Developing Critical Thinking Skills Through Multicultural Literature in Kindergarten: A

Qualitative Case Study

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Submitted to Northcentral University

School of Education

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in Partial Fulfillment of the
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DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
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by

PHILIPPA GERMAINE LYNCH-WILLIS

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La Jolla, California

November 2019
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Developing Critical Thinking Skills Through Multicultural Literature in Kindergarten: A
Qualitative Case Study

By

PHILIPPA GERMAINE LYNCH-WILLIS

Approved by the Doctoral Committee:

PhD 01/07/2020 | 14:14:50 MST

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Dissertation Chair: INSERT NAME
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 Abstract

This study focused on the use of multicultural literature to increase kindergarten children’s

critical thinking skills. The problem examined in this qualitative study was that kindergarten

students’ critical thinking skills are not fully developed in part because teachers are not prepared

to effectively develop students’ critical thinking skills through multicultural literature. In many

cases teachers are not incorporating multicultural literature in the curriculum. The purpose of this

qualitative case study was to gain understanding of teachers’ and administrators’ perspectives on

the use of multicultural literature as a tool to develop kindergarten students’ critical thinking

skills. Five teachers and two administrators participated in semi-structured interviews that

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focused on using multicultural literature as a tool to develop kindergarten students’ critical
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thinking skills. The results of the study revealed that the teachers have an understanding of

critical thinking skills and that multicultural literature can be one of the tools to develop
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kindergarten students’ critical thinking skills. However, with limited supply of multicultural

materials and teachers in introducing multicultural materials, this study highlighted the
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participants’ perspectives that kindergarten students’ critical thinking skills were not fully

developed. Recommendations for practices are that multicultural literature should be relevant to

current situations, multicultural literature should be a part of the curriculum, and teachers should

be given the necessary training on how to prepare multicultural lesson plans that cater to the

needs of all students. It is recommended that future research should incorporate more teachers

from various schools, as well as student involvement in the study.

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 Acknowledgements

First, I want to thank God for His grace, mercy, and faithfulness to me. He has given me

the strength and patience to stay on course. When I almost gave up He reminded me that He

promised to stay with me to the end. Special thanks to my mom Vesta who stayed up with me

many nights and encouraged me with a cup of tea. I am thankful for my husband Walter who

made sure that the computer was up and running and in good condition for my assignments.

Thanks to my daughter Ranasha who is also in college but took time out to cheer me along

especially when I became tired and frustrated. She constantly reminded me that I can do it.

Thanks for the prayers of my church family and pastor. I must say a special thanks to all my

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professors and my dissertation chair Dr. Vance for your valid feedback and words of
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encouragement that motivated me to continue to work hard. Finally, thanks to my friend Dr.

Wright who motivated me to start this journey and continues to support me in this effort.
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 Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1

Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................................... 3
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................. 4
Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................. 5
Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 7
Nature of the Study ................................................................................................................... 7
Significance of the Study .......................................................................................................... 9
Definitions of Key Terms ......................................................................................................... 9
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 11

Chapter 2: Literature Review ........................................................................................................ 12

Documentation ........................................................................................................................ 12
Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................................... 13
Definition of Critical Thinking ............................................................................................... 16

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The Importance of Critical Thinking Skills ............................................................................ 24
Factors that Impede the Development of Critical Thinking Skills ......................................... 31
Multicultural Literature ........................................................................................................... 35
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Increasing Critical Thinking Skills with Multicultural Literature .......................................... 40
The Benefit of Multicultural Literature in Kindergarten ........................................................ 45
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 51
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Chapter 3: Research Method ......................................................................................................... 52
Research Design...................................................................................................................... 52
Population and Sample ........................................................................................................... 53
Material and Instrumentation .................................................................................................. 55
Study Procedures .................................................................................................................... 56
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Data Collection and Analysis.................................................................................................. 57

Assumptions............................................................................................................................ 59
Limitations .............................................................................................................................. 59
Delimitations ........................................................................................................................... 59
Ethical Assurances .................................................................................................................. 60
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 60

Chapter 4: Findings ....................................................................................................................... 62

Trustworthiness of Data .......................................................................................................... 62
Results ..................................................................................................................................... 65
Evaluation of Findings ............................................................................................................ 73
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 79

Chapter 5: Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusions .................................................... 81

Implications............................................................................................................................. 81
Recommendations for Practice ............................................................................................... 87
Recommendations for Future Research .................................................................................. 89
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 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................. 90

References ..................................................................................................................................... 92

Appendices .................................................................................................................................... 97

Appendix A: Interview Protocol ................................................................................................... 98

Appendix B: Observation Protocol ....................................................................................... 100

Appendix C: Consent Form ........................................................................................................ 101

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Chapter 1: Introduction

In kindergarten, children develop the necessary thinking skills to prepare them for the

future (Gur, Kocak, & Saglar, 2017). These skills often include reasoning, drawing conclusions,

and solving problems (Lennox, 2013; Whittaker, 2014). Research shows that critical thinking is

essential for classroom success as well as a lifelong success (Hand & Brown, 2013). A school

that emphasizes critical thinking skills will increase the child’s potential for success

(Ghombavani, 2016). Higher-order thinking skills such as critical thinking, creative thinking, and

problem solving are essential for the 21st- century (Ghombavani, 2016). Schools play a vital role

in producing thinkers for today’s global society. Critical thinking is an active and systematic

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cognitive process that applies the things learned, to understand the events that occurred in the
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environment (Pekdogan & Korkmaze, 2016).

However, some kindergarten children are at risk of not developing critical thinking skills
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(Noltemeyer, Joseph, & Kuneshi, 2013). One of the reasons is that teachers are not prepared to

teach children from diverse cultures who speak a different language or who have a problem
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speaking English (Forawi, 2016; Iwai, 2015). With the increase of children from diverse

cultures, insufficient multicultural reading instruction over the years increases the gap in critical

thinking between the low performing readers and their advance peers (Noltemeyer, Joseph, &

Kuneshi, 2013). This gap in critical thinking skills development can impede children’s ability to

navigate their social environment to successfully solve problems in the future (Lennox, 2013).

When children engage in literature, it helps to promote their critical thinking skills

(Bissoonauth, 2012). Children need to experience literature that represents a variety of human

experiences and provide the opportunity to express their critical thoughts and ideas uniquely

(Harper, 2016; Robinson, 2013). Thus, multicultural literature that encourages children to respect
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and accept people who might be different can provide opportunities for children to evaluate

information, observe experiences, reflect, reason or communicate beliefs and actions (Hammell,

2016; Marten, et al. 2015). If kindergarteners have not started to develop critical thinking skills,

it might be difficult for them to comprehend the content of literature to develop their own ideas

in later years (Job, 2016).

One way to develop critical thinking skills in kindergarten is to provide children with the

opportunity to become more engaged, both critically and emotionally, with multicultural

literature (Robinson, 2013). Literature provides an avenue through which children can listen

attentively and responsively, ask questions, evaluate ideas, argue, and justify a point of view

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(Braid & Finch, 2015). It exposes children to the perspectives of others and helps them apply
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what they learn to the understanding of the world around them (Pekdogan & Korkmaz, 2016;

Robinson, 2013).
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Effective educators promote students’ social and cognitive development for lifelong

learning (Jamil, Sabol, & Hambre, 2015). They can provide experiences through literature that
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develop children’s natural curiosity, helping them to become more engaged in problem-solving

(Whittaker, 2014). When educators facilitate children’s critical thinking, they help them become

better investigators of their environment (Livingston, 2016). A high-quality instructional

environment with stimulating and creative materials that are aligned to learning objectives is

extremely beneficial for active learning (Jamil, Sabol, & Hombre, 2015).

The availability of diverse representation of literature in the classroom can also help to

develop children’s critical thinking skills to explore the world in which they live, spark curiosity,

and answer any questions they pose (Serafani & Moses, 2014). Thorough understanding occurs

when a child synthesizes relationships among objects through abstractive reflection and sees this
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relationship as a unified concept without any direct reference to a single subject (Baptise, 2014).

Thus, literature serves two purposes: as an input, it represents authentic language communication

to students; as an output, it helps to stimulate students’ thinking to discuss, share, and write

(Leal, 2015).

The quality of instruction, emotion and organizational support are vital in a kindergarten

classroom environment (Shearer, Bell, Carter, & Dietrich, 2014). Studies indicate that high-

quality practices, like using multicultural literature to engage in meaningful discussions, support

the academic skills of children from low-income communities (Shearer, Bell, Carter, & Dietrich,

2014). High-quality practices include using multicultural literature to promote children’s critical

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thinking to engage in meaningful discussion about people and culture (Iwai, 2015).
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Critical thinking can be developed and improved through a discussion of issues, hearing

different perspectives and interpretations, and respecting others’ opinions and contributions
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(Panettieri, 2015). Critical thinking skills do not develop by one experience and interaction but

varied experiences over a period (Panettieri, 2015). Therefore, to help increase kindergarteners’
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critical thinking skills multicultural books should positively portray characters, be authentic,

foster beliefs in cultural diversity, and be accurate and appropriate for the group (Blackson,

2015). Having these types of books help prompt students to go beyond recalling knowledge to

reasoning and solving problems (Sobkowiak, 2016).

Statement of the Problem

The problem that was addressed in this study was that many kindergarten students lack

critical thinking skills (Gur, Kocak, & Saglar, 2017). Students do not do well in answering

questions and solving problems when the demand is more than the reproduction of knowledge

(Radulovi & Stancic, 2017). One of the reasons children lack critical thinking skills is because
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some teachers do not have a clear view of critical thinking skills and the tools to enhance the

development of critical thinking skills (Forawi, 2016). Many teachers feel discouraged from

using multicultural literature as a medium to increase children’s critical thinking skills in

kindergarten because they lack the experience of teaching diverse students (Holland & Mongillo,

2016; Leal, 2015). Thus, many schools are criticized for not teaching students how to think

(Radulovi & Stancic, 2017).

Some children entering kindergarten are from homes that speak a different language other

than English, which some teachers find increasingly challenging (Iwai, 2015). Children who

speak a different language other than English in the home have risen from 4.7% to 11.2%

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between 1980 and 2009 (Iwai, 2015). For example, California has 6.5 million English Language
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Learners, which is 24% of the state’s population (Iwai, 2015). Schools and teachers can address

such problems by introducing more multicultural literature in the curriculum (Iwai, 2015).
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Multicultural literature helps children in kindergarten to developing their critical thinking ability

to respond to the various subject matter and issues (Einstein, 2016; Iwai, 2015).
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The vital role of a learner is one who actively engages in the process of learning and

generates conceptual understanding (Villa & Baptize, 2014). Kindergarten children gain such

understanding through multicultural literature which develops various perspectives of similarities

and differences within their environment (Iwai, 2015). It is important that teachers help increase

kindergarten children’s critical thinking skills so they can work together on different issues

posed in a multicultural text (Martens et al., 2015).

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this qualitative methodology and case study design was to understand

teachers’ and administrators’ perspectives on including multicultural literature as a way to

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increase critical thinking skills for kindergarten students. The perspectives of educators were

important because they helped to provide information on how diversity in children’s literature

affected kindergarten children’s critical thinking skills. This qualitative study was conducted

through observation, documentation, and interviews. The study involved a group of five

kindergarten teachers and two administrators with experiences ranging from three years to above

30 years of experiences in a Title 1 school in Georgia. The intent of this selection was to

understand the teachers’ and administrators’ perspectives on the use of multicultural literature to

develop kindergarten students’ critical thinking skills (Leedy & Ormrod, 2010).

Theoretical Framework

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The theoretical framework for this study was constructivist theory. Constructivist theory
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is focused on organizing, structuring, and restructuring of experiences in lifelong processes by

existing schemes and thoughts (Morrison, 2012). Knowledge is gained through engagement in
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problem solving while having experience with people, places, and things, and is learned through

experiences and activities, which children initiate or find intriguing in multicultural literature
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(Morrison, 2012). Constructivist theory helps to give a clear understanding of kindergarten

children’s thinking. In this theory, Lev Vygotsky indicated that knowledge, which is socially

mediated in the context of learning and relates in the presence with knowledgeable peers, would

profoundly affect understanding (Ogunnaike, 2015).

Since there are challenges of how to develop students’ critical thinking skills (Sergeant &

Cannon, 2016), early literacy instruction becomes a popular topic in today’s educational circles

(Giles & Tunks, 2015). Vygotsky reiterated that there is a need for problem solving that relates

to critical thinking through the support of collaboration (Bissoonauth, 2012). Constructivist’s

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perspective established the understanding that children decide their ‘what and how’ of their

learning by creating, constructing, and determining their experiences (Ogunnaike, 2015).

Constructivist theory provided the framework for the researcher to focus on kindergarten

children forming their knowledge of learning through social interaction and language

development (Ogunnaike, 2015). This theory supported the belief that children actively seek

knowledge and that critical thinking skills have more meaning if they are acquired in a

meaningful context (Marra, Jonassen, Palmer, & Stuff, 2014; Morrison, 2012). Children solicit

their understanding through active problem solving, experiences, and activities that they found

interesting. Regardless of the learning environment, Vygotsky emphasized that educators must

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be sensitive to children’s developmental abilities, but should not be limited in their knowledge

(Ogunnaike, 2015).
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The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) shared the
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belief of Piaget, another constructivist thinker, that children as human beings are constantly

thinking, moving, feeling, and interacting (Morrison, 2012). Constructivist theory suggested that
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children in a classroom that engage positively with their peers would have the opportunity to

learn (Shearer, Bell, Carter, & Dietrich, 2014). When children grow up without seeing

multicultural images in the ‘mirrors, windows, and doors’ of children’s literature, it limits them

to a single story about the world around them and ultimately affects the development of their

imaginations (Thomas, 2016). Constructivists Vygotsky and Gardener shared the idea that

continued guided practices in early childhood classrooms through culture, and social context of

learning influence classroom learning through interactions and participation (Ogunnaike, 2015).

Kindergarten children are egocentric and, therefore, are busy exploring the world around

them. Children’s interest in the world caused Vygotsky to believe that problem-solving strategies
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influenced the experiences people have in their culture because they shaped their social world

(Ogunnaike, 2015). Children use what they see in their lives to determine how they treat one

another (Ogunnaike, 2015). Vygotsky and Gardener believed that children develop thinking

skills through diverse learning styles, diverse resources, and cultural backgrounds (Ogunnaike,

2015). Thus, constructivist theory helps to provide insight into the experience kindergarten

children shared according to their thinking skills as they interacted with multicultural literature.

Research Questions

Through questions, the researcher engaged the participants in a conversation, observed

their practices, and gathered relevant information to gain a deeper understanding of how teachers

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and administrators view the development of critical thinking skills through multicultural
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literature in kindergarten (Hurt & McLaughlin, 2012). The following research questions guided

this study:
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1. What are teachers’ perspectives on the use of multicultural literature to develop

the critical thinking skills of kindergarten students?

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2. What are the administrators’ perspectives on using multicultural literature to

develop the critical thinking skills of kindergarten students?

Nature of the Study

This study used a qualitative case study design to obtain information on teachers’ and

administrators’ perspectives on kindergarten children’s critical thinking skills. A case study

provides in-depth information which the researcher can interpret (Creswell, 2014). This

qualitative approach allows the researcher to play a vital role in the generation and interpretation

of information (Johnson, 2015). The voices of the participants were heard through open-ended
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questions that provide a deeper insight and a better understanding of the population as they

formulate their ideas and opinions (Johnson, 2015).

The qualitative data collection was in a natural setting where the researcher had face-to-

face interactions with the participants over a period (Creswell, 2014). Such interactions included

interviews, observation, and documentation. Each interview lasted for about 60 minutes. The

teachers and administrators gave their perspectives on the use of multicultural literature to

develop kindergarten students’ critical thinking skills. Teachers were observed during their

planning and instruction in which information was provided on how they help to develop

students in kindergarten critical thinking skills. By selecting a purposely-selected site,

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participants helped to provide a better understanding of the problem and the answer to the
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question. In qualitative research and through a naturalistic approach, the researcher seeks to

understand the phenomenon in a real world setting where there is no attempt to manipulate the
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interest of the situation (Golafshani, 2003). Therefore, the researcher followed the protocol for

recording observation, documentation, and interviews. Observation in a qualitative study

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included descriptive details and notes of each interview (Creswell, 2014).

The researcher sought to maintain validity as well as the reliability of the study. Validity

involves trustworthiness, authenticity, and credibility, while reliability involves consistency

throughout the study (Creswell, 2014). The triangulation data strengthened the validity of the

study, as each theme was cross referenced through interviews, documentation, and observation.

The member checking ensured truth and accuracy as well as clarification of researcher bias

(Creswell, 2014). The intent of a case study was to gain a holistic picture of the everyday

experiences of individuals through observation, documentation, and interviews (Creswell, 2014).

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Significance of the Study

The key function of multicultural literature was to help develop children’s critical

thinking skills to make sense of diversity and differences to deal with increasingly challenging

issues (Blackson, 2015; Thomas, 2016). This research was important because it provided

information on how multicultural literature is used as a medium to increase kindergarten

children’s critical thinking skills. Many studies indicate that teachers play a vital role in helping

students generate a higher level of thinking (Wee, 2016). Multicultural literature is a way that a

teacher helps the students foster an awareness of diversity and develop their critical thinking and

problem solving skills (Gur, Kocak, & Saglar, 2016; Iwai, 2016). However, there is a growing

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concern in the United States over the disparity and inequity in the publishing of human, cultural,
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linguistic, as well as family literature for children and young people (Thomas, 2016). Global

literature is essential to support children’s intercultural understanding that permeates thinking

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and the curriculum with a focus to create an understanding of cultural perspectives and global

issues (Martens et al., 2015).

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Literature promotes critical thinking, and story comprehension develops literacy skills,

which provides opportunities for children to understand character events that relate to their lives

(Braid & Finch, 2015; Leal, 2015). The path to developing language and critical thinking skills is

through literature, preferably high-quality literature (Roche, 2015). Therefore, this study adds to

other bodies of studies about teachers’ and administrators’ perspectives on how kindergarten

children’s critical thinking skills were developing through multicultural literature.

Definitions of Key Terms

Children’s literature. Texts that spark curiosities, encourage further reading and

research and answer many of the questions students pose (Serafini & Moses, 2014).
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Constructivism. Constructivism refers to the cognitive theory that emphasizes the active

role of children in developing their understanding and learning (Morrison, 2012).

Critical thinking skills. Critical thinking refers to the use of cognitive skills or strategies

that aid in increasing desirable outcome (Fahim & Masoulaeh, 2012). Critical thinking as

the ability to think critically is the culmination of interpretation, analysis, problem

solving, and self -regulation (Bissoonauth, 2012).

Diversity. Diversity is a social construction that refers to differences between people and

their way of life that includes blindness, low-education, income, culture, and ethnicity,

skin color, class, age, religion, sexual orientation, marital status, parental status and much

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more (Ewijh, 2011).
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High-quality Education. High-quality early childhood classroom is characterized by

cognitive stimulation, well organized and warm predictable routines with sensitive and
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responsive teacher-child interaction that support the development of both academic and

social skills (Shearer, Bell, Carter, & Dietrich, 2014).

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Kindergarten. Kindergarten involves children who are five years old before September

1. The Kindergarten program focuses on strong language, reading, and writing

development. The curriculum is child-choice, center learning, and academic expectations

(Georgia Department of Education, 2013).

Multiculturalism. Multiculturalism is a systematic and comprehensive response to a

culture and ethnic diversity, with educational, linguistic, economic and social

components and specific institutional mechanism (Ciftci & Gurol, 2015).

School Readiness. School readiness is a degree to which young children are prepared to

meet the academic and social-emotional demands of school (Calzada, et al. 2015).
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Summary

Critical thinking is essential for creativity (Pekdogan & Korkmaz, 2016). Children in

kindergarten need to explore with literature that provides them with the opportunity to develop

their critical thinking skills to solve problems. The development of thinking skills for problem

solving and learning is essential in the process of kindergarten preparation for school readiness

(Gur, Kock, & Galar, 2017). School readiness means that the child reaches a level of physical,

mental, social and emotional development for school success (Gur, Kock, & Galar, 2017).

Living in a diverse society requires teachers to intentionally lay the foundation that can

provide the opportunity for every child to develop self-worth and respect to appreciate

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differences within their environment (Malendez, 2015). Such differences can be better
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understood through quality literature that promotes thoughtful discussion and facilitates critical

thinking and meaningful interactions among peers (Serafini & Moses, 2014). Children can learn
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about an alternative solution to a problem when they read about others that have similar

challenges to theirs (Harper, 2016).

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Since the world is becoming more complex and ever changing teaching, critical thinking

has become the main topic in discussions (Forawi, 2016; Gelerstein et al., 2016). Children’s

questionings help explain their thinking (Gur, Kocak, & Saglar, 2017). However, critical

thinking tests that are available do not focus on children in a particular subject (Gelerstein et al.

2016). This qualitative case study examined kindergarten children’s critical thinking skills as

they interacted with multicultural literature within their environment. The study highlighted the

teachers’ and administrators’ perspectives on how diversity in children’s literature increases

kindergarten children’s critical thinking skills.

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Chapter 2: Literature Review

This qualitative case study focused on teachers’ and administrators’ perspectives on the

use of multicultural literature to develop critical thinking skills for kindergarten students.

Students need to develop critical thinking skills in order to solve problems. Incorporating

multicultural literature in the class can provide opportunities for children to engage in a wide

array of communicative approaches to learning (Gouthro & Holloway, 2013).

However, the problem that was addressed in this study was that many kindergarten

students lack critical thinking skills (Gur, Kocak, & Saglar, 2017). One of the reasons for this is

that many teachers feel discouraged from using multicultural literature as a medium to increase

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children’s critical thinking skills in kindergarten because they lack the experience of teaching
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diverse students (Holland & Mongillo, 2016; Leal, 2015). Therefore, the purpose of this

qualitative case study was to understand teachers’ and administrators’ perspectives on the use of
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multicultural literature as a way to increase kindergarten students’ critical thinking skills.

The culture of thinking is visible and actively promoted in everyday children’s

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experiences (Salmon, 2008). Multicultural literature helps to build consensus, and promote

understanding (Robinson, 2013). The primary goal of school success is the development of

critical thinking skills through everyday children’s experiences (Nold, 2017). When children

think critically, they are forced to go beyond surface-level comprehension to determination and

rigor (Kenney, 2013).

Documentation

The background literature for this study was collected from various articles and books.

Library websites provided a wide range of materials that were beneficial for the study. They

provided valid information that helped to enhance the writing process of the literature. These
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articles provided the necessary information for each sub-topic. A-Z Databases, which included

EBSCOhost, Education Research Complete, Eric, ProQuest Central, ProQuest Dissertation and

Thesis@Northcentral University, ProQuest Education, and SAGE Journal, were the research

engines used to gather relevant support for the literature. Many books were used in this chapter.

The keywords used in the research engines were multicultural literature, critical thinking, critical

thinking in early childhood education, diversity in early childhood education, and developing

critical skills through multicultural literature.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework for this study was constructivist theory. Early childhood

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education provides a framework of understanding about the nature and abilities of how children
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learn and how to create an environment that is conducive to the overall development of the child

(Ogunnaike, 2015). A constructivist theory, which focused on organizing, structuring, and

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restructuring of experiences in lifelong processes by existing schemas and thoughts helped to

drive this qualitative case study (Morrison, 2012). People’s schemas are constituted by their
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experiences in their world- their body of knowledge, their collection of ignorance, their social-

cultural bias toward learning about new and different situations (Moya & Hamedani, 2017).

Vygotsky and Gardner are constructivists who emphasized that there is individual exploration

and discovery in the development of the child through different modes that a child brings to the

classroom (Ogunnaike, 2015). Gardner claimed that intelligence possess the ability to engage in

problem solving in an environment that is natural and rich in context (Ogunnaike, 2015).

Vygotsky reiterated that intellectual development occurs when children acquire new concepts of

a schema (Morrow, 2012).

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Constructivist perspectives established a connection that focused on the dynamic nature

of children’s development with the connection with others through their immediate and larger

environment (Ogunnaike, 2015). Vygotsky affirmed that mental function occurs through social

relations, and to build a new concept, children must interact with others to provide the necessary

feedback to help those complete tasks that could be deemed difficult on their own (Morrow,

2012). Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligences sheds light on how children excel in problem

solving as they sought to understand the world in which they live (Ogunnaike, 2015). The

construction of the meaning of a text is embedded in discussions with the teacher and the

students (Pearson, 2014). Social constructivist nature of comprehension involved the engagement

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of participants in the discussion of the text with an interchange of ideas that might modify the
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understanding, as they perceived the selection from other perspectives (Pearson, 2014). Such

claims establish that the child is the protagonist, actively constructing knowledge, learning is
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holistic, and the learning environment is deliberately prepared (Ogunnaike, 2015). Thus, children

learn to draw evidence, check facts, and reason with information (Pearson, 2014).
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Vygotsky stressed that knowledge is socially mediated in a socio-cultural context of

learning that reflects the presence and interacts with more knowledgeable peers (Ogunnaike,

2015). Vygotsky’s theory is based on the idea that an individual comes to a task, problem, or

conversation with his or her own subjective experiences (Pearson, 2012). He believed that

communication between a teacher and a child provides the opportunity for the child to develop a

new concept to complete a task (Morrison, 2012). A teacher makes sure that he or she

understands the student’s preexisting conceptions to guide activities that can address them as

well as to build on them (Cohen & Cowen, 2011). The Zone of Proximal Development that has
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been summarized by Vygotsky emphasized that a child is able to collaborate today to become

independent tomorrow (Ogunnaike, 2015).

Constructivist approach in the classroom helps to encourage students to use active

techniques such as experiment, real-world problem solving, and research-based inquiry projects

to help create their own knowledge and to reflect on their growth of knowledge (Cohen &

Cowen, 2011). Gardner, in his view of multiple intelligences, recognized the difference in

abilities, learning style, and approach to problem-solving (Orgunnaike, 2015). With each

intelligence, students are able to invent and become creative problem-solvers (Orgunnaike,

2015). In a constructivist classroom, students are provided with the tools necessary to explore a

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problem by formulating ideas, drawing conclusions and inferences, then communicate and share
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knowledge in a collaborative environment (Cohen & Cowen, 2011). Students use mental

structures that they have stored in their minds such as knowledge, schemas, mental modes,
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previous knowledge, and beliefs to make sense of the new input (Ciftci & Gurol, 2015).

Vygotsky social-cultural theory has several components that are critical to the learning process
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such as cultural artifacts which played a role in children’s positive reaction while engaging in

scientific inquiry, analysis and reflection of cultural artifacts that make sense of inquiry, and

synthesis, which is the transformation of thinking (Baptise, 2014).

Vygotsky and Gardner believed that culture plays a significant role in an early childhood

classroom because it helps to influence classroom practices and the social context of learning

such as group projects (Ogunnaike, 2015). The teacher as the facilitator helps to guide students

in confronting misconceptions and ambiguities (Cohen & Cowen, 2011). They create a

classroom in which children feel comfortable to engage in a conversation about living in a

multicultural society (Klefstad & Martinez, 2013). The culture of different modalities are few of
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the constructivist’s dynamic ideas, which is practiced in an early childhood classroom and help

to formulate responses to the changing framework of the American society (Ogunnaike, 2015).

Young children learn best by first-hand experience (Eliason & Jenkins, 2012). The

learner makes a meaningful connection to disparate objects, events, and experiences through

critical reflection and discourse (Villa & Baptiste, 2014). Vygotsky claimed that the learner

synthesizes experiences mediated by cultural tools and artifacts (Baptise, 2014). Constructivists’

point of view is that learning is a generating process in which students engage with new ideas

and experiences they encounter in schools (Ciftci & Gurol, 2015). Thus, this theory was chosen

because ordinary children will grow and process more information when they process and build

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more complex regularities into schemes (Arsalidou & Leone, 2016).

Definition of Critical Thinking

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Critical thinking can be defined as the cognitive strategies that increase a desirable
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outcome; it involves a higher order of thinking skills that are necessary to solve problems in this

21st century (Ghombavani, 2016; Holland & Mongillo, 2016). By fostering the progress of
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individuals, critical thinking helps students cultivate greater self-esteem, self-mastery, self-

confidence to cope with social issues and find solutions for problems (Fahim & Masouleh,

2012). Critical thinking is an intellectual discipline, which skillfully conceptualizes, applies

analyzes, synthesizes, and evaluates information (Sergeant & Cannon, 2016). Critical thinking is

a scientific form of thinking in which one has the ability to think reliably and responsibly to

make some decisions that affect someone’s life (Yaghoubi, 2017).

There are programs designed in the curriculum to provide practice or promote explicit

thinking and reasoning skills that associate with flexible learning with the emphasis on the

problem- solving (Aubey, Ghent, & Kanira, 2012). Einstein (2016) stated that critical thinking is
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necessary for elementary school children because forming an opinion and being able to defend

one’s opinion is a reasonable skill that is crucial for success. Bloom’s Taxonomy is the best to

categorized thinking from the lowest to the highest category in a classroom (Forawi, 2016). It

starts with knowledge, then comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation

(Sergeant & Cannon, 2016). Sergeant and Cannon (2016) stated that Bloom also recognized that

critical thinking involves three other components. These are the cognitive component, behavioral

component, as well as an effective component.

Learning is a cognitive process in which learners add new concepts to their previous

knowledge (Yaghoubi, 2017). Cognitive component entails a higher order of thinking which

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results in a reasonable conclusion (Sergeant & Cannon, 2016). This higher-order thinking is
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categorized as thinking independently, accurately defining problems, reasoning logically,

synthesizing a number of elements in a meaningful way, knowing how to generalize and not to
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generalize, and using metacognition to reflect on one’s own thinking (Sergeant & Cannon,

2016).
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Salmon and Lucas (2011) claimed that children begin to develop a theory of mind at a

very young age with an understanding of mental ability and their conceptions of thinking have

become increasingly connected with the influence of social interaction. A connection with the

social world involves the use of higher-order thinking (Sergeant & Cannon, 2016). Higher-order

skills are greater degree of the cognitive process (Adams, 2015). Higher-order thinking is about

making a judgment, generating ideas, exploring consequences, and monitoring progress (Wang

& Wang, 2014). The level of learning concept is a building block for critical thinking (Kennedy,

2010). The highest level of needs such as self-actualization as well as the highest level of

learning, which includes synthesis, evaluation, and judgment, are all vital to the life-long

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