1.

1: Definition of Terms

FIRE a rapid, self-sustaining oxidation process accompanied by the evolution of heat and light of varying intensity an
active chemical reaction that takes place between fuel, heat and oxygen in the form of light and noticeable heat a chemical
reaction; the rapid oxidation of a fuel producing heat and light an oxidation taking place with a rate rapid enough to
produce heat and light
TECHNOLOGY the branch of knowledge that deals with industrial arts and sciences the application of such knowledge
that is used to produce the material necessity of society
COMBUSTION involves rapid oxidation
OXIDATION the chemical reaction in which oxygen chemically combines with the organic elements of combustible
substance.
Slow oxidation sometimes becomes rapid. Rapid oxidation of material is chemically temperature gradually rises until the
material automatically ignites. When this situation occurs, the material has undergone spontaneous combustion. Rags or
papers saturated or soaked with animal fat (or vegetable oil) if stored in confined space where heat of oxidation is not
dissipated fast enough, tend to undergo spontaneous combustion.
Arson the willful or malicious burning of property (such as a building) especially with criminal or fraudulent intent.
Investigation consists of gathering, securing, and examination of evidence aiming to establish facts substantiating or
refuting allegations, and may consist of several stages

1.2: Evolution of Fire

EVOLUTION OF FIRE
Early humans used fire to warm themselves, cook food, and frighten away predators. Sitting around a fire may
have helped unite and strengthen family groups and speed the evolution of early society. Fire enabled our human
ancestors to travel out of warm, equatorial regions and, eventually spread throughout the world. But fire also posed great
risks and challenges to early people, including the threat of burns, the challenge of controlling fire, the greater challenge
of starting a fire, and the threat of wildfires.
As early civilizations developed, people discovered more uses of fire. They used fire to provide light, to make
better tools, and as a weapon in times of war. Early religions often included fire as a part of their rituals, reflecting its
importance to society. Early myths focused on fire’s power.
In ancient Greece and later, the fire was considered one of the four basic elements, a substance from which all
things were composed. Its great importance to humans, the mystery of its powers, and its seeming capriciousness has
made fire divine or sacred to many people. Fire as a god is a characteristic feature of Zoroastrianism, in which, as in many
sun-worshiping religions, fire is considered the earthly representative or type of the sun.
Vesta

 Roman goddess of the hearth

 To honor Vesta, the high priest of the Roman religion periodically chose six priestesses called Vestal Virgins
who were responsible to keep the holy fire going in a community hearth.

Prometheus

 Fire bearer
 He stole fire from the gods, gave it to man, and taught him many useful arts and sciences.

Early Fire Making Techniques

1. Rubbing together pieces of flint that could produce sparks that would set fire to wood shavings.
 2. Rubbing together pieces of wood until the wood produced a hot powder that could light kindling
3. Adaptation of the bow and drill which consisted of a block of wood and a stick that was fixed in the looped
string of a small, curved bow.
4. Use of wood piston to compress air inside a bamboo tube that contained wood shavings. Compressed air
became increasingly hotter, eventually igniting the shavings.
5. Use of tinderbox – moisture-proof, metal carrying case held tinder, usually charred cotton or linen cloth, and
pieces of steel and flint. Striking the steel and flint together produced a spark that lighted the tinder.
6. Tinderbox that operates like a present-day cigarette lighter in which the rotary motion of a metal wheel
against flint set off sparks in tinder.
7. Development of phosphorus match. (mid 19th century)

Uses of Fire
Prehistoric Uses of Fire

1. Hunter-gatherers (people who lived by hunting and gathering wild food) made use of fire so that they can
remain active after the sunset, protect themselves from predators, warm themselves, cook, and make better
tools.
2. Source of light by taking advantage of the glow of wood-burning fires to continue their activities after dark
and inside their dwelling.
3. Enabled people to make better weapons and tools.

People learned to control fire by blowing at it through reed pipes. Then they used this technique to burn hollows in
logs to create cradles, bowls, and canoes.
Fires in Early Civilizations

1. Artisans first used fire to make pottery and bricks.

2. Ancient people developed improved devices for using fire to provide light
3. The use of candles made of yarn or dry brushes dipped in animal fat.

Modern Uses of Fire

1. Used in appliances that rely on fire to operate

2. Used to supplement the main heating system in their homes
3. Used over campfires
4. Used to manufacture products and dispose of waste
5. Used in incinerators to destroy garbage
6. Fire also heat large boilers to generate steam which then powers large turbines.
7. Used in power plants to generate electricity
8. Used as a weapon in times of war (catapult)

1.3: The Fire Technology

Fire

 The heat and light that comes from burning substances, produced by the combustion of substances.
 It is the manifestation of rapid chemical reaction occurring between a combustible matter and an oxidizer.
Such rapid chemical reaction releases energy in the form of heat and light. When a substance burns, heat and
light are produced. Burning is also called combustion.

Fire (conflagration) is the common term of the burning process – the combustion of a fuel. Combustion involves rapid
oxidation.
Oxidation (slow & rapid)
  The chemical reaction in which oxygen chemically combines with the organic elements (fuel) of a
combustible substance.

Slow oxidation sometimes becomes rapid. Rapid oxidation of material is chemically termed as combustion. In some
fuels, if the heat during oxidation is not easily dissipated, the temperature gradually rises until the material
automatically ignites.
When this situation occurs, the material has undergone spontaneous combustion. Rags or papers saturated or soaked
with animal fat (or vegetable oil), if stored in confined space where heat of oxidation is not dissipated fast enough, tend to
undergo spontaneous combustion.
Elements of Fire

1. Heat – ignition temperature

2. Fuel – combustible matter (organic material, hydrocarbons)
3. Oxidizing agent – the common oxidizing agent is oxygen; others are bromates, iodine, nitric acid, peroxides,
chlorates, etc

Air is composed of: 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, 1% inert (inactive but are still combustible) gases
Fire Triangle

 A geometrical figure that diagrams the relationship of the three elements of fire. Each side of the triangle
represents an element, such that if one side is missing then there is no triangle; meaning fire cannot be
produced.

If any of the elements are not available, the combustion does not take place. Normally, oxygen is supplied by air, ignition
temperature can be provided by the ignition device (like flame), and any combustible material (usually organic matter)
burns when heated by the ignition device. Most combustible materials burn in gaseous state only.
If there is sufficient supply of oxygen, there is rapid oxidation resulting to complete combustion. If the supply of oxygen
and vaporization of a matter is sufficient combustion is accompanied by heat and light. If there is insufficient supply of
oxygen, there is smoldering fire. In smoldering fire, no flames are manifested.
To burn a fuel, its temperature must be raised (increased) until ignition point is reached. Thus, before a combustible
material starts to burn or before it can be ignited, it has to be exposed to a certain degree of temperature. When the
temperature of a substance is very high, it releases highly combustible vapors known as free radicals.
Flash Point

 The lowest / minimum temperature at which a substance gives off vapor that burns momentarily (when a
flame or spark is applied).

If a fuel’s temperature has reached its flash point, then it can be instantly ignited thus producing a momentary fire. If its
temperature still increases, such that it continuously releases combustible vapors, the condition results to sustained
burning (combustion). Hence, the fuel is deemed to have reached its fire point.
Fire Point

 The temperature at which the fuel continues to burn after it has been ignited – that even if the source of
ignition has been removed, the fuel continues to burn.

If a substance automatically burns without any human or mechanical intervention, the temperature of the substance
has been spontaneously increased until it reaches the auto-ignition point.
Auto-ignition / Self-Ignition Point
  The lowest / minimum temperature at which a substance can be heated to release vapors that will ignite
without the application of a flame or spark.
 It refers to the temperature at which spontaneous combustion take place.
 It is usually much higher (in temperature than the fire point).

Flammable range or Explosive Range of a Fuel

 It refers to the volume range needed to burn or explode a fuel when it is ignited.

Combustion may be in the form of:

1. Glowing combustion (condense-phased combustion) – manifested by embers

2. Gas- phased combustion – flame (blue / yellow/orange)

Fire Properties
Physical properties

1. Specific Gravity
2. Vapor Density
3. Vapor Pressure
4. Temperature
5. Boiling Point
6. Fire Point
7. Flash Point
8. Auto-ignition point – kindling temperature

Chemical properties

1. Endothermic reaction
2. Exothermic reaction
3. Oxidation
4. Combustion
5. Flame

Flame

 The matter produced by fire.

 It is composed of burning incandescent gases.
 It is manifested of fire when the fire is in its gas-phased combustion.

Requirements to Produce Flame

1. high temperature
2. reactants (fuel and oxidizer / gases / vapors)
3. concentration of short-lived intermediate chemical reaction between reactants

Types of Flames

1. According to color and completeness of combustion

1. Luminous flame

 reddish-orange in color
 it deposits soot because it is a product of incomplete combustion
  It has lower temperature

1. Non-luminous flame

 bluish in color
 it does not deposit soot because it is a product of complete combustion
 it has higher temperature than luminous flame

2. According to burning fuel and air mixture

1. Premixed flame – e.g. flame of a Bunsen Burner or LPG

2. Diffused flame – e.g. flame of the oxyacetylene torch (ethyl alcohol lamp)

1. Based on smoothness
2. Laminar flame – smooth flame (ex. from candle)
3. Turbulent flame – rough flame (ex. building / forest fire)

Hydrocarbon

 Any substance containing primarily carbon and hydrogen (water).

Pyrolysis

 It refers to the chemical process whereby fire consumes the most solid part of the fuel.
 It is the thermal decomposition of combustible matter.
 It is the chemical decomposition of a solid fuel through the action of heat.

Free radicals – combustible vapors such as:

1. hydrogen gas
2. carbon dioxide
3. carbon monoxide (most hazardous) – can cause asphyxia
4. nitrogen

Two Basic Modes of Fire

1. Flaming mode

 It is represented by the fire tetrahedron – a four-sided figure with the sides representing fuel, temperature,
oxygen, and the uninhibited chemical chain reaction.

2. Surface or Smoldering Mode

 It is represented by the fire triangle with the three sides representing fuel, temperature and oxygen.