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Chinese Business Face: Communication Behaviors

and Teaching Approaches

Article in Business Communication Quarterly · December 2003

DOI: 10.1177/108056990306600402

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Chinese Business Face: Communication
Behaviors and Teaching Approaches
Peter W. Cardon
James Calvert Scott
Utah State University, Logan

Chinese businesspersons are extremely sensitive to protecting and enhancing face.

The Chinese sensitivity to face is a result of their emphasis on enduring relation-
ships and social networks. The hundreds of phrases in the Chinese language
describing face demonstrate the sophistication of the Chinese conceptualization of
face and related behaviors. For the businessperson, saving face and giving face are
the most important face-related skills. Chinese businesspersons use various com-
munication strategies in order to save face and give face, including indirectness,
intermediaries, praising, requests, and shaming. Western businesspersons can pre-
pare to operate effectively in the Chinese business environment by learning about
the Chinese conceptualization of face and related communication strategies.

T HE CHINESE SAYING that a person needs face like a tree

needs bark indicates the importance of face to participate in Chi-
nese society (Ho, 1976). In the business environment, face is
described as a Chinese businessperson’s “most precious possession”
(Brunner & Wang, 1988) and a “fragile commodity” (Seligman,
1989). Western businesspersons must understand the role of face
in order to transact business effectively with the Chinese. This
article describes how Chinese businesspersons conceptualize face
and communicate accordingly. The article culminates with sug-
gested learning exercises.

Definitions of and Brief Literature Review on Face

Nearly all Chinese and Western researchers identify face as a
major dimension of Chinese culture. Face is related to notions of
respect, honor, reputation, and credibility (Ting-Toomey &
Kurogi, 1998). Face refers to a person’s “public self-image” (Brown
& Levinson, 1987). In other words, it is an evaluation of a person
regarding his or her status within a social structure (Earley, 1997).

Business Communication Quarterly, Volume 66, Number 4, December 2003, pages 9-22
© 2003 by the Association for Business Communication
10 Business Communication Quarterly 66:4 December 2003

Hu (1944) and Goffman (1959) first brought attention to the study

of face in the academic literature. Brown and Levinson (1987)
developed theories about the impact of face on communication in
multiple cultures. Their work, called politeness theory, states that
adults in all cultures adapt the level of linguistic politeness in order
to address the face needs of members in a social interaction.
Descriptive research about face among the Chinese (Ho, 1976;
Hu, 1944; Hwang, 1987) is supported by a number of empirical
works (Bond & Lee, 1981; Jia, 2001b; King, 1988). Within the
business context, descriptive pieces that discuss the role of face
among Chinese businesspersons (Pye, 1992; Seligman, 1989) are
supported by a number of empirical studies (Krone, Chen, & Xia,
1997; Li, 1996).
Even though face is a term used in English, Westerners may have
difficulty understanding how Chinese conceptualize face for several
reasons. First, the Western view of face is fairly simple and less per-
vasive compared to the complexity and centrality of that of the
Chinese (Ho, 1976; Hu, 1944). Second, Westerners tend to sepa-
rate face issues from business communication, while Chinese tend
to see face issues as an inherent part of communication (Li, 1996).
Thus, face relates to a person’s image and status within a social
structure. The Chinese conceptualization of face is much more
complex than that of Westerners and is viewed as an essential
component of communication. As a result, Westerners may view
the Chinese attention to face as unnecessary and even counter-
productive. However, Chinese businesspersons will have a difficult
time building relationships with and trusting their Western coun-
terparts without adequate attention to face from all parties.

Chinese Conceptualization of Face

To safeguard the face of their Chinese counterparts, Western busi-
nesspersons should understand how Chinese conceptualize face
and related communication practices. This section discusses (a)
the cultural background to the Chinese sensitivity to face; (b)
characteristics of Chinese face; (c) face-related communication
strategies of Chinese businesspersons; and (d) an example of a
Chinese Business Face / Cardon, Scott 11

business situation involving Chinese and Western businesspersons

in which face played a prominent role. When important Chinese
concepts are presented, the romanized form of the Chinese word
is presented in parentheses.

Cultural Background to the Chinese Sensitivity to Face

Chinese are sensitive to face issues because of the cultural empha-
sis on enduring relationships and social networks. Confucianism
encourages Chinese to value face for largely moral reasons (Chang
& Holt, 1991). Contemporary forms of social networks encourage
Chinese to focus on face issues for not only moral reasons but also
instrumental reasons, such as obtaining power, prestige, and influ-
ence in relationships (Hwang, 1987).
Chinese society continues to be influenced by its Confucian
legacy. Confucianism focuses on the morality and ideals of human
relationships. The ideal virtue of Confucian society is humanity
(ren), which can only be obtained through the proper cultivation
of relationships with others. In fact, “one’s ability to achieve a
harmonious relationship with others is the greatest spiritual
accomplishment of one’s life” (Chang & Holt, 1994, p. 105).
Relationships should be governed by propriety or etiquette (li),
proper emotion (renqing), and relational position (renlun), such
as that between the parent and child, elder and younger, or ruler
and subject. In these relationships, face (mianzi) is both a goal to
achieve ideal personhood and a means to ensure harmony and the
proper social order (Chang & Holt, 1991; Jia, 2001b).
The ideals of Confucianism have been “practically transformed
to fit broader Chinese cultural patterns” (Chang & Holt, 1991, p.
105) that include not only moral overtones but also instrumental
considerations of relationships, such as favor and influence
(Hwang, 1987). In addition to Confucian principles, contempo-
rary Chinese social networks are governed by mutual obligations
or reciprocity (bao) and favor (renqing). Face is an evaluation of
status in these networks, and individuals can exert influence based
on the amount of face granted by others in the group (Chang &
Holt, 1994; Hwang, 1987).
12 Business Communication Quarterly 66:4 December 2003

Characteristics of Chinese Face

There are literally hundreds of phrases in the Chinese language
that demonstrate the complex nature of face and face-related
behavior. Many researchers of Chinese culture explain how Chi-
nese conceptualize face by describing these various Chinese-lan-
guage terms about face (Hu, 1944; Jia, 2001b). This section briefly
examines a small sample of these terms and how they demonstrate
various characteristics of face.

Face can be measured

Chinese keep track of how much face each member of social net-
works has. For instance, a person may have a lot of face (mianzi
da), not much face (mianzi xiao), no face (mei mianzi), or more
face than others (tade mianzi bijiao da). To have a lot of face
essentially means that one has high status compared to others,
whereas not to have much face or to have no face means to have
low status (Hu, 1944; Jia, 2001b).

The amount of face can be altered

Face can change over time. It can be gained (zengjia mianzi) or
lost (diu mianzi). Face can be gained through developing relation-
ships with other individuals of high status or through personal
achievement. In the case of business, face can be gained through
maintaining and expanding high-profile business relationships,
developing well known business brands, and procuring favorable
business deals. When face has been lost, it can often be restored or
returned to previous levels (huanhui mianzi). For example, a Chi-
nese businessperson who arrives for a meeting at a host company
only to find that his or her counterparts have forgotten the meet-
ing would feel a loss of face. The host businesspersons would likely
also feel a loss of face. The host businesspersons could restore the
face of their guest as well as themselves by making an apology. It
would also be important to demonstrate sincere interest in the
relationship by publicly recognizing the guest businessperson as a
valued business partner. This could occur by honoring this individ-
ual as the guest of honor at a banquet or allowing a favorable busi-
Chinese Business Face / Cardon, Scott 13

ness deal. In any case, the special treatment should be displayable

to peers and subordinates of the guest businessperson.

Face can be exchanged

As a form of social currency, face can be traded. The Chinese talk
about borrowing face (jie mianzi) and buying face (mai mianzi).
This means that an individual may ask someone who has a lot of
face to intervene on his or her behalf in cases where the individ-
ual does not have enough face. In other words, an individual
without enough status will seek the help of someone who does
have enough status to accomplish a goal. For example, a Chinese
businessperson seeking do to business with a particular company
might try to work through an individual who has a lot of face and
is well acquainted with business leaders of that company. The go-
between person would use his or her face to recommend and
introduce the businessperson to the leaders of the target company.
It should be remembered, however, that the Chinese keep track of
borrowed face in terms of favors and will expect reciprocity (Hu,
1944; Jia, 2001b).

Face is mutual in nature

Face is shared. Chinese often talk of everyone having face (dajia
you mianzi), suggesting that if one member of a group loses face,
the entire group loses face. It is expected that members of a group
give face to one another (huxiang gei mianzi). This means it is
the responsibility of all members in a social network to enhance
the status of one another. For example, when a group of busi-
nesspersons attends a social function, each member of the group
frequently mentions the status and accomplishments of the other
members (particularly the high-status members) of the business
group to enhance the face of one another. Face often refers to
entire groups. For example, it is possible to speak about the face of
the Chinese people (Zhongguoren de mianzi) or the face of a
company (gongside mianzi). Therefore, groups maintain a status
or reputation, and individuals are concerned about not only their
individual face but also the face of their groups (Jia, 2001b).
14 Business Communication Quarterly 66:4 December 2003

Face is influenced by others

The amount of face is adjusted, depending on how one is treated
by others. An individual or group can only have face if others
treat that person or group as if certain status is warranted. The
Chinese, among other things, talk of protecting face (baohu
mianzi) or saving face (liu mianzi) in order to help others avoid
losing face (diu mianzi) and of rewarding face (shang mianzi) or
giving face (gei mianzi) to enhance or recognize the face of
others (Hu, 1944; Jia, 2001b). Chinese businesspersons are
expected to be adept at both saving face for others as well as
giving face to others. In the Chinese mind, these face-perpetuat-
ing skills demonstrate credibility and engender trust among busi-
ness partners.

Saving and giving face are important

In the business context the skills of saving and giving face are par-
ticularly important to business communication (Redding & Ng,
1982). Saving face is intended to avoid face-losing situations.
Losing face, while familiar to Americans in terminology, is a much
more serious matter to the Chinese. Common face-losing actions
in the business environment include directly addressing conflict,
demonstrating public displays of anger, directly refusing requests,
not meeting requests, behaving aggressively and arrogantly,
making direct and public criticism of others, and not appropriately
treating the status of others (Hwang, 1987; Seligman, 1989).
Giving face is a concept that may be foreign to American busi-
nesspersons. Giving face “means doing something to enhance
someone else’s reputation or prestige” (Seligman, 1989, p. 50).
Types of face-giving behavior include praising, giving gifts, and
concessions (Brunner & Wang, 1988; Seligman, 1989).
The common Chinese-language terms described in this section
demonstrate that face can be mutual and can be measured,
altered, exchanged, and influenced by others (Hu, 1944; Redding
& Ng, 1982). The skills of saving face and giving face to others
are particularly important among Chinese businesspersons. As
social currency used to influence others, face is especially impor-
Chinese Business Face / Cardon, Scott 15

tant to Chinese businesspersons; great attention is paid to protect-

ing and enhancing face (Redding & Ng, 1982).

Face-Related Strategies in Business Communication

Chinese businesspersons employ a number of face-related commu-
nication strategies designed to save face or give face to others.
These strategies include indirectness, intermediaries, praising,
requests, and shaming.
Indirectness
In order to save face, Chinese often try to avoid public confronta-
tion altogether because of the possibility of disrupting harmonious
relations. When this is not possible, Chinese use indirect commu-
nication to avoid damaging the face of themselves and counter-
parts. Because directly rejecting a request is often considered a
face-losing act, statements such as “it might be inconvenient” (bu
fangbian) or “there are some difficulties” (you xie kunnan) are
often used to decline requests (Gao, 1998). References to grand
ideals such as the “spirit of friendly cooperation” (youhao hezuo
jingshen) are common ways of subtly requesting concessions or
favorable treatment (Krone, Chen, & Xia, 1997; Seligman, 1989).
Intermediaries
The use of intermediaries avoids potential face loss by bypassing
direct confrontation, especially in conflict situations. Generally,
intermediaries transact business and manage relationships unoffi-
cially but may be official mediators for larger conflict issues. These
intermediaries are typically respected members of the disputants’
social networks with a large amount of face. The disputants often
honor the intermediary out of respect for his or her face (Jia,
2001a; Ma, 1992). Official mediation is vastly preferred to litiga-
tion because it places emphasis on harmonious relations. In effect,
face functions in place of law (Jia, 1997-1998).
Praising
In order to give face, Chinese businesspersons often praise their
business counterparts. Praise that recognizes status, position, or
16 Business Communication Quarterly 66:4 December 2003

managerial competence in the presence of peers and subordinates

is especially appropriate. Moreover, praise recognizing the techno-
logical achievements of a company or the modernization of China
boosts the face of an individual who feels deep connection with
these groups (Brunner & Wang, 1988). Businesspersons entering
the Chinese business environment will soon discover that business
relationships often develop at extravagant banquets with rounds
of face-enhancing toasts. Banquets present an excellent opportu-
nity for Western businesspersons to demonstrate their friendship
toward their Chinese counterparts by praising them in front of
their peers and giving them face.

Requests
While most face-related communication is subtle, Chinese busi-
nesspersons may make direct requests for favors. Direct requests
often signal that a business relationship is firm, and mutually ben-
eficial exchange of favors when requested increasingly solidifies
the business relationship. Requests between business partners with
a lot of face are rarely denied because there is increased pressure
to meet the request when the favor has been stated so explicitly. If
the request is denied, the individual who requested the favor may
feel that the other individual did not give him or her face and, as
a result, threatens their business relationship (Huang, 1987; Li,
1996; Redding & Ng, 1982).

Shaming
When individuals violate normal conventions of face behavior,
Chinese businesspersons may respond through shaming or retribu-
tion, especially when dealing with individuals of lower status.
Shaming is often used when one party violates face-related princi-
ples such as friendship (youyi) or mutual benefit (huli). In such
cases, Chinese businesspersons may chastise counterparts, con-
demning their behavior and reminding them of the adverse conse-
quences of their actions (Seligman, 1989).
Chinese Business Face / Cardon, Scott 17

An Example of the Role of Face

Blackman (1997) provides an interesting example of how face
operates in the Chinese business environment. A Chinese factory
had sent defective products to a Western company. The Western
buyer immediately communicated with the Chinese factory and
claimed compensation. The Chinese representative, privately
admitting that the quality was inadequate, informed the buyer
that his superiors had denied the compensation claim. The Chi-
nese representative explained that his superiors would lose face
with the local Foreign Trade Office if they paid compensation
because the Foreign Trade Office had recently requested each
company ensure high quality.
Before discussing the solution to this dilemma, several points
should be recognized about the role of face in this situation. First,
face is mutual in nature, and as a result, linked to a web of rela-
tionships. The Western company was working with a factory rep-
resentative who had to defer to the face of his superiors. Further-
more, his superiors were most concerned about losing face with
the Foreign Trade Office, not the Western buyer. Finally, and per-
haps most importantly, whether or not a request is accepted
depends on how much face an individual or company has as well
as whether or not the face of the other party is vulnerable. In this
case the Western buyer did not have as much face as officials from
the Foreign Trade Office, and upper managers from the Chinese
factory felt vulnerable to face loss because they had not met the
requests of the Foreign Trade Office for high quality.
The Western buyer thought of a creative solution utilizing face-
sensitive techniques. First of all, the buyer avoided confrontation
with upper managers from the Chinese factory altogether. The
buyer hired a third person from Hong Kong, an intermediary, to
act as an agent in purchasing the Chinese goods over the next
two years at a special reduced price. The special price would settle
the compensation claim over two years. The Western buyer suc-
cessfully avoided public mention of the Chinese factory’s mistake,
thus preserving the face of upper managers with the Foreign Trade
Office as well as avoiding direct confrontation by hiring a Hong
18 Business Communication Quarterly 66:4 December 2003

Kong agent to take care of the problem. These actions salvaged a

short-term financial loss as well as preserved the long-term rela-
tionship with the Chinese factory. Though indirect, the Western
buyer sent a loud and clear message to the Chinese factory that
the Western buyer valued its relationship with the Chinese busi-
ness partners and was adept at face-saving.
Thus, Chinese businesspersons use a number of communication
strategies and skills both to save face for others and to give face to
others. These strategies include indirectness, intermediaries, prais-
ing, requests, and shaming. Western businesspersons should con-
sider these types of communication strategies in order to under-
stand Chinese face needs and wants and to address properly the
face needs and wants of others.

Learning Exercises
Western businesspersons can enhance their understanding of how
Chinese conceptualize face as well as develop face-related commu-
nication skills by participating in learning exercises provided in
this section. This section provides an exercise to compare and
contrast how Chinese and Westerners conceptualize face as well
as providing references to a variety of case studies.

Comparing and Contrasting Chinese and

Western Conceptualizations of Face
The purposes of this exercise are to compare and contrast Chinese
and Western conceptualizations of face and to identify practical
impacts of face-related business communication in each culture.
Using Table 1 as a model for an instructor-prepared worksheet,
the instructor follows these steps. First, the students individually
or in groups identify comparable English-language expressions for
Chinese face-related terms by filling in the comparable expres-
sions in Table 1. Examples of English-language expressions that
students might use are provided for the first two Chinese-language
expressions. Instructors are cautioned that students may not
always be able to find an equivalent English-language expression.
Second, the students identify similarities and differences between
Chinese Business Face / Cardon, Scott 19

Table 1. Worksheet of Representative Chinese Face-related Terms

Chinese English direct Similar
Characteristic Chinese pinyin translation English phrases
Face can be Mianzi da A big face A person with
measured high status, lots
of connections
Mianzi xiao A small face A person with low
status, not many
connections
Mei mianzi No face
Tade mianzi He/she has a
bijiao da bigger face
than so-and-so
Face can be Diu mianzi To lose face
altered
Zengjia mianzi To increase face
Huanhui mianzi To restore face
Face can be Jie mianzi To borrow face
exchanged
Mai mianzi To buy face
Face is mutual Dajia you Everyone has
mianzi face
Huxiang gei To give one
mianzi another face
Zhongguoren de The face of the
mianzi Chinese people
Gongside The face of the
mianzi company
Face is Baohu mianzi To protect face
influenced by
others
Liu mianzi To save face for
someone
Shang mianzi To reward face
Gei mianzi To give someone
face
Note. Pinyin is the officially recognized romanization system for transliterating
Chinese characters into the Latin alphabet in the People’s Republic of China.
The presented Chinese characters are the simplified characters used primarily in
the People’s Republic of China, the largest Chinese-speaking community.
20 Business Communication Quarterly 66:4 December 2003

the Chinese-language expressions and comparable English-lan-

guage expressions and discuss the frequency with which the iden-
tified expressions occur in business settings in each culture. Third,
the students discuss the practical impacts of Chinese and native-
culture conceptualizations of face on business communication in
each culture and what challenges might arise when Chinese and
Western nationalities transact business together. Fourth, the stu-
dents formulate and discuss recommendations that would facilitate
more effective business interactions between Chinese and West-
ern nationalities.

Using Case Studies

The purposes of using case studies are to help students evaluate
realistic occurrences of face-related communication and to
become skillful in face-related communication. Cardon and Scott
(2002) have developed a case study about Chinese face-related
business communication with associated learning activities and
resources that can be found online at www.bsu.edu/web/00jjzhao/
abc-intl/jimscott3.htm. This case study provides a number of
learning activities, including discussion questions, role plays, and
other exercises, to help students develop competence in address-
ing the face needs of Chinese businesspersons effectively.
Also, Wang, Brislin, Wang, and Chao (2000) created 41 case
studies with associated learning questions and answers about com-
munication between Chinese and Americans. Twelve of these
case studies deal with face-related communication, and in particu-
lar, case studies 10, 15, 16, and 23 address face-related communi-
cation of Chinese businesspersons. Each case study presents a
face-related dilemma and a list of potential responses. Students
can choose which response they think is most correct and then
look at the answer section, which provides the most appropriate
response along with an explanation of why this response is best.
Another excellent resource for detailed information about the
role of face in Chinese business along with learning exercises is
Blackman’s (1997) book about negotiating in China. There are
dozens and dozens of examples of face-related behavior and six
Chinese Business Face / Cardon, Scott 21

extensive case studies that can be adapted into learning activities.

Each case study involves descriptions of face-related behavior in
the Chinese business environment.
By developing insights about Chinese business face through a
variety of activities and exercises, international business commu-
nication instructors can better prepare prospective and practicing
Western businesspersons for interaction with their Chinese coun-
terparts, who are increasingly important trading partners.

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Address correspondence to Peter W. Cardon, B716, Business Information

Systems Department, College of Business, Utah State University, 3515 Old Main
Hill, Logan UT 84322-3515 (e-mail: pwc@cc.usu.edu).
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