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Composting and its impact on climate change with regard to process

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COMPOSTING AND ITS IMPACT ON
CLIMATE CHANGE WITH REGARD TO
PROCESS ENGINEERING AND COMPOST
APPLICATION - A CASE STUDY IN
VIENNA

R. LINZNER AND P. MOSTBAUER

Institute of Waste Management, Department of Water - Atmosphere - Environment,
BOKU University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences,
Muthgasse 107, 1190 Vienna, Austria

SUMMARY: The present paper illustrates the analysis and evaluation of the current system for
the recycling of biowaste in the city of Vienna, with focus on composting based on a project
carried out by the Institute of Waste Management in 2004 (Linzner et al., 2005). Within this
system, emissions occur from the use of fossil fuels, electricity and from biodegradation
processes. However, the organic matter of the compost also offers the possibility of carbon
sequestration depending on the stability of the organic matter. The application of compost within
the scope of a humus-stimulating cultivation of land leads to a slowdown in the accumulation of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (Favoino, 2003). Presentation of the emissions of relevant
greenhouse gases as well as an estimation of a potential carbon sequestration due to the
application of compost is aimed at. The emissions are compared with the potential carbon
sequestration in order to calculate the net emissions and net sequestration, respectively.

1. INTRODUCTION

In terms of waste management, organic waste originating from municipalities, agriculture and
forestry as well as from the food processing industry represents an important component of solid
waste. The quantities, composition and characteristics of organic waste are crucial with regard to
waste treatment methods and climate protection. On the one hand, composted organic waste
represents a resource, while on the other hand greenhouse gases (e.g. CO2, CH4 and N2O) are
emitted during the biological degradation and conversion of organic matter depending on the
technology applied. In terms of a sustainable organic waste management, there is a need for the
quantification of material and energy flows related to the greenhouse effect. Biowaste
management will be increasingly influenced by decisions and the legislation within the EU.
Besides the Council Directive on the landfilling of waste (1999/31/EC) and the Council
Directive on the protection of the environment, in particular of the soil, when sewage sludge is
used in agriculture (86/278/EEC) as well as the proposed Directive on biological treatment of
biodegradable waste, which directly affects biowaste treatment in the EU, the topic of organic
waste is discussed in the Soil Protection Strategy of the European Commission as well as in the
European Climate Change Programme (ECCP).
In the communiqué “Towards a Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection” (2002) it is stated that
among other problems erosion and the decline in organic matter are considered as main threats to
soils in the EU. The “Working Group Sinks Related to Agricultural Soils” within the ECCP
reports that a decrease in organic matter content is an indicator of a lowered quality in most soils.
Utermann et al. (2004) point out that 22.6% of the agricultural areas in Austria show organic
carbon contents less than 2.4%. 45% of the European topsoils (0-30 cm) show an organic carbon
content less than 2% and are running the risk of desertification (Montanarella, 2002). In
Southern Europe 74% of the land contains less than 2% topsoil organic carbon content (Van-
Camp et al., 2004).
Beside these soil related issues, the application of compost as organic fertilizer promotes, over
time, a build up of carbon in the soil which could prove to be a powerful “sink” for the carbon
sequestered in the soil (Barth & Favoino, 2005). Soils play a major role in the global carbon
cycle and the application of compost can therefore mitigate climate change effects by retarding
the CO2 release into the atmosphere.
Another important effect of organic fertilization is the supply of nutrients, which implies the
potential replacement of synthetic fertilizers, and related savings on energy and fuels needed for
their production. Other potential advantages, such as improved workability and water retention,
better control on root pathogens (thereby leading to less use and production of pesticides), lower
erosion and loss of carbon, etc. are difficult to quantify, but may also contribute to a very wide
extent to the reduction of energy inputs to, and carbon losses from agriculture (Barth & Favoino,
2005).

2. METHODICAL APPROACH AND SCOPE

2.1 Methodical approach

The goal of the project was to analyze the current system for the recycling of biowaste in the city
of Vienna, with focus on composting, without taking into consideration other scenarios and
treatment methods (e.g. incineration). For this reason all climate relevant emissions were
collected and converted into carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2-equiv.).
In addition, upstream processes were included in the considerations (emissions from fuel
processing and transport as well as negative emissions due to the substitution of synthetic
fertilizer). Beside the emissions a potential carbon sequestration in soils was also estimated in
order to allow comparison with the emissions.

2.2 Scope and system description

The considered system elements and the system boundaries within the recycling of biowaste are
shown in Figure 1. The separately collected biowaste is transported to the processing facility
where it is screened (e.g. plastics and metals) and a size reduction takes place. The material is
homogenized with coarser material (e.g. shredded organic waste from tree cuttings) to optimize
water content and pore volume.
The conditioned material is then transported to the composting plant "Lobau" where it is
erected in piles (open windrow composting). During the first four weeks of intense
decomposition of the material, the piles are turned three to five times a week using a windrow
turner that also irrigates the material if necessary. After the main decomposition phase the
 Biowaste generation

Separate collection / Transport processes

INPUT OUTPUT
Processing
Electric energy Climate relevant
Composting emissions
Fuels
Residues

Compost (product)
Same benefit
(nutrient content)

Artificial fertiliser
(Equivalent product)

Primary production

Figure 1. System elements and system boundaries considered within the recycling of biowaste in
Vienna.

material is transported to the composting plant "Schafflerhof" where it is erected in table

windrows and stored for two to three months until reaching maturity.
After sieving (<10mm) the compost is either transported to the crops managed by the
Viennese Department of "Forestry Office and Urban Agriculture" (approx. 1,500 hectares) for
application or to the 19 local collection centers, where it is possible for the customers to pick up
compost free of charge. After the sieving process, the coarser organic residues are transported
back to the processing facility where they are reused as structure material.
The climate relevant emissions taken into account originate from the use of diesel fuel and
electric energy. Diesel fuel is used in the vehicles for the separate collection and transportation
of biowaste and the distribution of compost as well as in the processing of biowaste (shredder,
front-end loaders) and in the composting process (windrow turners, front-end loaders and mobile
sieving machines). The emissions resulting from the compost application due to the use of
tractors were estimated using literature data, but they turned out to be negligible. Electric energy
is used in the processing facility (screening and homogenization). With regard to the emissions
resulting from the use of diesel fuel, carbon dioxide alone is considered to be climate relevant, as
nitrous oxide and methane emissions have turned out to be marginal.
In order to adopt a life cycle approach it was necessary to include the emissions resulting
from upstream processes. For this purpose, emissions from the production of crude oil
production "ex borehole" (refining and transport processes) were added to those resulting from
the burning of fossil fuel. Due to the fact that compost is suitable for substituting synthetic
fertilizer, it was possible to estimate the amount of synthetic fertilizer that could be replaced with
compost based on the nutrient content of the Viennese compost. In addition, the related emission
savings resulting from the production of synthetic fertilizer were calculated based on a literature
review and counted as negative (avoided) emissions within the overall balance.
All climate relevant emissions are referred to the functional unit. The chosen functional unit
was one metric tonne of sieved compost (WS). All data gathered concerning the mass and energy
flows within the system refer to the city of Vienna in the year 2003. As the main goal of the
project was to assess the impact of composting on climate relevant emissions as well as on a
potential carbon sequestration due to the application of compost, the chosen impact category was
Global Warming Potential (GWP) using the unit carbon dioxide equivalents. In order to convert
methane and nitrous oxide emissions into carbon dioxide equivalents, the GWP 100 from the
Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change (IPCC, 2001) was used. The GWP for CH4 was
calculated with the factor 23, for N2O with the factor 296.

3. MATERIAL AND ENERGY FLOWS

Table 1 presents an overview of the material and energy flows of the Viennese system of
biowaste management shown above in Figure 1. Besides the separate collection of biowaste,
citizens may also deliver their biowaste directly to collection centers. The collected biowaste is
then transported to the processing facility. Due to the fact that it was not possible to allocate any
fuel consumption to these transportation processes, a software tool was used. Based on the
number of transports, the distance and emission factors it was possible to calculate emissions
from this transportation process. The same procedure was carried out for the transport of
compost from the compost plant back to the collection centers. These emissions are included in
the overall balance.
One of the main questions is whether the CO2 formed during aerobic degradation should be
taken into account or not. Indeed, the latter represents a rather controversial issue. From the
viewpoint of the natural carbon cycle, biogenic carbon has to be regarded as climate-neutral, as
the equivalent amount of CO2 is bound during the plant growth by assimilation (Schneider et al.,
2003 and Denison, 1999). On the other hand, the production of minor amounts of methane (CH4)
and nitrous oxide (N2O) during the composting process cannot be avoided completely.
From the viewpoint of the balancing of the CO2-equivalents (see Figure 4) both trace gases
form a significant fraction of the climate-relevant emissions. In addition, the mass of diesel fuel
used during collection of biowaste, mechanical treatment and for the turning of the piles are also
of importance. The “Lobau” composting plant is characterized by passively aerated open piles
and frequent turning, with the advantage of a relatively low specific energy (or diesel fuel)
demand.

4. SEQUESTRATION OF ORGANIC CARBON

4.1 Methodical approaches

In principle, two approaches were chosen: A) A literature review of short-term and long-term
degradation experiments with compost and/or composted manure. B) Modeling of the long-term
degradation of carbon in agricultural soils with a calibrated model.

4.2 Results of the literature review

Results of several aerobic degradation/respiration experiments using soil-compost-mixtures as
substrate have been reported previously. The timescale for these experiments were a few weeks
(Herbert et al., 1991), a few months (Kirchmann & Bernal, 1997, Chodak et al., 2001, Sanchez-
Monedero et al., 2003) or even up to 1½ years (Debosz et al., 2002, Kögel-Knabner et al., 1996).
A wide range of data concerning the degradable carbon fraction has been reported in
literature, ranging for short-term experiments (up to 1½ years) from 1% to 54% (m/m), with a
few suggestions of a more than 95%ic mineralization on a longer timescale. Taking into account
only well-stabilized compost and the availability of organic nitrogen in compost, when compost
is used as a fertilizer (Amlinger et al., 2003), we expect that 5 to 30 mass% of the initial carbon
Table 1 - Material and energy flows of the Viennese biowaste management system.
Climate-relevant trace
System element Diesel fuel Electric energy
gases (CH4, N2O)
4.9 l/t separate
Separate collection of biowaste a) --- not considered
collected biowaste
Processing facility: Screening, 1.0 l/t biowaste 3.75 kWh/t
not available
sieving, magnetic separation 2.8 l/t compost biowaste
Composting plants: Biological 0.65 kg CH4/t b)
6.2 l/t compost very small
treatment, passive aeration 0.06 kg N2O/t b)
Transport of compost raw material about 3.8 l/t
--- not considered
and mature compost compost
Input: 91,840 t biowaste
Output: 32,350 t mature compost (Mean water content: 43%WS, mean TOC: 23% DM)
11,400 t high-calorific fraction > 80 mm
a) The number given in the table is the average for the separate collection of biowaste in Vienna
only.
b) Specific CH4 and N2O production per t of compost raw material (WS).

of well-stabilized compost will be mineralized in the first two or three years. It was more
difficult to assess the long-term carbon degradation or sequestration (decades, centuries,
millennia). Although at least 20 long-term test plots for organic fertilizer exist worldwide
(Powlson et al., 1998), the results of the corresponding studies have been published in fragments
only. Regarding agricultural test plots, some authors have provided coarse estimations of the
fraction of compost-derived carbon which is degraded (see Figure 2). These estimations have to
be considered with caution, because the TOC values in compost-amended soil do not reflect the
compost-derived carbon only, but the sum of the different carbon pools in the soil, which
interact in a complex network of soil processes (depending on climate, tillage, clay content of the
soil etc.).

4.3 Modeling
The aim of modeling was a rather generalized prediction of carbon sequestration over a time
span of 50 years. This time span was chosen due to the fact that in many European soils the
carbon content has been on a decrease over the last decades, because synthetic fertilizers are
preferred by the farmers.
It is not advisable to use pronounced physical models for this purpose, e.g. taking into account
also factors such as soil temperature, humidity, physical protection (“encapsulation”) of
degradable carbon pools etc., since no extreme climatic conditions exist in Vienna, and a rather
simple, coarse estimation of the medium-term (=decades) carbon sequestration was the main
goal. Nevertheless, at least three carbon pools have to be discerned, according to the general
knowledge of the behavior of biogenic carbon in soils (see, for example, Shaffer & Hansen,
2001), and reliable models have to be calibrated with field data. Figure 3 gives a general
description of the model we used (3-pool-model).
Initially, the halfing time of the active carbon pool was not established, but a wide range of
halfing times (10-100 years) was assumed, reflecting different methods of soil treatment and
fertilizing strategies. In a second step, we calibrated the model with field data from Garcia-Gil et
al, 2000. After calibration, the turnover time for the active pool “SOM1” was set to 19 years.
 Sequestration of compost carbon - field plots
100%
HARTL & ERHART, 2002,
Biowaste compost
90%

REIDER et al., 2000,

80%
Manure-foliage-compost

70%
AICHBERGER & WIMMER,
1999, Biowaste compost
60%
DIEZ & KRAUSS, 1997,
50% MSW compost

40% HARTMANN, 2002,

Biowaste compost
30%
KÖRSCHENS, 2003,
20% Composted farmyard-
straw manure
10% Initial carbon mass
of the mature compost
0%
0 10 20 30 40 time (y) 50

Figure 2. Results of some long-term studies. Data from: (Diez & Kraus, 1997, Aichberger &
Wimmer, 1999, Reider et al, 2000, Hartl & Erhart, 2002, Hartmann, 2002 , Körschens,
2003).

Finally we also compared our prediction of the carbon sequestration with an estimation made on
the basis of the “Bad Lauchstädt” long-term test plots (Körschens, 2003).
In total, our estimations for the compost-derived organic carbon remaining after 50 years
were:
A) 40% (derived from the 3-pool model, t½SOM1=19 years) and
B) 25% (derived from the data reported by Körschens, 2003).
With a TOC content of the compost of 24.6% DM and a mean water content of 41%, the
compost contains 145 kg organic C per tonne. Multiplied with the predicted sequestration rates
(40% and 25%) and with a stoichiometric factor of 44/12, the sequestered amount of CO2 is 213
kg/t CO2-equivalents or 133 kg/t CO2-equivalents, respectively.

60%
Fast degrading
Crop organic substance
residues t1/2= 2y
40

%
CO2

Active pool 99%

“SOM 1”
25% 60 t1/2=10 - 100y
%
1%
15

Mature
%

compost
Passive pool
“SOM 2”
t1/2=3000y

Figure 3. The 3-pool model for the prediction of carbon sequestration.

5. CLIMATE RELEVANT EMISSIONS AND NET BALANCE OF EMISSIONS AND
SEQUESTRATION

The climate relevant emissions within the considered system boundaries are outlined in Table 2.
As it is shown in Table 2, in the year 2003 approx. 172 kg CO2-equivalents per tonne mature
compost were emitted. Without considering the upstream process emissions from the crude oil
production, the emissions decrease to approx. 165 kg CO2-equivalents.
The major source of the emissions is the biodegradation process (CH4 and N2O) with approx.
58% of the overall emissions. The share of the separate collection of biowaste is approx. 18% of
the overall emissions and the total share of the emissions resulting from the processing facility
and the composting plants is approx. 17% of the total emissions. Beside the separate collection,
about 7% of the overall emissions result from other transportation processes.
Finally, the climate relevant emissions were compared with the potential carbon sequestration
(-213 and -133 kg CO2-equivalents/t compost, respectively) and with the negative (avoided)
emissions due to the substitution of synthetic fertilizer (-46 kg CO2-equivalents/t compost). The
emissions presented in Table 2 are grouped and outlined in Figure 4.
The left part of Figure 4 shows the results without taking into account upstream processes.
Assuming a 25% carbon sequestration, the emissions within the biowaste management system of
Vienna exceed the sequestration, so that the net balance show emissions of +32 kg CO2-
equivalents/t compost. A C-sequestration of 40% leads to a net sequestration of -48 kg CO2-
equivalents/t compost.

Table 2 - Climate relevant emissions of the Viennese biowaste management system (including
upstream process emissions from the crude oil production).
Emissions
System element [%]
[kg CO2-equiv./t compost]
Separate collection of biowaste 31.7 18.4
Delivery of biowaste: Collection centers to processing
0.9 0.5
facility
Transportation processes 6.6 3.8
Processing facility – Consumption of electricity 2.7 1.6
Processing facility – Consumption of diesel fuel 8.2 4.8
Composting plant “Lobau” – Consumption of diesel fuel 13.3 7.8
Composting plant “Schafflerhof” - Consumption of
4.6 2.7
diesel fuel
Delivery of compost: Composting plants to direct
3.4 2.0
application within Viennese agriculture
Delivery of compost: Composting plants to collection
1.2 0.7
centers
Composting process: Emissions due to biodegradation
99.2 57.7
processes
Total climate relevant emissions 171.9 100.0

In the right part of Figure 4 the upstream processes are included. The upstream process of the
crude oil production increases the emissions from +165 to +172 kg CO2-equivalents/t compost.
It is assumed, that the compost application can substitute the production of synthetic fertilizer
 Overall balance of emissions, C-sequestration and avoided emissions
[kg CO2-eqiv. per t compost WS]
165 165 172 172
150

100
32
50

0
-7
-50
-133 -48 -133
<--- ---> <--- --->
-100 -213 With upstream -213
Without upstream -87
processes and
-150 processes and -46 negative emissions
negative emissions
-200 from substitution of
from the substitution
synthetic fertilizer
of synthetic fertilizer -46
-250

-300
25% carbon 40% carbon 25% carbon 40% carbon
sequestr. sequestr. sequestr. sequestr.
Biowaste collection Transport of compost Composting plant: Electricity Composting plant: Diesel
(+29,3 / UP:+32,5) raw material & compost (+2,7) fuel (+23,6 / UP:+26,2)
(+10,1 / UP:+11,2)
Composting plant: N2O, CH4 C sequestration in soil Substitution of UP denotes that upstream
(+99,2) (-133 / -213) synthetic fertilizer (0 / -46) processes are taken
into account

Figure 4. Overall balance of climate relevant emissions, C-sequestration and avoided emissions
(with and without upstream processes) for a 25% and 40% carbon sequestration.

and therefore saves energy and fuel. This is reflected in considering negative emissions of -46 kg
CO2-equivalents/t compost in the net balance. It can be seen, that presuming a 25% sequestration
the emissions are almost equalizing the sequestration and the avoided emissions, respectively
(net sequestration -7 kg CO2-equivalents/t compost). A net sequestration of -87 kg CO2-
equivalents/t compost can be achieved under taking into account a 40% C-sequestration.

6. CONCLUSIONS

The overall balance shown in Figure 4 leads to the following conclusions:

• The setting of system boundaries in LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) can result in the
accounting of certain processes within the system as well as in leaving processes unconsidered.
This can affect both emissions (e.g. consideration of upstream processes) and negative emissions
(e.g. consideration of synthetic fertilizer substitution).
• Emissions resulting from collection and transportation processes can play a major role
depending on spatial variabilities (e.g. location of the facilities).
• A major factor in the overall balance is the carbon sequestration. The credits from carbon
sequestration exceed at least the impact of the emissions from the biological process (CH4,
N2O) at well managed, open or closed central composting facilities.
• Because of the significant humus deficit of many European agricultural soils compost
production and application should be stimulated. Regarding this, expanded LCA studies should
take into account also further advantages (see Chapter 1) of compost application, e.g. the
increase of water holding capacity.

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