, si l'on
voulait, toutes les fermes d'ici pourraient rapporter.
—Soit, je suis Anastasie du Treasure of Franchard[3]. Je me
contente de vivre et de faire ronron. Rien ne presse.
[3] Robert-Louis Stevenson. Voir le volume intitulé The Merry
Men.
—Non. (Il sourit.) En attendant, je m'en vais voir mon courrier.
—Vous aviez promis de n'en pas avoir.
—Une affaire se présente, qui m'amuse. Parole d'honneur. Elle ne
me porte pas du tout sur les nerfs.
—Besoin d'un secrétaire?
—Non, merci, ma vieille! N'est-ce pas, cela, on ne peut plus anglais?
—Trop anglais! Allez-vous-en. (Mais elle n'en rendit pas moins
carrément le baiser.) Je m'en vais à Friars Pardon. Il y a bien une
semaine que je n'ai mis le pied dans la maison.
—Comment avez-vous décidé de meubler la chambre de Jane
Elphick? demanda-t-il en riant. (Car c'en était devenu entre eux un
château en Espagne de tous les instants.)
—Meubles chinois en bois noir et brocart de soie jaune,» répondit-
elle.
Sur quoi elle descendit la pente en courant. A l'aide d'un rejeton de
frêne qu'Iggulden avait coupé pour elle une semaine auparavant,
elle fit le moulinet, afin de disperser quelques vaches, aux
approches d'un trou de haie, et, tout en chantant, comme elle
passait sous les chênes verts, se rendit à la maison de ferme,
derrière Friars Pardon. Le vieillard restant introuvable, elle frappa à
sa porte à demi ouverte, car il le lui fallait pour occuper son après-
midi désœuvré. Un chien de berger, aux yeux bleus, un nouvel ami,
vieil ennemi de Rambler, sortit en rampant, et la supplia d'entrer.
Iggulden était assis dans son fauteuil, près du feu, un sarcloir entre
les genoux, tête baissée. Quoiqu'elle n'eût jamais encore vu la mort,
son cœur, qui ne perçut pas le moindre battement, lui dit qu'il était
mort. Sans un mot, sans un cri, elle resta là, de l'autre côté de la
porte, tandis que le chien lui léchait la main. Lorsque ce dernier
dressa le nez en l'air, elle s'entendit lui dire:
«Ne hurle pas! Je t'en prie, ne hurle pas, Scottie; sans quoi je vais
me sauver!»
Elle tint bon, tandis que, dans la cour, les ombres s'avançaient vers
midi; elle s'assit, au bout de quelques instants, sur les marches, près
de la porte, les bras autour du cou du chien, attendant la venue de
quelqu'un. Elle regarda les cheminées sans fumée de Friars Pardon
balafrer d'ombre les toits de la grande demeure, et la fumée du
dernier feu d'Iggulden se raréfier, puis cesser. Contre toute volonté
elle se mit à se demander à combien de Moones, d'Elphicks et de
Torrells on avait fait passer le tournant du grand escalier. Alors, elle
se rappela le mot du vieillard: «Droit debout comme une boîte à lait»,
et se cacha le visage sur le cou de Scottie. A la fin, les sabots d'un
cheval résonnèrent sur les dalles, firent bruire la vieille paille grise de
la cour, et elle se trouva en face du pasteur—personnage qu'elle
avait vu à l'église déclamer des impossibilités (Sophie était Unitaire)
d'une voix qui manquait de naturel.
«Il est mort, dit-elle sans préambule.
—Le vieil Iggulden? Moi qui venais causer avec lui! (Le pasteur
entra, tête découverte.) Ah! l'entendit-elle prononcer. Un arrêt du
cœur! Depuis combien de temps êtes-vous ici?
—Depuis onze heures moins le quart. (Elle regarda attentivement à
sa montre, et s'aperçut que sa main ne tremblait pas.)
—Je vais rester avec lui, maintenant, jusqu'à l'arrivée du docteur.
Croyez-vous pouvoir le prévenir, et... oui, Mrs. Betts, dans le cottage
à la glycine, près du forgeron? J'ai peur que cela ne vous ait plutôt
causé quelque saisissement.»
Elle fit oui de la tête, et s'enfuit dans la direction du village. Un
moment, les forces lui manquèrent; elle se laissa tomber au pied
d'une haie, et jeta derrière elle un regard sur la maison. De façon ou
d'autre le silence et l'impassibilité de cette dernière la raidirent, et
elle put s'acquitter de sa commission.
Mrs. Betts, petite brune aux yeux noirs, montra presque autant
d'insensibilité que Friars Pardon.
«Oui donc, oui donc, naturellement. Pensez! Ma foi, cet Iggulden, il
aurait pu mourir à la même époque que mon père. Muriel, va me
chercher mon petit sac bleu, s'il te plaît. Oui, madame. Ils tombent
comme des branches d'ormeau en l'absence de vent. Comme cela,
sans avertir. Muriel, ma bicyclette est derrière le poulailler. Je vais
prévenir le Dr. Dallas, madame.»
Elle partit d'un tour de roue, telle une brune abeille, tandis que
Sophie—le ciel en haut et la terre en bas[4] changés—retournait d'un
pas rapide au logis, pour aller, dans le désordre du rire et des pleurs,
s'affaler sur George, tout entier à ses lettres.
[4] Deutéronome, v. 8.
«Tout cela leur semble on ne peut plus naturel, dit-elle d'une voix
entrecoupée. Ils tombent comme des branches d'ormeau en
l'absence de vent. Oui, madame. Non, il n'y avait rien du tout
d'horrible, seulement... seulement, oh, George, son pauvre bâton
luisant entre ses pauvres genoux si maigres! Je n'aurais pas pu le
supporter si Scottie avait hurlé. Je ne savais pas que le pauvre
pasteur était si... si sensible. Il m'a exprimé sa crainte que cela ne
m'eût cau... causé quelque saisissement. Mrs. Betts m'a conseillé de
rentrer; j'ai cru que j'allais m'écrouler sur son plancher. Mais je ne
me suis pas déshonorée. Je... je ne pouvais pas le laisser... n'est-ce
pas?
—Vous êtes sûre de ne pas vous être fait du mal? s'écria Mrs.
Cloke, qui avait appris la nouvelle par la télégraphie des fermes, plus
ancienne, mais plus prompte, que celle de Marconi.
—Non. Je suis en parfaite santé, affirma Sophie.
—Couchez-vous jusqu'à l'heure du thé. (Mrs. Cloke lui donna une
petite tape sur l'épaule.) Ils vous sauront beaucoup du gré, quoique
voilà vingt ans qu'elle n'a plus l'esprit bien d'aplomb.»
Ils arrivèrent avant la tombée de la nuit—un homme à barbe noire,
au large pantalon de velours, et une petite vieille toute tremblotante,
qui pépiait comme un roitelet.
«C'est moi son fils! dit l'homme à Sophie, parmi les touffes de
lavande. On a eu des difficultés, il y a de cela vingt ans, et on ne
s'est pas reparlé depuis. Mais je suis son fils tout de même, et nous
vous remercions bien de l'avoir veillé.
—C'est moi qui ne suis que trop contente de m'être trouvée là,
répondit-elle. (Et elle était sincère.)
—Nous avons entendu dire qu'il parlait beaucoup de vous de temps
à autre depuis que vous êtes ici. Nous vous remercions de bon
cœur, ajouta l'homme.
—Est-ce vous, le fils qui était en Amérique? demanda-t-elle.
—Oui, ma-ame. Sur la ferme de mon oncle, dans le Connecticut. Il
était ce qu'on appelle là-bas chef de route.
—Où, cela, dans le Connecticut? demanda George par-dessus
l'épaule de sa femme.
—Veering Hollow, qu'on appelait cela. Je suis resté là six ans avec
mon oncle.
—Comme le monde est petit! s'écria Sophie. Mais toute la famille de
ma mère vient de Veering Hollow. Il doit y en avoir encore là-bas...
les Lahsmars. Vous n'avez jamais entendu parler d'eux?
—Je me rappelle avoir entendu ce nom-là, à ce qu'il me semble,»
répondit-il.
Mais son visage resta tout aussi impassible qu'un dos de bêche.
Un peu avant la nuit, une femme en gris, faisant des enjambées de
fantassin, et portant sur son bras un long bâton ferré, traversa le
verger à grand fracas, en criant pour avoir à manger. George, sur qui
l'anglais à brûle-pourpoint exerçait une mystérieuse fatigue, s'enfuit
dans la salle, tandis que Mrs. Cloke s'avançait toute rayonnante.
Quant à Sophie, elle ne pouvait s'échapper.
«Nous venons de l'apprendre à l'instant, dit l'étrangère, en la prenant
à partie. Je suis restée dehors toute la journée avec les otter-
hounds[5]. Quelque chose de pas ordinaire...»
[5] Otter-hounds, chiens avec lesquels on chasse la loutre.
—Avez-vous... heu... tué?» demanda Sophie.
Elle savait, grâce à ses lectures, qu'ici elle ne pouvait s'égarer bien
loin.
«Oui, une femelle sèche... dix-sept livres, lui fut-il répondu. Quelque
chose de pas ordinaire, que vous avez fait là. Pauvre vieil Iggulden...
—Oh... c'est cela! fit Sophie illuminée.
—S'il y avait eu du monde à Friars Pardon, cela ne serait jamais
arrivé. On aurait veillé sur lui. Mais, qu'est-ce que vous voulez
attendre d'un tas de solicitors de Londres?»
Mrs. Cloke murmura quelque chose.
«Non. Je suis trempée jusqu'aux genoux. Si je m'éternise en route,
je vais attraper froid. Une tasse de thé, Mrs. Cloke, et puis rien qu'un
de vos sandwichs, que je mangerai tout en marchant. (A l'aide d'un
mouchoir de soie vert et jaune elle essuya son visage hâlé.)
—Oui, mylady!»
Mrs. Cloke s'échappa pour revenir promptement.
«Notre terre est mitoyenne avec Friars Pardon sur une longueur d'un
mille en descendant vers le sud, expliqua-t-elle, en brandissant la
tasse pleine; mais on a bien assez à faire avec son monde à soi,
sans aller braconner en terre d'autrui. Pourtant, si j'avais su, j'aurais
envoyé Dora, cela va sans dire. L'avez-vous vue, cet après-midi,
Mrs. Cloke? Non? Je me demande si cette fille ne s'est pas donné
une entorse. Merci.»
Formidable fut le quignon de pain accompagné de lard que lui
présenta Mrs. Cloke.
«Comme je le disais, Friars Pardon est une honte! Laisser le monde
mourir comme des chiens! Il devrait y avoir là des gens pour
accomplir leur devoir. Vous avez accompli le vôtre, quoique rien ne
vous y obligeât. Bonsoir. Dites à Dora, si elle vient, que j'ai filé
devant.»
Elle s'éloigna à grands pas, en mâchant sa croûte, et Sophie, qui
suffoquait, s'en alla d'un pas chancelant, dans la salle, secouer
George, que le rire déjà suffisamment secouait.
«Pourquoi êtes-vous resté là derrière la persienne à guetter mon
regard? Pourquoi n'êtes-vous pas venu accomplir le vôtre, de
devoir?
—Parce que j'aurais éclaté. Avez-vous vu cette joue toute crottée?
dit-il.
—D'abord, oui. Et puis je n'ai plus osé regarder de nouveau. Qui est-
ce?
—Dieu... ou, si vous aimez mieux, une déité locale. En tout cas,
c'est encore une de ces choses qu'on s'attend à ce que vous
sachiez d'instinct.»
Mrs. Cloke, choquée de leur légèreté, leur raconta que c'était Lady
Conant, femme de Sir Walter Conant, baronnet, grand propriétaire
du voisinage, et, sinon Dieu, du moins Sa visible Providence.
«Le rire, déclara Sophie plus tard dans leur chambre, est l'insigne du
sauvage. Vous ne pouviez donc pas conserver plus d'empire sur
vous-même? Pour elle, tout cela est arrivé.
—Tout cela est arrivé pour moi. Voilà ce qui me tracasse, répondit-il
sur un ton de voix bizarre. En tout cas, c'est assez arrivé pour servir
à tuer le temps. Ne croyez-vous pas?
—Que voulez-vous dire? demanda-t-elle vivement, quoique, à sa
voix, elle devinât.
—Que je vais mieux. Me voici en état de rouspéter.
—Contre quoi?
—Ceci! (Il promena la main autour de l'unique pièce.) Il me faut
quelque chose pour faire joujou jusqu'à ce que je sois de nouveau
vraiment d'attaque.
—Ah! (Elle s'assit sur le lit, et se pencha en avant, les mains
croisées). Je me demande si c'est bien bon pour vous.
—Nous nous sommes trouvés mieux ici que n'importe où, poursuivit-
il lentement. On pourrait toujours revendre.»
Elle hocha la tête gravement, tandis que ses yeux étincelaient.
«La seule chose qui m'ennuie, c'est ce qui est arrivé ce matin. Je
veux savoir ce que vous éprouvez à ce sujet. Si cela vous a pris sur
les nerfs le moins du monde, nous pouvons faire démolir la vieille
ferme, derrière la maison... à moins, peut-être, que cela n'ait gâté
toute l'idée pour vous?
—La démolir? s'écria-t-elle. Vous n'entendez rien aux affaires. Mais
c'est là que nous pourrions habiter pendant que nous ferons mettre
en état la maison. C'est presque sous le même toit. Non! Ce qui est
arrivé ce matin m'a paru plutôt une... une indication qu'autre chose. Il
devrait y avoir du monde à Friars Pardon. Lady Conant a
parfaitement raison.
—Je pensais surtout aux bois et aux routes. Je pourrais doubler la
valeur de l'endroit en six mois.
—Combien en demandent-ils?»
Elle secoua la tête, et ses cheveux dénoués lui tombèrent en
auréole sur les joues.
«Soixante-quinze mille dollars. Ils en accepteront soixante-huit.
—Pas la moitié de ce que nous avons payé notre vieux yacht, lors
de notre mariage. Et nous n'avons guère eu de bon temps dessus.
Vous étiez...
—Eh bien, quoi? Je m'aperçus que j'étais trop Américain pour me
contenter d'être le fils d'un homme riche. Vous n'allez pas m'en
blâmer?
—Non, certes; seulement, ce fut ce qu'on pourrait appeler une lune
de miel d'affaires. Où en êtes-vous, de ce marché, George?
—Je peux expédier par la poste les arrhes sur le prix d'achat dès
demain matin, et nous pouvons bâcler le tout d'ici une quinzaine de
jours ou tout au plus trois semaines... si vous dites oui.
—Friars Pardon! Friars Pardon! chanta Sophie transportée, ses yeux
gris sombre agrandis par la joie. Toutes les fermes? Gale Anstey,
Burnt House, Rocketts, la Ferme de la Maison, et Griffons? Sûr, que
vous les avez toutes?
—Sûr. (Il sourit.)
—Et les bois? Le Bois de High Pardons, celui de Lower Pardon, de
Suttons, et Duton's Shaw, Reuben's Ghyll, Maxey's Ghyll et les deux
Oak Hangers? Sûr, que vous les avez tous?
—Jusqu'à la dernière brindille. Mais, vous les connaissez aussi bien
que moi. (Il se mit à rire.) On dit qu'il y a cinq mille dollars... mille
livres sterling, je veux dire, de bois de charpente, rien que dans les
Hangers.
—La première chose à faire, c'est de réparer le fourneau de Mrs.
Cloke, et le toit de la cuisine. Je crois que je vais faire blanchir tout
cela à la chaux, interrompit Sophie, en désignant le plafond. C'est
partout une honte. Lady Conant a parfaitement raison. George,
quand avez-vous commencé à devenir amoureux de la maison?
Dans la chambre verte... ce premier jour? Moi, oui.
—Je n'en suis nullement amoureux. Il faut bien faire quelque chose
pour tuer le temps jusqu'à ce qu'on soit en état de travailler.
—Ou quand nous étions là debout sous les chênes, et que la porte
s'est ouverte? Oh! Devrai-je aller à l'enterrement du pauvre
Iggulden? (Elle soupira de contentement parfait.)
—Ne prendrait-on pas cela pour une liberté... maintenant? dit-il.
—Mais, je l'aimais.
—Mais vous ne le possédiez pas à la date de sa mort.
—Cela ne saurait me tenir à l'écart. Seulement, ils ont fait un tel
embarras parce que je l'ai veillé (elle reprit sa respiration), que cela
pourrait, à ce point de vue, passer aussi pour de l'ostentation. Oh,
George (elle tendit sa main en quête de celle de son mari), nous
sommes deux petits orphelins en train de s'agiter dans des mondes
dont ils n'ont aucune idée, et nous commettrons plus d'un impair!
Mais jamais nous ne nous serons autant amusés.
—Nous courrons à Londres demain matin, pour voir s'il est possible
de presser ces... solicitors anglais. J'ai besoin de me mettre au
travail.»
Ils partirent, et passèrent par nombre de tortures avant de rentrer en
fiacre à travers champs, un samedi soir, pressant contre leur cœur
une boîte de deux pieds sur deux pieds et demi, remplie de chartes
et de cartes,—légitimes propriétaires de Friars Pardon, y compris
ses cinq fermes délabrées.
«J'espère on ne peut plus sincèrement, Madame, et j'ai la conviction,
que c'est pour votre bonheur, soupira Mrs. Cloke, lorsqu'on lui
annonça la nouvelle près du feu de la cuisine.
—Ciel! Ce n'est pas un mariage! se récria Sophie, quelque peu
effarée.
—Si on envisage la chose à son point de vue exact...»
L'œil de Mrs. Cloke se tourna vers son fourneau.
«Envoyez-le réparer demain, chuchota Sophie.
—Nous n'avons pu nous empêcher de remarquer, dit Cloke
lentement, par le nombre de fois que vous y êtes allés, que vous et
votre dame, vous vous sentiez attirés par elle, mais... mais je ne sais
pas si nous avons jamais précisément pensé...»
Le regard de sa femme l'arrêta.
«Que nous étions ce genre de monde-là, dit George. Nous n'en
sommes pas encore bien sûrs nous-mêmes.
—Peut-être ben, dit Cloke, en se frottant les genoux, peut-être ben,
histoire de parler, que vous allez la parquer?
—Qu'est-ce que c'est que cela? demanda George.
—Transformer tout en un beau parc comme Violet Hill (il tourna le
pouce vers l'ouest), que Mr. Sangres a acheté. C'était quatre fermes,
et Mr. Sangres en a fait un beau parc, avec un troupeau de daims.
—Alors, ce ne serait plus Friars Pardon, dit Sophie. N'est-ce pas?
—Je ne sais pas si j'ai jamais entendu dire que Friars Pardon ait
jamais été autre chose que du blé et de la laine. Seulement, il y a
des messieurs qui assurent que les parcs, cela cause moins d'ennui
que les locataires. (Il eut un petit rire nerveux.) Mais le vrai monde,
naturellement, il continue à peu près comme il est accoutumé à faire.
—Je comprends, dit Sophie. Comment Mr. Sangres a-t-il gagné sa
fortune?
—Je n'avons jamais ben su. C'était le poivre et les épices, ou c'était
peut-être ben les gants. Non, les gants, c'était Sir Reginald Liss, à
Marley End. Les épices, c'était Mr. Sangres. C'est un monsieur
brésilien—très comme qui dirait brûlé du soleil.
—Soyez sûrs, en tout cas, d'une chose. Vous n'aurez pas le moindre
ennui,» dit Mrs. Cloke, au moment où ils s'en allaient se coucher.
Or, la nouvelle de l'achat fut donnée aux seuls Mr. et Mrs. Cloke, à
huit heures du soir, un samedi. Pas une âme ne quitta la ferme
jusqu'au moment où ils se mirent en route pour se rendre à l'office,
le lendemain matin. Malgré quoi, lorsqu'ils arrivèrent à l'église et
firent mine de se glisser de côté à leurs places habituelles, un peu
plus loin que les fonts baptismaux, où l'on voyait le bout fourré de
rouge des cordes de cloches bouger et virer aux heures sonnantes,
ils se trouvèrent irrésistiblement portés en avant, un Cloke sur
chaque flanc (et cependant ils n'avaient pas fait route avec les
Cloke), sur le sein toujours reculant d'un bedeau en robe noire,
lequel les introduisit dans un banc fermé, en tête du bas-côté
gauche, sous la chaire.
«C'est, soupira-t-il d'un accent de reproche, le Banc de Friars
Pardon», et les y enferma.
Ils ne pouvaient guère voir plus que les enfants de chœur dans le
sanctuaire; mais, jusqu'à la racine des cheveux de la nuque, ils
sentaient que l'auditoire, par derrière, les dévorait impitoyablement
du regard.
«Lorsque l'impie aura quitté son impiété...»
La voix forte et étrangère du prêtre vibra sous la voûte à consoles, et
une sensation d'isolement encore inconnu leur submergea le cœur,
tandis que, peu familiarisés avec le service de l'Eglise d'Angleterre,
ils cherchaient dans leurs livres les endroits où l'on en était. La
prière: «Notre Père qui es»—au lieu de «Notre Père qui êtes»—mit
le comble à cette désolation. Sophie se prit à penser comme quoi,
en d'autres pays, leur achat, longtemps avant cela, eût été discuté à
tous les points de vue dans une douzaine de feuilles, oubliant que
George, depuis des mois, ne s'était pas vu autorisé à parcourir de
l'œil ces titres courants noirs et rugissants. Ici, rien que silence—pas
même d'hostilité! La partie était engagée pour eux; les autres
joueurs cachaient leurs cartes, et attendaient. Il y avait, elle le
sentait, comme quelque chose en suspens dans l'air, et, lorsque sa
vue s'éclaircit, ce fut pour tomber, oui, sur une tablette murale qui
représentait un oiseau sans pattes planant sur la devise: Demorez
ung poï—Demorez ung poï.
A la litanie, George eut maille à partir avec un agenouilloir instable,
et glissa la bande de tapis sous la banquette. Sophie repoussa aussi
en arrière le bout qui était de son côté, et ferma les yeux sous une
sensation de brûlure qui ressemblait fort à celle des larmes.
Lorsqu'elle les rouvrit, elle regardait le nom de jeune fille de sa mère,
bel et bien gravé sur une dalle bleue, par terre, dans le banc:
Ellen Lashmar, ob. 1796. œtat. 27.
Elle fit du coude à George, et du doigt montra la chose. Agenouillés
à l'abri, comme ils étaient, ils cherchèrent de plus amples
renseignements; mais le reste de la plaque était tout uni.
«Jamais entendu parler d'elle? chuchota-t-il.
—Jamais appris qu'aucun de nous soit venu d'ici. Simple
coïncidence.
—Peut-être. Mais cela me fait sentir mieux.»
Elle sourit, et, d'un clignement de paupière, chassa une larme qui lui
pendait aux cils; puis elle lui prit la main, tandis qu'on priait pour les
femmes en labeur d'enfant—non pas en mal d'enfant; et des
moineaux, qui avaient trouvé le moyen de s'introduire entre les
vitraux et leurs grillages protecteurs, gazouillèrent au-dessus de
l'arbre généalogique d'albâtre et de vieille dorure des Conants.
Le banc du baronnet se trouvait à droite de la nef. Après le service,
ses habitants prirent la direction de la sortie sans se hâter, mais de
façon à barrer, comme il convenait, le passage à un individu bronzé,
accompagné d'une nombreuse famille, lequel rongeait son frein sur
leurs talons.
«Les épices, je pense, dit Sophie profondément charmée, tandis que
les Sangres se faufilaient derrière les Conant. Laissez-les s'en aller,
George.»
Mais, lorsqu'à leur tour ils sortirent, quantité de gens, dont les yeux
semblaient ne former qu'un œil unique, s'attardaient encore à la
barrière surmontée d'un porche.
«Je veux voir s'il y a d'autres Lashmars enterrés ici, dit Sophie.
—Pas maintenant. Cela me paraît jour d'exhibition. Rentrons vite,»
répliqua-t-il.
Un groupe de familles, les Cloke un peu à part, s'ouvrit pour les
laisser passer. Les hommes saluèrent d'un coup de tête saccadé;
les femmes, avec les restes d'une révérence. Seul, le fils d'Iggulden,
sa mère à son bras, leva son chapeau au passage de Sophie.
«Vos gens, lui dit à l'oreille la voix claire de Lady Conant.
—Je le suppose, repartit Sophie, en rougissant, car ils étaient à pas
deux mètres d'elle.
—Et cette enfant, elle m'a tout l'air de venir avec les oreillons. Vous
devriez dire à la mère de ne pas l'amener à l'église.
—Je ne pouvons pas la laisser derrière, milady, déclara la femme.
Elle serait pas longue à mettre le feu à la maison. Elle est si
tellement hardie avec les allumettes. C'est-y vrai, ma petite
Maudette?
—Le Dr. Dallas l'a-t-il vue?
—Pas encore, milady.
—Il faut qu'il la voie. Vous ne pouvez pas vous absenter, cela va
sans dire. Mum! Mon imbécile de bonne vient le trouver pour ses
dents demain à midi. Elle la prendra en passant... à Gale Anstey,
n'est-ce pas?... à onze heures.
—Oui, merci beaucoup, milady.
—Je n'aurais pas dû le faire, dit Lady Conant en manière d'excuse.
Mais Friars Pardon est resté si longtemps sans personne que vous
me passerez ce petit braconnage. Maintenant, ne pouvez-vous pas
déjeuner avec nous? Le pasteur vient d'habitude aussi. Je ne me
sers pas des chevaux le dimanche (elle lança un coup d'œil sur le
carrosse doré sur tranche du Brésilien). Ce n'est qu'à un mille à
travers champs.
—Vous... vous êtes trop aimable, dit Sophie, qui s'en voulait de
sentir sa lèvre trembler.
—Ma chère petite (le ton de contrainte se changea en un murmure
flatteur), croyez-vous que je ne sais pas ce qu'on éprouve lorsqu'on
arrive dans un comté étranger—une contrée étrangère, devrais-je
dire—loin de tout son monde? La première fois que j'ai quitté le
Shropshire—d'où je suis, vous savez—j'ai passé tout un jour et une
nuit à pleurer. Mais ce n'est pas de se faire de la bile, qui améliore la
solitude. Oh, voici Dora! Elle s'était bien, en effet, donné une
entorse, ce jour-là.
—Je cloche encore du pied, dit d'une voix franche la grande jeune
fille. Vous devriez sortir avec les otter-hounds, Mrs. Chapin; je crois
qu'on explore l'eau chez vous la semaine prochaine.»
Sir Walter avait déjà emmené George, et le pasteur s'en vint de
l'autre côté de Sophie. Il ne fallait pas songer à échapper au prompt
cortège plus qu'au lunch prolongé, où la conversation ne fit qu'aller
et venir en remous à voix basse, qui avaient le village pour centre.
Sophie entendit le pasteur et Sir Walter s'adresser gaiement à son
mari en l'appelant «Chapin» tout court! (Elle se rappela, par ailleurs,
avoir connu dans une vie précédente nombre de femmes qui,
s'adressant à leur mari, l'appelaient habituellement Monsieur Un
Tel.) Après le lunch, Lady Conant lui parla en termes explicites de la
maternité, telle qu'on l'entend dans les cottages et les fermes
éloignés de tout secours, et du devoir, en cela, de la maîtresse de
Friars Pardon.
Une barrière dans une haie de hêtre, qu'ils atteignirent à travers de
triples pelouses, les mit dehors, avant l'heure du thé, dans la partie
sud et mal peignée de leur terre.
«Il me faut votre main, s'il vous plaît, dit Sophie, dès qu'ils furent à
l'abri parmi les troncs de hêtres et les houx désordonnés. Vous
rappelez-vous la vieille fille de Providence and the Guitar[6], qui,
ayant entendu le commissaire jurer, eut peine, dans la suite, à se
croire vierge? Parce que je me sens avec elle des liens de parenté.
Lady Conant est...
[6] Robert-Louis Stevenson.
—Avez-vous découvert quelque chose sur les Lashmars?
interrompit-il.
—Je n'ai pas demandé. Je vais d'abord écrire à tante Sydney à ce
sujet. Oh! Lady Conant a parlé, à déjeuner, de terre qu'ils auraient
achetée à des Lashmars il y a quelques années. J'ai découvert
qu'en fait c'était au commencement du siècle dernier.
—Qu'avez-vous dit?
—J'ai dit: «Vraiment; mais c'est fort intéressant!» Comme cela. Je ne
veux pas avoir l'air de chercher à me pousser. J'ai entendu parler
des efforts de Mr. Sangres dans cet ordre d'idées. Et vous? Je ne
pouvais pas vous voir derrière les fleurs. Le terrain était-il difficile,
mon ami?»
George épongea un front déjà bruni par le grand air.
«Oh non... tout ce qu'il y a de plus facile. J'ai acheté Friars Pardon
pour empêcher les oiseaux de Sir Walter de s'égarer.»
Un coq faisan fit bruire les feuilles mortes, et se leva presque sous
leurs pieds. Sophie sauta en l'air.
«C'en est un, fit George avec calme.
—Ma foi, vos nerfs vont mieux, en tout cas, reprit-elle. Leur avez-
vous dit que vous aviez acheté la chose pour en faire joujou avec?
—Non. C'est là que j'ai manqué de nerf. Je n'ai commis qu'une seule
gaffe... je crois. J'ai dit que je ne comprenais pas pourquoi louer de
la terre à des gens pour l'exploiter ne constituait pas une offre
d'affaire comme une autre.
—Et qu'ont-ils répondu?
—Ils ont souri. Je finirai bien par savoir ce que ce sourire signifie. Ce
ne sont pas gens à les gaspiller, leurs sourires. Voyez-vous ce
sentier, près de Gale Anstey?»
Leurs regards plongeaient du haut de la pente sur un creux en forme
de coupe. Par deux et par trois, des gens endimanchés suivaient
lentement les chemins qui conduisaient d'une ferme à l'autre.
«J'en ai déjà vu je ne sais combien sur notre terre, dit Sophie. Eh
bien, quoi?
—Cela vous montre que nous ne devons pas les priver de leurs
droits de passage.
—Ces sentiers à vaches, dont nous nous sommes servis, en
croisent des quantités! dit énergiquement Sophie.
—Oui. Eh bien, n'importe lequel d'entre eux nous coûterait, en frais
judiciaires, deux mille livres à clore.
—Mais nous n'avons nulle intention de le faire.
—Toute la population entrerait en lutte, si nous le faisions.
—Mais, c'est notre terre, pourtant. Nous pouvons faire ce que nous
voulons.
—Ce n'est pas notre terre. Nous n'avons fait que la payer. Nous lui
appartenons, et elle appartient aux gens... nos gens, comme on les
appelle. Ce n'est pas pour rien que je viens de déjeuner avec des
Anglais.»
Ils passèrent lentement d'un champ pointillé de fougères au suivant
—tout émus de l'orgueil du propriétaire, projetant à chaque détour
changements et restaurations, s'arrêtant dans leurs sentiers pour
discuter, s'écartant l'un de l'autre pour embrasser deux points de vue
à la fois, ou se rapprochant pour en examiner un seul. Des couples
se dérangeaient pour les laisser passer, tout en souriant
secrètement.
«Nous en commettrons, des impairs, finit-il par dire.
—Ensemble, en tout cas. Vous n'allez pas laisser personne s'en
mêler, dites-moi?
—Que les entrepreneurs. (Il lui serra la main.) Ce petit syndicat que
voici ne compte que sur lui-même.
—Mais vous pourriez sentir le besoin de quelqu'un, insista-t-elle.
—Oui... mais ce sera vous. C'est une affaire, Sophie; mais cela va
être amusant.
—Dieu le veuille!» repartit-elle en rougissant.
Et elle se cria à elle-même, comme ils rentraient pour le thé:
«Cela en vaut la peine. Oui, cela en vaut la peine!»
La mise en état et l'emménagement de Friars Pardon fut une
besogne des plus minutieuses, mais tout entière accomplie selon le
mode anglais, sans frottement. Le temps et l'argent seuls furent mis
en réquisition. Le reste demeura aux mains de bienfaisants
conseillers de Londres, ou de génies, mâles et femelles, évoqués
par Mr. et Mrs. Cloke du désert des fermes. Au centre se tenaient
George et Sophie, un peu effarés, leurs intérêts s'étendant de jour
en jour de tous les côtés.
«Je ne veux pas parler contre les Londoniens, déclara Cloke, promu
par lui-même aux fonctions de commis des travaux extérieurs,
d'ingénieur consultant, de chef du bureau de l'immigration, et
d'inspecteur des eaux et forêts; mais vos gens, à vous, ne
voudraient pas avoir l'air, pourtant, de trop vous écorcher.
—Comment le savoir? dit George.
—Dans cinq années d'ici, ou quelque chose d'approchant,
admettons, vous serez en train de jeter un coup d'œil sur vos
comptes de la première année, et, sachant ce que vous saurez
alors, vous direz: «Oui-da, Billy Beartup—ou, cela se pourrait, le
vieux Cloke—m'en a fait de belles quand j'étais nouveau venu!...»
On n'aime pas se sentir cela en réserve contre soi.
—Je crois comprendre, repartit George.
—Mais, cinq années, c'est prévoir bien longtemps à l'avance.
—Je crains ben que ce chêne que Billy Beartup a abattu dans
Reuben's Ghyll n'en mette pas moins de sept à être bon pour le
plancher du salon, dit Cloke d'une voix traînante.
—Oui? Cela me regarde, déclara Sophie. (Billy Beartup, de Griffons,
bûcheron d'éducation et de naissance, fermier par infortune de
mariage, avait déposé sa hache à leurs pieds un mois auparavant.)
Désolée si je vous ai engagé dans une autre éternité!
—Et nous ne saurons même pas, d'ici ce temps-là non plus, si nous
ne nous sommes pas mis dedans avec votre nouveau chemin de
voitures», dit Cloke, toujours soucieux de tenir la balance exacte—
avec une once ou deux en faveur de Sophie.
Les quatre mois passés avaient habitué George à ne pas répliquer.
Le chemin carrossable, qui montait en lacets au haut de la colline,
absorbait présentement tout son intérêt. Ils se mirent en route pour