Bridge Lecture Note (All Chapter)

Fundamentals of Bridge Design –CENG 5501 Lecture Note
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Introduction
A bridge is a structure providing passage over an obstacle. The obstacle may be a river,
valley, road or railway. The passage may be for highway or railway traffic, pedestrian, canal
or pipeline.
As the saying “Build bridges and you will have a friend” goes, bridges have a unique
attribute of connecting different people. Rivers and mountains form physical barriers
between people to interact, trade with one another, live and work together. For Ethiopia this
holds especially true as the country is known as “The Water Tower of Africa” due to the high
rainfall we receive, which resulted in quite many big rivers dissecting the rough terrain and
flowing deep in the valleys. Consequently we are composed of people speaking about 82
different languages.
Transportation network is crucial for the development and prosperity of a country.

Investment by both nationals and foreigners is crucial for economic development of a
country, and one of the criteria that foreign investors weigh in their investment decisions in
a country is the level of development of the transportation network. Bridges provide
essential links in highways and railways at obstacles. The cost of bridges (and culverts) is a
significant proportion of a highway project.
Many cities and towns are established near rivers and bridges add to the beauty of cities
and towns. Bridges aid the social, cultural and economic improvements of the locations
around them.
Bridges also have military strategic importance. The mobility of an army at war is often
affected by the availability or otherwise of bridges to cross rivers. Military training puts
special emphasis on learning how to build new bridges quickly while advancing and
destroy bridges while retreating.
Bridge engineering is one of the fascinating fields in civil engineering calling for expertise
in many areas: structural analysis and design, geotechniques, traffic projection, surveying,
runoff calculation and methods of construction. A bridge engineer has to have an
appreciation of economics and aesthetics besides ability in analysis and design. The
materials and procedures involved in the construction of any sizable bridge are quite varied.
“From its foundations rooted in bed rock to its towering pylons and vaulting span, a bridge
is a thing of wonder and of poetry.” David B. Steinman
The following Fig. gives components of the most common type of bridge, slab-stringer
type.
1
First Semester 2012/13 A.
1- Deck and overpass 2- Stringer(longitudinal beams) 3-Bearing 4- Pedestal

5-Footing 6- Piles 7-Underpass 8- Embankment 9- Live load
1.2 Overview of Bridge Types

Slab bridge: examples are most of ring road bridges
Cross section of solid slab bridge
Slab Stringer bridge: example is temcha river bridge
Photo of whole bridge
Part side view view from underneath

2
Arch bridge:
Abay bridge on Goha Tsion – Dejen road
West Lilac overpass arch bridge, California, USA
Truss arch - New River Gorge bridge
Truss bridge:
New Orleans through truss bridge
3
Cable stayed bridge:
Hidassie bridge
Suspension bridge:
Brooklyn bridge, Newyork city
Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, Japan Suspension bridge
4
Fundamentals of Bridge Design –CENG 5501 Lecture
Movable Bridge: Tubular Bridge:
Four level directional interchange:
Interchange, San Diego California
5
1.3 Historical
Development
The History of development of bridges is closely linked with the history of human
civilization. Fig. 1.1 outlines the development of the various forms of bridges. Based on
structural action, bridge structures can be classified into four basic types: beam
bridges, cantilever bridges, suspension bridges and arch bridges.
Nature fashioned the first bridges. Tree fallen accidentally across a chasm or a stream was
the earliest example of a beam type bridge. Similarly, the natural rock arch formed by
erosion of the loose soil below was the earliest forebear of arch bridges. And creepers
hanging from tree to tree allowing monkeys to cross from one bank to the other were
the forerunners of suspension bridges. The ancient who felled tree deliberately across a
stream so that it afforded him a crossing was the first bridge builder. Since the primitive
man was a wanderer in search of food and shelter the first structures he built were bridged.
Around 4000 B.C men were settling to community life and were giving more thought
to permanence of bridges.
Between 200 B.C. and 260 A.D. the Romans build many magnificent stone arch bridges. The
arches were semi-circular using massive piers, so that, if one span got damaged in war,
the others would remain standing. Bridge construction was considered very important an
ancient Rome to rule the world.
The Chinese were building stone arch bridges since 250

B.C.
In the middle ages after the fall of Rome, the bridge building activity was mainly taken up
by the religious orders in Europe. The medieval bridges has decorative and defensive
towers, chapels, statues, shops and dwellings.
With the dawn of Renaissance, advances were made in theory, technical skill and
mechanical appliances. Bridges were regarded as civic works of art and the bridge builder
was recognized as a leader in progress and a creator of monuments. Stone masonry
segmental arches were predominantly used in bridges.
The eighteenth century ushered in the age of reason. The first treatise on bridge engineering
was published in 1714 by a French engineer Rubert Gautier. In 1716, the Corps des
Ingenieurs de Ponts et Chaussees was founded for the scientific advancement of
bridge construction; and in 1747, the Ecole de Ponts et Chaussees at Paris, the first
engineering school in the world, was founded, with Jean Perronet, “Father of modern bridge
building”, as the first Director. Perronet perfected the masonry arch and introduced slender
piers, his best work being the Pont de la Concorda at Paris built in 1791.
Though timber bridges have been built since early days, covered timber bridges of each
form were popular during the late eighteenth century. Wooden bridges were covered for
protection of the timber from the weather. A notable timber bridge was the “Colossus”
bridge over the Schuylkill River at Fairmount, Pennsylvania, with an arch span of 104m.
This fine bridge, build in 1812, was destroyed by fire in 1838.
The first iron bridge was built at Coalbrookdale in 1779 over the Severn in England
by Abraham Darby and John Wilkinson. It consisted of five semicircular arch ribs in
6
iron, joined together side by side to form a single arch span of 30m. In 1808, James Finley in
7
Fig. 1.1. Development of Bridges
Pennsylvania patented a design for a suspension bridge with wrought iron chain cables
and level floor. Forty bridges of this design were built in the USA within the next eight
years. Thomas Telford completed the Menai Strait bridge in Wales in 1826, a suspension
bridge with wrought iron chains with a record-breaking span of 177m. George Stephenson
built the first iron railway bridge in 1823 on the Stockton-Darlington railway. The most
famous of the early iron railway bridge in 1823 on the Stockton-Darlington railway. The
most famous of the early iron railway bridges is the Britannia tubular bridge built by
Robert Stephenson in 1850 across the Menai Strait. It consisted of twin wrought iron tubes,
continuous over four spans of 70, 140, 140 and 70m. Wrought iron replaced cast iron in
bridge construction during the period 1840-1890. Many truss bridges of the form Howe,
Pratt, Whipple, Bolman, Fink, and Warren were built on railways during this period.
The failure of a number of wrought iron railway bridges, specially the Howe truss bridge of
Ashtabula, Ohio in 1877 and the Firth of Tay bridge in Scotland in 1879, resulting in
serious loss of life, led to a new era in bridge building – an era of specialization, research,
careful detailing, thorough inspection and a more durable and stronger material-steel.
7
First Semester 2012/13 A. Y.
Steel was first extensively used in the Eads Bridge at St. Louis, Missouri, built in 1874 as
a steel arch bridge of three spans of 153, 158 and 153 m. The Eads bridge was also the
first bridge to use pneumatic caissons in USA, the first bridge to make extensive use of
cantilever method of erection, and the first to specify and test for elastic limit and ultimate
strength for steel. The first all-steel bridge was built at Glasgow, South Dakota in 1878.
Steel was also used in the cables and spans of Brooklyn Bridge during 1869-83.
With the introduction of steel, the earlier truss forms yielded place to more efficient forms
such as the Baltimore, Parker, Pennsylvania and K-truss types. The world‟s longest simple
steel truss bridge span is the suspended span of J.J. Barry bridge across Delaware river with a
span of 251 m.
The world‟s first modern cantilever bridge was built in 1867 by Heinrich Gerber across the
river Main at Hassfurt, Germany, with a main span of 129 m. The world‟s most famous
cantilever bridge is the Firth of Forth bridge in Scotland, with two main spans of 521 m,
built in 1889. The world‟s longest span cantilever bridge was built in 1917 at Quebec, over
the St. Lawrence river, with a main span of 549 m. The Howrah bridge over the Hoogly
river at Calcutta, built in 1943 with a main span of 457 m, has elegant aesthetics and
possesses pleasing proportions among the suspended span, cantilever arms and the anchor
spans.
Inspired by the success of the Eads Bridge, many fine arch bridges were built. Notable
among these are the Hell Gate Bridge at new York with a span of 297 m built in 1971 and the
Sydney harbor bridge at Sydney, Australia, with a span of 503 m built in 1932. The world‟s
longest arch bridge in the new River Gorge bridge in West Virginia built in 1976
using weathering steel with a span of 519 m. The deck type arch span is aesthetically the
most pleasing. The Henry Hudson bridge built in 1936 with a span of 244 m and the
Rainbow bridge at Niagara Falls built in 1941 with a span of 290 m are outstanding
examples of beautiful steel arch bridges.
The first reinforced concrete bridge was built by Adair in 1871 as a 15 m span bridge
across the Waveney at Homersfield, England. Soon after, a 6m arch was built in 1889 at
Golden Gate Park in San Francisco and a girder bridge was built in 1893 by
Hennebique as an approach to a mill at Don, France. The adaptability of reinforced
concrete to any architectural form and the increased efficiency in concrete construction
resulted in its widespread use in bridge building. Maillart in Switzerland produced fine
arch bridges in reinforced concrete, utilizing the integrated structural action of thin arch
slabs with monolithically cast stiffening beams. The longest span concrete arch bridge is
the Gladesville built in 1964 at Sydney, Australia, with a span of 305 m.
The application of prestressing in concrete design opened new horizons in the use of concrete
since 1930. One of the early prestressed concrete bridges was the Mame bridge built by
Freyssinet in France. The Bendorf bridge over the Rhine in Germany with a main span of
208 m built in 1965 by Finsterwalder using the free cantilever method of construction
and adopting short high tensile bar tendons marked a breakthrough in prestressed concrete
bridge construction.
During the period following Fasiladas (after 1667) it is said that many bridges were
constructed in Gonder and Lake Tana area. Pankhrust listed the following: two arch bridges
at Alata, one at Sila, one on Gondar-Debretabor road, one on Angereb river, another at
the junction of Angereb and Keha.
8
th th
Many of the bridges built during the 17 and 18 centuries were destroyed during the civil
war in the Zemene Mesafint. The knowledge of bridge building was also lost during this
period.
Emperor Theodros was much admired for his road building activities and built road from
his capital Debretabor to Gojjam, Maqdella and to the north. He supervised the road
construction in person. But most of these might have been temporary bridges.
The first modern bridges seem to have been built by the local chief of Gojjam, king
Tekle Haymanot in the years 1884-1885.
Like many other aspects of modernization, Menelik‟s period marks the revival of
bridge building in Ethiopia. During his many campaigns especially to the south, he felt the
great necessity of roads. The first bridge constructed was timber bridge on Awash river.
During and after battle of Adwa, and having seen the difficulty in the march to and back
from Adwa, the emperor was more than determined to construct roads. After the battle he
had many Italian prisoners working on road and bridge construction.
In Addis the first stone bridge was constructed on Kebena river in 1902 by a Russian
engineer after their compatriate staff was drowned. The second was Ras Mekonnen bridge
built in 1908 by Ras Mekonnen.
In Jimma and Illubabor areas, fine timber bridges are reported to be constructed by the
local community.
After 1906 Menelik employed many foreign experts: Indians, Greeks, and Italians to
construct roads in the country, especially in the provinces for the first time. But these bridges
were made of timber and stone bridges were exclusively constructed in the capital.
On the eve of Italian invasion of 1935, road building program with the erection of
numerous bridges was initiated and constructed. This was carried out under Ministry of
Public Works. But these served the invaders only.
The years 1935-1941 were the years of occupation by Italians. The great program was
announced in which Italy tried to win Ethiopia and set a program of building major and
minor roads throughout the country.
The following roads were constructed by Italians during this

period:
Assab-Serdo-Dessie road – 1504 minor and 80 major bridges
constructed
288km road on of Asmara-Addis road upto Debre Sina – 606 minor and 24 major bridges
Road from Tekkezie to Tanna (431km)-686 minor bridges and culverts and 52 major bridges
Road from Gondar to Debretabor(168km), road from Addis to Mille(138km)-650 small and
50 major bridges. Most of the roads were built to connect Addis to the different parts:
Addis to Debre Sina, Addis to Debre Markos-Gondar-Axum, Addis to Lekemtie, Addis to
Recently, cable stayed bridges have gained popularity for long span bridges in the range
of about 200 m. One well known bridge in this category is the Marakaibo Lake
bridge in Venezuela built in 1963. Many bridges of this type have been built in Europe and
in Japan. The suspension bridge has come to stay as the type best suited for very long
spans. In 1883 the Brooklyn Bridge was completed with a main span of 486 m the
longest bridge in the world at that time. Other suspension bridges followed raising the
record span. The Golden
9
Gate bridge at San Francisco was completed in 1937 with a record span of 1280 m. In 1940,
the Tacoma Narrows bridge at Puget Sound, Washington, was opened to traffic. It had a span
of 853 m and stiffening truss only 2.4 m deep. The bridge collapsed the same year during a
68 kmph gale due to aerodynamic instability. This failure forcefully brought home the need
for consideration of aerodynamic effects on suspension bridges and triggered many
theoretical and experimental studies into the problem.
The next longest span bridge in the world is Humber Estuary Bridge at Humber, England. It
was built in 1981 with a main span of 1410 m. This great bridge is indicative of the
irresistible urge of man to continually thrust forward. According to D.B. Steinman, bridge
spans as large as 3000m are practically feasible and will be built in the future. The Akashi-
Kaikyo Bridge in Japan is now the longest span suspension bridge with a main span
of 1990m.
The design of long span bridges always poses a challenge to the ingenuity and to the
perseverance of the designer. Every long span bridge brings in new problems in design
concepts and new construction details. The designer chooses his solution with full freedom
of decision, but with full responsibility for the success of the work. In fact, long span bridges
are creative works, and serve as landmarks in the art of bridge building.
There are many bridges built 30-70 years back in transportation networks which
require maintenance, and some rehabilitation. From this experience, now many codes
require considering (inspectability and) maintainability during design and total cost
comparison as opposed to first cost comparison in bridge selection.
Historical Development of Bridge Construction in

Ethiopia
th
Early travelers before the 16 century had recorded near complete absence of roads and
river crossings in the country. The rough terrain, deep gorges and fast and high floods during
rainy season that wash off everything are the main difficulties that hindered bridge
construction.
Almeida first recorded about two crude but sturdy and useful bridges in the second half of
th
the 16 century. One of these was on Blue Nile near Alata where thick log is placed across
the narrow rocky banks. The whole of emperor Susenyos‟ army often crossed by this
crossing. The second one was on river Zebes which is a wide and fast river. A long was
placed across and as people crossed it vibrated up and down.
Portugese mission which came to help the highlander dynasty from Muslim invaders of
Harar constructed the first stone masonry bridge using lime mortar as binder in 1626 near
the old bridge at Alata. Later Susenyos ordered construction of bridges, which was carried
out by a draftsman from India.
Jimma, Addis Ato Nazareth and Assela, Addis to Modjo and Shashemenie, and Addis
to Dire Dawa and Harar.
Bridges were also built to in the Ogaden and Southern Bale regions to connect Addis
and Jimma to their Somali colony. Totally 673 small bridges and culverts and 16 major
bridges were constructed. These were: road to connect Jimma to Indian ocean through
Borena and Filtu (Bale), road to connect Addis with Mogadishu through Ferfer and
Shashemenie, and road connecting Addis to Mogadishu through Ferfer and Harar.
10
After 1941 the Ministry of Public works was mainly engaged in maintenance of
bridges destroyed in the liberation battles and construction of few new bridges, one of
which is Abai bridge near Dejen constructed in 1949.
An independent agency for road building was established as Imperial Highway Authority
in 1951 with expatriate staff from the US Bureau of Public Roads.
This authority established district headquarters at Shoea, Gondar, Wello, Tigrai, Harar
and Sidamo. Since its establishment, the Authority set different highway maintenance at
the beginning and mainly construction programs. These are
First Highway Program (1951-1957) – this consisted of reconstruction and maintenance
Second Highway Program (1957-1965) – Constructed 1200km new roads and
maintained 4500km all-weather roads. Many minor and major bridges were constructed.
Abai bridge near Bahir Dar was constructed in this program.
Third Highway Program (1965-1968) – new and improved standard bridge and
culvert plans were prepared during this program. Many minor and major bridges were
constructed. Fourth Highway Program (1968-1972) – two major road projects were
completed during this period: Lekemte-Ghimbi and Agaro-Bedele roads. Others:
Bedele-Mettu, Awash- Tendaho, Nazareth-Awash, Jimma-Agaro and Dilla-Moyalle
projects. Many minor and major
bridges were constructed.
Fifth Higway Program (1972-1975) – During this period, local contractors began to
take
major contract
projects.
Sixty Highway Program (1975-) – Rural Roads Division established with in the Authority
to program and execute the construction of access roads, mainly in the drought affected
areas. Drought in the north, east and southern parts of the country initiated construction of
low cost, standard roads where in many small bridges were constructed. A notable bridge
constructed during the Derge regime is the one on Baro river with a total span of 305m,
which was the longest span in the country.
1.4 Elements of a Bridge

Project
The design of bridges requires the collection of extensive data and from this the selection of
possible options. From such a review the choice is narrowed down to a shortlist of potential
bridge designs. A sensible work plan should be devised for the marshalling and deployment
of information throughout the project from conception to completion and through the
design period to the end of its life. Such a checklist will vary from project to project but a
typical example might be drawn along the following lines.
h) Likely budget
i) Feasibility Phase:
a) data collection; ii) Assembly of design criteria:
b) topographical and hydrographical surveys; (a) data and properties on the material to be used
c) hydrological information; including steel, concrete, timber,
d) geological and geotechnical information;
e) site investigation requirements for soil and
rock evaluation
f) Meteorological and aerodynamic data;
g) Assembly of basic criteria;

(b) foundation considerations;
(c) hydraulic considerations, flood, scour;
(d) loading and design criteria;
(e) clearance height and width (such
as for navigation or
traffic);
(f) criteria for gradients, alignment, etc,;
(g) hazards such as impact, accident;
(h) proximity to other engineering works
(i) functional requirements;
(j) transportation and traffic planning;
(k) highway and/or railway engineering
aspects;
(l) drainage requirements;
11

ii) Assembly of design criteria:
iv) Construction phase:
(m)provision for services (water, sewage, power,
(c) budget and financial control;
electricity, telephone, communications links)
(d) quality control;
(n) design life and durability considerations.
(e) supervision of construction;
iii) Design phase: (f) commissioning;
(a) choice of bridge: (g) operating, inspection and maintenance
(b) detailed design of bridge including foundations, schedules for each part of the work.
substructure and superstructure;
(c) production of drawings and documentation, iv) Performance phase:
(d) preparation of quality assurance plan; (a) obligations of owner;
(e) estimation of cost and program. (b) management of facility;
(c) inspection, maintenance and repair;
iv) Construction phase: (d) rehabilitation and refurbishment requirements
(a) contractual matters; (change of loading, widening, change of use
(b) construction methods; and durability aspects);
(e) decommissioning and demolition
Such a project list serves to highlight the various requirements of a bridge
project
1.5 Design Objectives

The objectives in a bridge design are safety, serviceability, economy, constructability
and
aesthetics
.
Safety – the primary responsibility of the engineer is to ensure public safety in the design
by ensuring adequate structural safety (the philosophy of achieving structural safety is
treated in subsection 1.5)
Serviceability – consists of satisfying requirements of deformation, durability, inspect
ability, maintainability and ride ability.
Deformation – Bridges should be designed to avoid excessive deformations that
cause
undesirable structural or psychological effects. Limits on deflection or minimum depth
to consider are given in codes (AASHTO 98, Articles 2.5.2.6.2 and 2.5.2.6.3 respectively).
Durability – contract documents specify quality of materials to be used and standards
of fabrication and erection of elements to ensure durability. Self protecting measures of
the structure from the effects of the weather will be taken during design and construction
Inspectability – inspection ladders, walkways, catwalks and covered access holes will
be provided where other means of inspection are not practical.
Maintainability – structural systems whose maintenance is expected to be difficult should
be
avoide
d
Rideability – the deck of the bridge will be designed to permit smooth movement of
traffic. The number of deck joints will be kept to a practicable minimum.
Economy – structural types, span lengths and materials should be selected based on
cost.
The cost of future expenditures during the projected service life of the bridge should
be considered

Constructability – bridges should be designed in a manner such that fabrication and
erection can be performed without undue difficulty or distress and that construction force
effects are within tolerable limits
Aesthetics – Aesthetics aspect and space requirement of buildings are designed by
architects. Aesthetic, space requirement, hydraulic and structural aspects of bridges are
designed by civil engineers. Bridges should complement their surroundings, be graceful in
form and present an
12

appearance of adequate strength. Because the major structural components are the largest
parts and are seen first, they determine the appearance of a bridge.
Oftentimes the most aesthetically pleasing bridge is also the least expensive. Sometimes
a modest increase in construction cost is required to improve the appearance of a bridge.
Menn states that the additional cost is about 2% for short spans and only about 5% for long
spans in California, USA. Public expenditures on improved appearance are generally
supported and appreciated. Given a choice, even with a modest increase in initial cost, the
public prefers the bridge that has a nicer appearance.
Although beauty in anything is somewhat subjective and undefinable, experience has

shown that there are some general guidelines which, if followed, will result in a
structure of improved appearance. Bearing in mind that a bridge may well serve for 100
years or more, the designer should become familiar with the aesthetic techniques that
may be used to improve the appearance of a bridge so that the bridge will be a credit to
its designer and to itself for many decades to come. The following are some special areas of
concern. Proportions and Lines. All the members should bear a pleasing relationship to
each other. Columns should not be spindly nor superstructures too heavy. Span lengths
should be chosen carefully. Where there are no other constraints, and odd
number is better that an even number, with the longest span in the center – lines should
be mainly horizontal so that the structure seems to flow from end to end. Intermediate
supports should be subdued to that they do not break the dominant horizontal flow. This
means pushing the bent caps up into the superstructure or covering their ends with skirts to
make the longitudinal lines continuous over the supports. The bridge should look like it
was designed as a whole, not as a lot of individual parts glued together. Bridges using
precast concrete or simple steel plate girders require special treatment to conceal the
caps and extend the horizontal lines over the supports. Giving the soffit lines a
slight arch, more than the normal camber, will often improve the overall appearance.
Pleasing Shapes – appearance can be enhanced by avoiding stereotyped round or
square columns and flat soffits. A column which may be adequate structurally will often
be too small to be good looking. Add enough size to make the proportions seem right.
Columns, which are smaller at the bottom than the top, will help make the structure seem
lighter and more dynamic. Make sure the columns are all the same type and size both for
appearance and for reusability of forms. Avoid large expanses of plain concrete. Break
them up with ledges to create shadow lines or use heavily textured panels. Slope the sides
of box girders back under the bridge, and give the bottom edge a large curved fillet to
diminish its apparent depth.
Compatibility – make the bridge fit its surroundings. If it looks like it belongs there, it will
be a pleasing addition to its environment. If it is a misfit, it will be an eyesore forever. Even
industrial or utilitarian bridges need not be ugly. It is worthwhile to make every bridge have
an appearance of quality and careful craftsmanship.
Implementation of those features must be balanced with their effects on the structural
adequacy of the bridge as a whole.
Consequently, engineers should seek excellent appearance in bridge parts in the
following order of importance: horizontal and vertical alignment and position in the
environment, superstructure type (girder, arch, etc), pier placement, abutment placement
and height, superstructure shape (haunched, tapered depth), pier shape, abutment shape,
parapet and railing details, surface colors and texture and ornament.
13
1.6 Design Philosophy
Bridges shall be designed for specified limit states to achieve the objectives of safety,
serviceability, economy, constructability and aesthetics. Each component and connection
should be designed to satisfy equation 1-1 for each of the limit states: service, fatigue
and fracture, strength and extreme event limit states. A bridge for which any of these limit
states is exceeded is unfit for the intended function or use. This equation is the basis of
the Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) method, which will be used in this
course. Factors obtained from the theory of reliability based on current statistical
knowledge of loads and structural performances are used for both the loads and the
resistances. Besides, ductility and redundancy are important in ensuring safety.
. . . . . (1.1)
Wher
e
i = load factor, a statistically based multiplier applied to force effects
i = Resistance factor, a statistically based multiplier applied to nominal resistance
i =Load modifier, a factor relating to ductility, redundancy and operational
importance Qi is force effect, Rn = nominal resistance and
Rf = factored resistance = Rn
The different limit states may be defined

now
Strength limit state – is meant to ensure that strength and stability, both local and global,
are provided to resist the specified statistically significant load combinations that a
bridge is expected to be subjected to in its design life
Service limit state – is restrictions on stress, deformation and crack width under
regular
service
conditions
Fatigue and fracture limit state – the fatigue limit state is restrictions on stress range as
a result of a single design truck occurring at the number of expected stress range cycles.
The fracture limit state is taken as a set of material toughness requirements.
Extreme event limit states - this is taken to ensure the structural survival of a bridge during a
major earthquake or flood, or when collided by a vehicle, vessel, possibly under
scoured conditions.
Ductility – the structural system of a bridge shall be proportioned and detailed to ensure
the development of significant and visible inelastic deformations at the strength and
extreme event limit states prior to failure. Ductile structures give ample warning before they
lose load carrying capacity where as brittle structures collapse without giving warning.
Redundancy – multiple load path and continuous structures should be used unless there
are compelling reasons not to use them. Indeterminate structures survive overloads and
extreme events due to multiple load paths and redistribution of internal forces.
14
Chapter 2
INVESTIGATION FOR BRIDGES
2.1. Introduction
The aim of the investigation is to select a suitable site from possible alternatives at which
a bridge can be built economically, at the same time satisfying the demands of safety,
traffic, the stream, and aesthetics. In this first stage of design the engineer identifies a
preferred location for the bridge and decides on the type, size and capacity of the
structure. He/she reaches these decisions on the basis of field surveys and information
concerning:
 The proposed road alignment

 The local terrain and site conditions
 The required design life of the bridge
 The likely traffic volumes
 The resources available for the project
The local terrain and site conditions dictate the height, length and number of spans, and the
design of the substructure foundations. The required design life and the resources available
to construct the bridge will influence the choice of materials and construction methods. The
traffic predictions enable the engineer to determine the necessary width of the bridge.
The investigation for a major bridge project should cover studies on technical feasibility
and economic considerations and should result in an investigation report. The success of the
final design will depend on the thoroughness of the information furnished by the officer in
charge of the investigation.
The objectives in this chapter are to select a bridge site, determine the total span at a
selected site and the span sub divisions, and to discuss about site investigations required for
detailed bridge design.
2.2. Site selection
2.2.1 Preliminary
Survey
The objective of the preliminary survey is to study more than one alternative bridge
sites. Usually the road plans are not prepared with contours at this early stage, which
make it necessary to use the topographic maps available in the country. Possible bridge sites
are first located on topographic maps. The Ethiopian Mapping Authority has prepared maps
to scale of 1:250,000 for the whole country. In addition there are also maps to scale of
1:50,000 available for large areas of the country shown in the current “Map Catalogue”
published by the Ethiopian Mapping Agency. These are especially suited for the planning
stage to calculate catchment areas, possible provisional road alignments, aggregate quarries,
and other uses. After locating the possible bridge sites on these maps, these sites are visited
to collect certain preliminary data required for thorough examination of alternative bridge
sites from which the final site shall be selected.
15
2.2.2. Selection of Bridge Site
For the bridge engineer, rivers are the most common obstructions needing to be
bridged. Occasionally the engineer may be called upon to design a rail or road grade
separated crossing. These are relatively simple compared to river crossings because
they involve considerations only of height and span. The design of a river crossing has
to also take hydraulic requirements into account.
There are three initial considerations to bear in mind in selection of the

site:
 a bridge site must offer appropriate vertical and horizontal alignments (skew
angle above 20o should be avoided due to increased bridge costs).
 its soils must be of sufficient strength to ensure the stability of the structure )the site
selection should if possible be made together with a soils engineer to minimize
costs and select the best site).
 the bridge and its associated works should not have an adverse impact on
adjoining land or buildings, or be susceptible to damage from/to the local
environment.
For a river crossing it is important to identify the type of river to be crossed. There are two
types of rivers namely alluvial and incised.
Alluvial rivers are winding and they crode their tanks and scour their beds; they have
flood plains on either side of the channel and the flow regularly overtops the channel
banks to spread across the flood plain. They are continually active, scouring and depositing
materials on the banks and transporting quantities of sediment. The main channels and
any of the minor channels can change position and islands can disappear in the course of a
single major flood.
Incised river have relatively stable tanks and are generally narrower and deeper than
alluvial rivers. Some overtop their banks during flood, but the flow returns to the existing
channel when the flood subsides.
Steeply graded tributary streams flowing into a major river commonly exhibit abrupt
changes in channel width and bed gradient where they enter the main flood plain. These
changes result in the deposition of large quantities of sediment in the form of alluvial fans of
gravel to clay sized debris.
There is a wide range of sites for bridges in rural areas but the choice may be limited in
urban areas and for Passovers.
An ideal site for bridge crossing is one
that:
is on a straight reach of the river. If the river is meandering the best crossing site will
be at the nodal points of the course, which are not affected by the meandering.
ihere the flow is steady without serious whirls and cross currents
is beyond the disturbing influence of large tributaries
has well defined and stable high banks above flood
level
has uniform flow i.e. larger average depth compared to localized maximum
depth
has reasonable straight approach roads and permits as a square a crossing as
possible. Curves should be avoided in the immediate approaches to the bridge. Skew
16
crossing may be acceptable if curved approach is required for square crossing. The
approaches should also be economical (not very high or long) and not liable to flank
attack of the river during floods.
has good foundation
conditions
17
has short span (narrow channel)
does not require expensive river training work
does not require excessive underwater
construction
A bridge aligned at right angles to the river results in the shortest superstructure. A skewed
bridge requires more material and is more complicated to design and construct. If a skew is
O
unavoidable, the angle should preferably not exceed 20 due to the increased cost.
Bridge crossings over alluvial rivers nearly always require training works to stabilize
the channel flow within the bridge waterway opening.
The location of the bridge in relation to the alignment of the approaches may be decided
as below.
a) Total span <60m-The alignment of the approaches will govern.
b) 60m<Total span < 300m-Both the alignment and good bridge site govern.
c) Total span>300m-Good bridge site governs.
Selection of a suitable bridge site especially for major bridges is teamwork consisting
of highway engineer, bridge engineers, geologist and hydraulic engineer.
If all the requirements cannot be satisfied there may be some compromise for the less
important sites.
It is most common that two to five different alignments are compared and evaluated
from technical, economical, environmental, and other points of view, to select the most
beneficial alignment(s). This may be performed either by hand or by a computer
2
program. The preliminary cost of the bridges may be calculated by unit cost per m of bridge
deck.
Several computer programs are available. An example is a computer program developed in

1993-98 by the Overseas Centre Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) in Berkshire,
United Kingdom is “RTIM3-Road Transport Investment Model”, which is widely used to
carry out cost- benefit analysis on road construction, upgrading and maintenance projects in
developing countries. The program runs on a microcomputer and operates as a series of
linked compiled spreadsheets for traffic flow, road deterioration, and vehicle operating
costs and economic analysis.
2.3. Site Investigation
Once the engineer has identified a likely site for the bridge, he/she needs to obtain
field information on the catchment area and run off, local terrain, river conditions and water
levels, navigational (only for river Baro) and other clearance requirements, and soil
information. Field reviews shall be made by the designer in order to become familiar with
the site. The most complete survey data cannot adequately depict all site conditions or
substitute for personal inspection by someone experienced in bridge design.
There are several criteria that should be established before making the field visit. Does the
magnitude of the project warrant an inspection, or can the same information be obtained
18
from maps, aerial photos, or by telephone calls? What kind of equipment should be taken
and most important, what exactly are the critical items at the site under consideration?
19
Factors that most often need to be confirmed by field inspection (see Form 4.1) are
High-water marks or profiles and related frequencies.

Selection of roughness coefficients,
Evaluation of apparent flow direction and diversions,
Flow concentration (main stream),
Observation of land use and related flood hazards, and
Geomorphic relationships and soil conditions
An actual visit to the site where the project will be constructed shall be made before
any design is undertaken. This may be combined with a visit by others, such as the
roadway designers and soil investigators, environmental reviewers, and local officials. The
designer may visit the site separately, however, because of interests which are different
from the others, and the time required to obtain the data as warranted below.
It may not be possible to survey the entire watershed, therefore a sample area may have to
be studied.
2.3.1. Catchment Area and Run off

Data
The extent of the river catchment area determines the area to be included in plans
and sections, and can be used to estimate flow volumes. Using maps or aerial photographs
to an appropriate scale, the catchment area can be marked and its size calculated, using
transparent squared graph paper or a planimeter. If soft copy of the topographic map is
available, the area can easily be calculated from this file.
The information which is of interest are: catchment size, catchment grade, catchment
cover, presence of any artificial or natural storage such as dams, lakes etc., possibility of any
change in the nature of the catchment due to forestation or deforestation, maximum
recorded intensity and frequency of rainfall in the catchment.
2.3.2
Drawings
a) Index Map – showing the proposed location of the bridge, the alternative bridge sites
investigated and rejected, towns and villages in the vicinity and the general
topographic of the area. Scale may be 1:50,000.
b) Contour Survey Plan of the river showing all topographic feature for a sufficient
distance on either side of the site to give indication of the features, which would
influence the location, and the design of the bridge and its approaches. Distances to be
coveted by contour plans are shown in Table 2.1.
c) Site plan – showing the details of the selected site and of the stream to a distance of 100
to 200m upstream and downstream of the selected site. This should show the crossing
point and alignment of approaches, location and reduced level of benchmark, location
of cross section and longitudinal sections of road and stream taken within area of the
plan, and location of buildings, rock outcrops and other possible obstructions to
20
the road alignment.
21
Table 2.1 Distance to be covered by contour plans

Catchment area (Sq.Km) Upstream Downstream
Up to 2.5 150m 150m
2.5 0 10.0 200 – 400m 150m
Over 10.0 400 – 500m 250m
d) Cross-section and longitudinal sections of the river – Cross-sections are taken at

suitable distances both upstream and downstream of the proposed bridge site. These
should indicate the distance from the centerline of the bridge and also the HFL,
OFL,LWL and the bed levels at suitable intervals along the centerline of the deep
water channel.
e) Catchment area map – is prepared by tracing the ridge line of the water shed on the
topographic map of the area.
2.3.3. River Survey
Information required by the designer for analysis and design include not only the
physical characteristics of the land and channel, but all features that can affect the
magnitude and frequency of the flood flow which will pass the site under study. These
data may include climatological characteristics, land runoff characteristics, and stream
gauging records, high water marks and the sizes and past performances of existing
structures in the vicinity. The exact data required will depend upon the methods utilized to
estimate discharges, and frequencies.
The collection of flood data is a basic survey task in performing any hydraulic analysis. The
field collection will consist mainly of interviews with local people, maintenance
personnel, and local officials who may have recollection of past flood events in the area. In
some cases, if a stream gauging station is on the stream under study close to the crossing
site and has many years of measurements, this may be the only hydrologic data needed.
These data should be analyzed to ensure that stream flows have not changed over the
time of measurement due to watershed alterations such as the construction of a large storage
facility, diversion of flow to another watershed, addition of flow from another watershed,
or development which has significantly altered the runoff characteristics of the watershed.
High-water marks are often the only data of past floods available. When collected, these data
should include, when possible, the date and elevation of the flood event. In the search for
marks, local people could be of great help. The cause of the high water mark should also be
noted, often the mark is caused by unusual debris build up rather than an inadequate
structure, and designing roadway or structure to such an elevation could lead to an
unrealistically uneconomical design. High water marks can be identified in several ways.
Small debris, such as grass or twigs caught in tree branches, elephant grass or similar
matted down, mud lines on stones or bridges, are all high water indicators. Beware
however that grass, bushes, and tree branches could be bent over during flood flows and
spring up after the flow has passed, which may give a false reading of the high water
elevation.
The hydrologic characteristics of the basin or watershed of the stream under study are
22
needed for any predictive methods used to forecast flood flows. Although many
of these
23
characteristics can be found from office studies, some are better found by a field survey
of the basin. The size and configuration of the watershed, the geometry of the stream
network, storage, volumes of ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and flood plains, and the general
geology and soils of the basin can be found from maps.
Having determined these basin characteristics, runoff times, infiltration values, storage
values, and runoff coefficients can be found and used in calculating flood flow values
using different methods outlined in Equations 2.1 to 2.4.
Rainfall records are available from the Ethiopian Meteorological Services Agency
(Weather Bureau). This data should be used to supplement, update, and refine the data
developed and presented in Drainage Design Manual prepared by Ethiopia Roads Authority.
Once the best site is selected, information is needed on the highest known flood level, the
ordinary flood level and the low water level at the proposed site. The design discharge also
needs to be determined.
The normal high water level, Ordinary Flood Level (OFL) – is the level to which the
river normally rises during the wettest season of the year.
The normal low water level, the Low Water Level (LWL) – is the level prevailing in the
river during dry weather. If there is little or no flow in dry weather, the period during
which the riverbed remains dry should be noted.
Highest know Flood Level(HFL) – is the highest level that the river is known to rise
to
The bridge engineer is required to select Design Flood Level (DFL), design discharge
and design velocity on which to base calculations of waterway geometry, foundation depth,
scour protection and vertical clearance.
The design flood is the maximum flow that can pass through the bridge without
Causing unacceptable disruption to traffic
Endangering the pier and abutment foundations with scours
Damaging approach embankments
Causing flood damage on the upstream side of embankments
On important roads the bridge may be designed for a design flood occurring no more
than once every ten years and a high flood occurring once every hundred years(Refer
drainage manual for recent ERA recommendations)
A minor road may be served by bridges or low water crossings designed to be overtopped
for a few days every year.
In Ethiopia, hydraulic records are not available for most of the rivers and the DFL is taken as
the High Water Mark (HWM) which is obtained from silt marks left on banks or twigs
left adhering to nearby trees supplemented by inquires of people residing nearby the nriver
at the proposed bridge site.
The high flood is the rarely occurring flow that it is uneconomical to include in the design
flood, but which may be considered when stress designing the superstructure and piers of
20
the bridge.
21
The maximum discharge may be determined by the following
methods
Empirical
Formula
Q=C*An, Q=C*A Ryve‟s formula …. (2.1)
Rational
Formula
Q=C*1*A . . . (2.2)
Area-Velocity
Method
Q=V*A . . . (2.3)
Unit Hydrograph
From any available records of the flood discharge at the bridge site or at any other site in
the vicinity
The design discharge may be taken as the maximum value obtained from at least two of
the methods mentioned.
2.3.4. Soil Investigation
Soil investigation is required to get soil profile, engineering property of the foundation
material and foundation level for the abutments and piers for design of the foundations. This
information is obtained by analyzing samples taken from boreholes, test pits or
geophysical surveying.
It is important to sample for soil, rock, stone, water, etc in co-operation with the soil
investigators. Samples of at least 2 kg each should be collected marking the station number
where they are collected.
In the preliminary survey state, the soil investigation could be very brief, since the
final alignment of the roadway is not yet decided. The most probable location should be
investigated to get a general view of the soil conditions.
If the conditions are complex or if there is only one possible bridge site, and for the
selected final bridge site, the investigations will be made thoroughly. This work should
be made under the guidance of a geotechnical engineer.
In has proved very practical to make a simple sketch of the bridge site with
approximate water shores, existing structures, scour holes, main stream location, etc
including very rough dimensions with approximate measurements.
As a minimum, photos shall be taken looking upstream, and downstream from the site as
well as along the contemplated highway centerline in both directions. Details of the
streambed and banks should also be photographed along with any existing structures in the
22
vicinity both upstream and downstream. Close-up photographs complete with a scale or
grid shall be taken to facilitate estimates of the stream bed gradation.
23
2.4. Span Determination
2.4.1 Economical
Span
For a given lineal waterway the total cost of the superstructure increase and the total cost
of the substructure decrease with increase in span. The most economical span length is that
for which the cost of superstructure equals the cost of substructure, the point at which the
total cost is a minimum.
2.4.2 Hydraulic
Requirements
Bridges are designed to accommodate design discharge at design flood. When a bridge
structure and its associated embankments encroach upon the flow of the river in flood,
there is a risk to the structure, the embankments and the surrounding land. It is not
economical, however, to build a bridge to clear a wide flood plain. So lineal waterway
that passes the design discharge should be provided (plus free board) and the bridge be
stress designed for the high flood.
When a river has a wide flood plain, the economical solution may be using short span bridge
with proper scour and erosion protection for the embankments, abutments and piers.
2.4.3 Location of
Piers
Piers should be located in such a manner that they can provide the required lineal
waterway and navigational clearance. They should be located to cause a minimum of
obstruction to the flow. Piers should not be located in the river if there is boulder transport
during flood. The most economical spans should be adopted as far as possible. Piers and
abutments should also be located to make the best use of the foundation conditions
available. If navigational or aesthetic requirements dictate, the spans may be suitably
modified.
The alignment of piers and abutments should, if possible, be set parallel to the direction
of flow during maximum flood even for skewed and curved bridges, which may not be the
same as during normal flow.
Bridge crossings over alluvial rivers nearly always require training works to stabilize the
flow within the bridge water way opening.
2.4.4 Free Board
The waterway below the superstructure must be designed to pass the design flood and
the floating debris carried on it. This should apply even after several years of
sedimentation. The free board allows for uncertainty in determining DFL also. The
minimum free board
24
above the design water level is given in table below unless a refined hydraulic have
been made.
25
Table 2.2 Free Bard
Discharge(m3/s) Free Board(m)
0-3 0.3
3-30 0.6
30-300 0.9
>300 1.2
These clearance measurements should be increased for backwater effects when the flow
is restricted by short span bridge or when the river has a history of unusual large floating
items or in the case of the Baro River for navigational requirements. For arched
structures the clearance will be measured at quarter points of the span. The minimum
clearance above roadways shall be at least 5.1m. Light superstructures (timber, steel trusses,
steel girders, etc) will have a minimum clearance height of 5.3m above roadways.
Underpasses for pedestrian and bicycles should not be less than 2.4m. For cattle and wildlife
underpasses should be designed as the normal height of the actual kind of animal plus
0.5m and for horse riding, the clear height should not be less than 3.4m. Bridges above
railways shall have a clearance height of at least 6.1m if not otherwise stated to
facilitate future electrification.
2.4.5 Grade
Requirements
Often in mountainous areas the roadway grade is governed by capacity of heaviest vehicle
to climb, vertical curve and sight distance. These grade requirements may increase the
bridge span more that required by hydraulic design.
26
Chapter 3
BRIDGE TYPES AND SELECTION
3.1 Types of Bridges
Bridges are classified according to their superstructure and superstructure may be

classified based on the following characteristics
Material Load path characteristics

Span length Usage
Structural form Position (for movable bridges)
Span types Deck type (for combination and double deck bridges)
By material of construction, bridges can be classified as steel, concrete, timber or

aluminum bridges. But this is not to suggest that these bridges are constructed from one type
of material exclusively. Often a combination of material predominantly used for the
construction.
It is customary to identify bridges as short-span, medium-span, and long-span depending

on the span lengths. Presently there are not established criteria to define the range of spans
for this classification, and practices vary. However, the following guidelines have been
suggested (N. Taly)
1. Bridges in which the load effects are governed by a single actual vehicle on the span
can be considered as short-span bridges (up to 20m).
2. Bridges in which the maximum load effects are governed by a train of moving
vehicles
can be considered medium-span bridges (20-125m)
3. Bridges in which the maximum load effects are caused by a train of stationary
vehicles with minimum headway distances can be considered long-span bridges
(longer than 125m).
In the absence of any established criteria, a common practice is to classify bridges by

span length as follows (N. Taly):
Culverts <6m
Short – span bridges 6-38m
Medium-span bridges 28-120m
Long-span bridges over 120
For the purpose of comparison, typical span ranges are given for various types of
superstructures in Table 3.1.
3.1.1 Classification by Structural Form
From an engineering perspective, bridges are classified by their structural form. Only
certain type of structural form are suitable and economically viable alternatives for
certain span ranges.
27
Structural form refers to the load resisting mechanism of a bridge by which it
transfers gravity and lateral loads from the deck to the foundation. In different types of
bridges loads
28
follow different paths as they are applied on the deck and finally transferred to the
bearing foundation soil below. From this perspective bridges can be classified as follows.
Table 3.1 Span lengths for various types of superstructures

Structural Rang of
Material Maximum span in service
Type Spans (m)
Slab Concrete 0-12
Concrete 12-250 240, Hamana-Ko Lane
Girder
Steel 30-260 261, Sava I, Yugoslavia
Concrete girder 235, Maracaibo, Venezuela
Cable-stayed <250
Steel girder 856, Normandy
Truss Steel 90-550 550, Quebec, Canada (rail)
90-300 304, Gladsvile
Arch Concrete 240-500 510, New River Gorge, USA
120-360 365, Port Mann
1990 main span, 3910 total span,
Suspension Steel 300-1400
Akashi-Kaiko, Japan
a) Slab-Stringer
Bridges
In a slab-stringer bridge, the deck is supported on stringers that are in turn supported
on abutments for single span or abutment and piers for continuous and multi-span
bridges, Fig.3.1.
Fig. 3.1 Temcha river bridge – T-girder precast stringers and cast-in-situ slab
bridge
The deck is usually made of concrete unless timber is used. The stringers may be reinforced
concrete, pre stressed concrete, steel or timber. The concrete slab can be cast either
compositely or non-compositely with stringers of steel, reinforced concrete or pre
stressed concrete.
The slab-stringer system is most suitable for short span bridges. In medium and long span
bridges, the slab-stringer unit is supported on floor beams, which intrun transfer loads to
other main load-carrying elements such as arches, cables in cable-stayed bridges or
suspension cables through hangers in suspension bridges.
29
Other forms such as T- and box girder are designed as simple spans, where the slab is
cast monolithically with the beam. Although these bridges are generally suitable for short
spans, the pre stressed box girder can be built segmentally to medium spans.
Plate girder bridges are made of built-up steel beams and are economically suitable for
spans in the 60m range depending on whether they are simple spans or continuous.
b) Orthotropic
Bridges
Orthotropic means having different elastic properties in two mutually perpendicular
directions. It evolved from steel deck plate in an effort to reduce the dead weight of highway
bridges during the post Second World War period. The most developed form consists of
deck plate stiffened by a shallow grid work of closely spaced welded ribs. The stiffened
plate then acts as the top flange of the stringers, Fig. 3.2.
Fig. 3.2 Orthotropic deck bridge
Orthotropic deck bridges are generally considered suitable for long span
bridges.
c) Truss
Bridges
Truss bridges are used for larger spans for which the depth of girder bridges is not
practical due to fabrication, erection and transportation limitation or due to economy in
the case of concrete girders. The maximum practical length of plate girders is in the 45m
range. Truss bridges provide the answer when a girder of large depth is required. By
virtue of truss action, members are primarily subjected to direct stresses only. Thus, they
can carry large amounts of force with small amount of steel.
30
Fig. 3.3 Through truss bridge
31
Trusses are hardly economical for spans less than
92m.
With their evolution, trusses were classified based on the arrangement of chords and
direction of diagonals as Pratt, Warren, and Howe (constant depth). The chords provide a
couple that resists the bending moments caused by the loads. For longer spans, to
economically achieve this couple the bottom and top chords must be spaced farther. The
result is a truss with variable depth along the span such as Parker truss. For greatest
economy, the top chord profile should approximate a parabola, which is the shape of
bending moment diagram for a uniformly loaded simple span.
Fig. 3.4 Constant depth truss bridges
Very long spans dictate truss depths that are too great and the slopes of their diagonals
may become unacceptable. For an economic design, the desirable slope of diagonals is
O O
between 45 and 60 . A solution to this problem is the k-truss.
Truss bridges are also described in relation to the position of the floor (or the deck) relative
to the upper or lower panel points. Bridges are deck-truss, through-truss and half-through-
truss bridges.
In deck truss, the floor is supported at the upper panel points. Because these types do not
obstruct the view of motorists, they are favoured for highway bridges. But these are less
common for railway bridges.
In a through type truss, the floor is supported at the lower panel points. The upper panel
points of the trusses are connected together laterally and diagonally, by sway bracing.
Vertical and diagonal members obstruct motorists, view that this type is not favored
for highway. Clearance and the practical necessity of providing suitable sway frames
usually require through – trusses to be at least 7.32m deep for highway bridges and at
least 9.15m deep for railway bridges. Trusses with smaller span require smaller depths,
which makes it impractical to provide sway bracing at the top. The result is half-through-
truss.
32
In earlier times, aesthetics was of little concern to bridge designers. As a result many
entirely functional but quite unattractive truss bridges were built. Often these bridges have
heavy sections of various sizes, and the truss members appear to lie in all possible
directions, giving an impression of complete disorder. This lack of aesthetics evident
from many unattractive truss bridges in existence is perhaps one of the reasons for their
unpopularity. Always exposed to the environment, steel trusses require regular periodic
maintenance and painting to prevent corrosion. Experience with steel truss bridges has
shown that their life cycle costs are prohibitively high – another reasons for their lack of
appeal.
d) Rigid Frame
Bridges
Rigid frame bridges consist of superstructures supported on vertical or slanted

monolithic legs (columns), and are economically suitable for moderate medium – span
lengths. Both steel and concrete is used to construct this type of bridge, the girder being T-
or box – girder.
A slant – legged pre stressed concrete box girder bridge Spanning Gouritz River was
completed in 1977 with total span of 265m.
e) Arch
Bridges
Arch bridges are the oldest types of bridges ever built. A true arch transfers loads to its
foundation by pure compression, however, the variable position of the live load
always causes super imposed bending.
Arches can be classified different

ways
From design stand point – nature of their ribs as trussed arch or solid – ribbed arch
33
(rib consists of a girder)
Analytically – by degree of articulation as two-hinged or three-hinged
arch
Position of deck
–
34
Deck – arch bridge – arch is below deck. This is the most usual type of arch bridges. Load
transfer from deck to arch is by struts (or columns). These may be open or solid spandrel
arch types.
Through arch – arch is above deck (also called bowstring girders or langer girders) and
the load is transferred from deck to arch by tension hangers.
Half – through arches_ - are those for which some part of the deck is hanging from the
arch and some portion of the deck is above the arch.
Materials used may be concrete or
steel
Arch bridges are economical for medium and long spans. The longest steel arch bridge ever
built is the 518m trussed, two – hinged deck type New River Georg Bridge in west
Virginia, completed in 1977.
The longest span concrete arch bridge is the 305m span Gladesville Bridge in
Sydney,
Australia, Completed in
1964.
f) Cantilever
Bridges
Cantilever bridges were the answer for long – span railway bridges in the late 1800s. They
displayed the strength, rigidity and sturdiness required to carry the heavy railroad traffic
that had caused large deflections in the truss bridges of earlier times.
Essentially, a cantilever bridge consists of two simple spans (anchor spans) with
cantilever on each side of either shore supporting a short suspended span in the middle of
the stream or river. This arrangement results in substantial reduction of moments or forces,
in the suspended span. Moreover, because a cantilever span can be erected without a false
work, river navigation is not impeded during construction.
The Quebec Bridge in Canada and Firth of Forth Bridge in Scotland are two of the
longest and most famous cantilever bridges.
The world‟s longest highway cantilever bridge is the Greater New Orleans Bridge, a
480m span over the Mississippi at New Orleans, Louisiana, built in 1955 – 58. Another
great cantilever bridge is the 457m span Howrah Bridge in Calcutta, India opened to
traffic in 1943.
g) Cable Stayed
Bridges
Cable-stayed bridges represent the most innovative and dramatic development of the post
– World War II period. These bridges are very competitive economically for medium
and long spans. They can be built with girders of either steel or prestessed concrete.
Cable- stayed bridges are unique in that the superstructure is supported (or hung) at several
intermediate points by inclined cables, or stays, radiating from and continuous over
the towers, instead of being supported from underneath by conventional piers or bents.
Loads in cable-stayed bridges are transmitted by the inclined stays, which connect the
deck to the towers.
The various arrangements of radiating cables and the imaginative forms and shapes
of towers have made cable – stayed bridges one of the most aesthetically pleasing structures.
29
The longest span cable – stayed bridge is the Tatara Bridge in Ehime, Japan, having a
890m main span. Most cable-stayed bridges are stationary. Only one movable 110m span
swing cable – stayed bridge with a swing radius of 55m has been built over the
Sacramento River at Meridian, California.
h) Suspension
Bridges
Suspension bridges are recognized for spanning the longest distances and for their
superior aesthetics.
The principle of suspension bridges is simple. It consists of four essential parts: the towers,
the anchorage, the cables, and the deck. The deck usually supported on stiffening trusses is
hung from suspension cables. It consists of a central main span flanked on each side by a
side span that is separated from the main span by towers. The ends of the suspension cables
are secured at the anchorage, which are usually built of massive masonry or concrete.
Suspension bridges can be classified by the types of cable anchorage as either external
or internal. Self- anchored (internally anchored) suspension bridges are suitable for short
to moderate spans (122 to 305m) where foundation conditions do not permit external
anchorage.
The longest span suspension bridge is the Akashi-kaiko Bridge (main span 1990m,
total length 3910m) linking Akashi city with Awaji Island, Japan.
The distinction between cable-stayed and suspension bridges is the profile of the cable. In
suspension bridges the main cables are curved and continuous between the towers. The deck
and other vertical loading are suspended from these cables at relatively short intervals.
Being relatively flexible, the main cable develops funicular shape, which is a function of
the magnitude and position of the loading. On the other hand, in cable-stayed bridges, the
cables are straight and extend from one tower and connected to the deck directly at discrete
points. Being, taut, they furnish relatively inflexible support along the span at several
points and provide a bridge with relatively greater stiffness than that achievable in
suspension bridges.
Both types of bridges rely on very high strength steel cables or

tendons.
Both cable-stayed and suspension bridges provide the solutions needed for long –
span bridges which is made possible by the high strength tensile elements (cables) used.
Since modern cable stayed bridges evolved much later than suspension bridges,
suspension bridges were historically preferred over cable stayed types because their
performance had been proven and because builders had gained significantly greater
knowledge are considered feasible for long spans traditionally considered the domain of
suspension bridges. Also, it is believed that the greater stiffness provided by cable-stayed
systems makes their limit span less susceptible to wind-induced vibrations, compared to
the limit span of suspension bridges. Research continues to find new forms of towers
(for suspension bridges) and pylons (for cables stayed bridges), and more efficient cable
arrangements to span yet longer spans. Some examples of these new approaches are the
hybrid cable-stayed suspension bridge system, the hybrid double-cantilever suspension
bridge system and the spread-pylon cable stayed bridge system.
30
Deciding on the feasibility of a particular bridge type for long spans is difficult, and there
are no rules or criteria that provide a quick answer. While the cost is a major factor that
may
31
dictate the choice between a suspension bridge and a cable – stayed bridge, there are
many other factors that may influence the selection process. These include aesthetics,
traffic capacity, and the need for future widening, structural stability, foundation
conditions, erection procedures, under clearance requirements and general civic
requirements with respect to location, financing and community values.
Classification by Span
Types
Simple span bridges – are suitable for short

spans
Multiple simple spans-used for medium or long span bridges, depending on the site
conditions and economy. Two end abutments and several piers are used as intermediate
supports.
Continuous beams – advantage over simple spans include reduced weight, and
greater
stiffness, smaller deflection, fewer bearing and expansion joints. Continuous spans also
provide redundancy and greater overload capacity than simple spans.
Classification by Load – Path

Characteristics
One-dimensional systems – slab bridges. These are one-way

slabs
Two-dimensional systems -slab- stringer bridges. The load transfer is form slab to stringers
and from stringers to abutments/piers.
Classification by Position for Movable

Bridges
Most bridges are stationary. However, to provide sufficient vertical clearance to facilitate
navigation through spanned waterways, such as navigable rivers or channels, bridges
are made movable. A movable bridge may be necessary when topography dictates that
the roadway must be close to the surface of a navigable body of water to be spanned by
the bridge.
Movable bridges first evolved in the form of drawbridges. Many drawbridges were built
during the Middle Ages by feudal lords to defend their castles, and not for
navigational purpose.
In general three kinds of movable bridges exist: the bascule bridge, the lift bridge and
the swing bridge.
Bascule Bridge – A motor driven pinion that engages rack opens or closes the
span.
Lift bridge – moves vertically up and down as a whole. The operating mechanism is using
counter weight passing over pulleys at the two ends, the counter weight equaling the
bridge in weight.
This type is suitable for long spans where not much vertical clearance is required.
32
Swing Bridge – provides passage to ships by swinging or rotating
horizontally.
Classification based on Life Span of

Bridges
Permanent bridges – bridges that serve for a longer period of

time
33
Temporary bridges – have a short service period. An example is military bridges (pontoon
bridges)
Combination and Double-Deck

Bridges
Most common bridges have only one deck. There are some bridges having two decks, one
above the other. These can be for highway traffic only or a combination of highway and
railway.
3.2. Selection of Bridge Type
One of the key submittals in the design process is the engineer‟s report to the owner of
the type, size and location of the proposed bridge.
3.2.1 Factors to be considered in

Selection
Selection of bridge type in general is related to economy, safety and aesthetics. The
following conditions will be evaluated with respect to economy, safety and aesthetics in
the selection process.
a) Geometric Conditions of the

Site
The type of bridge selected will often depend on the horizontal and vertical alignment of
the highway route and on the clearances above and below the roadway. For example,
one a curve continuous box girder and slab bridges are good choice because they have a
pleasing appearance, can readily be built on a curve, and have a relatively high torsional
resistance. Relatively high bridges over navigable waterways will require a different
bridge from that required by a flood plain.
b) Subsurface Conditions of the

Site
The foundation soil type and its bearing capacity determine whether or not piers and
abutments can be founded on spread footings or piles. If settlement is a problem, the bridge
type selected must be able to accommodate this. Surface and subsurface drainage conditions
affect magnitude of earth pressure, movement and stability of embankments. These
influence choice of substructure, which in turn influence type of superstructure selected. For
example, rigid frame bridge requires strong foundation material that can resist both
horizontal and vertical thrust. If the foundation material is weak, then another bridge type is
more appropriate.
c) Functional
Requirements
34
The bridge must function to carry not only present but also future volumes of traffic.
Decision must be made on the number of lanes of traffic to accommodate present and future
volumes of traffic, inclusion of sidewalks, future wearing surface, possibility of future
widening and the like.
35
In the case of stream and flood plain crossings, the bridge must continue to function
during flood and should not impose constriction to water or debris. Satisfaction of these
requirements will suggest some type of bridge over others.
d) Aesthetic
s
The fact that the highway bridge is out in the open means that it can be seen and reacted
to by whoever passes by. It should be the goal of the bridge designer to obtain a
positive aesthetic response to the bridge type selected.
e) Economics and ease of

Maintenance
A general rule is that a bridge with the minimum number of spans, fewest deck joints, and
widest spacing of girders will be the most economical. Deck joints are high maintenance
cost items, so minimizing their number will reduce the life cycle cost of the bridge.
Generally concrete structures require less maintenance that steel structures. One effective
way to obtain the minimum construction cost is to prepare alternative designs or to allow
the contractors to propose alternative designs to take advantage of new construction
techniques to obtain less total project cost. Selection will be made based on total cost
comparison.
f) Legal Considerations
The requirements of environmental laws and other applicable laws much be

met.
3.2.2 Bridge Types for Different Span

Lengths
Once a preliminary span length has been chosen, comparative studies are conducted to
find the bridge type best suited to the site. For each group of bridge spans (small, medium
and large), experience has shown that certain bridge types are more appropriate than others.
a) Small Span Bridges (up to

15m)
The candidate structures include: single or multi-cell culverts, slab bridges, T-girder
bridges, precast concrete box girder bridges and composite rolled steel girder bridges.
Culverts: are used for small spans through highway embankments. These are often the most
economical solution for short spans. They are constructed of steel, precast or cast in situ
reinforced concrete. Their structural form can be pipe, pipe arch, rigid frame box or slab box
culverts.
Slab Bridges: are the simplest and least expensive structures that can be built for small
spans up to 12m. These bridges can be built on ground supported false work or
constructed of precast elements.
33
T-Girder bridges: are generally economical for spans of 10-20m. These are
usually constructed on ground supported false work. Greatest use is for stream crossing
provided sufficient free board is provided to avoid damage of the stem of the T by floating
debris. Rolled steel Girder Bridges: wide flange beam bridges are simple to design and
construct. They can be economical up to 30m spans if the deck is made composite and
cover plate is
34
used in maximum moment regions. Composite construction is recommended because that
results in an efficient structure. Shear connectors in the form of welded studs must be
designed to resist all forces tending to separate the steel and the concrete.
b) Medium Span Bridges (up to

50m)
The candidate structure types include: concrete and steel box girder, precast pre stressed
concrete box girder, composite rolled steel girder and composite steel plate girder bridges.
Precast Concrete Box Girder Bridges: as span lengths increase transportation and handling
presents a problem.
Composite Rolled Steel Girder composite construction can result in savings of up to 20-
30% for spans over 15m. Adding cover plates and providing continuity over several
supports can increase their economic range to spans of 30m.
Composite Steel Plate Girder Bridges: these can be built to any desired size. These are
suitable for spans of 25-50m and have been used for spans well over 100m. They have low
dead load, which may be of value when foundation conditions are poor.
Cast in – Situ Reinforced Concrete Box Girder these are used for spans of 15-35m and
are
usually more economical than steel girders and precast concrete girders. Their appearance is
good. Their torsional resistance is also good which make them suitable for curved
alignment.
Cast in Place post Tensioned Concrete Box Girder Bridges: these afford many
advantages
interms of safety, appearance, maintenance and economy. These bridges have been used
for spans up to 180m. The number of piers can be reduced because longest spans
can be constructed economically. Dead load deflections are minimized due to the prestress.
Composite Steel Box Girder Bridges: are used for spans of 20-150m. These bridges are
more economical in the upper span ranges where depth may be limited. Because of much
welding and details where errors can give rise to fatigue failures, steel box girder should
be used only in very special circumstances.
c) Large Span Bridges (50-150m)

The candidate structures are: composite steel plate girder, cast in place post tensioned
concrete box girder, post tensioned concrete segmental bridges, concrete and steel
arch bridges, and steel truss bridges.
Most of these are discussed in short and medium span bridges. Post-tensioned concrete
segmental construction may be discussed now. If cast in place construction is to be adopted,
it is common practice to use the balanced cantilever method of construction with
travelling forms. For precast construction also balanced cantilever method will be used by
progressive placement.
d) Extra Large (Long) Span Bridges (over 150m)
An examination of Table 3.1 shows that all of the general bridge types except slab,
have been built with span lengths greater than 150m. These are special bridges designed to
35
meet special circumstances.
36
Two of the bridge types, cable-stayed and suspension bridges are logical and efficient
choices for long span bridges. These tension type structures are graceful and slender in
appearance and are well suited to long water crossings. Maintenance for both is above
average because of the complexity of the hanger and suspension systems. Construction is
actually simpler than for the conventional bridge types for long spans, because false work
is not usually necessary.
3.2.3 Closing Remarks on Selection of Bridge

Type
In the selection of bridge type, there is no unique answer. For each span length range, there
is more than one bridge type that will satisfy the design criteria. There are regional
difference and preferences because of available materials, skilled workers, and
knowledgeable contractors.
Because of the difficulties in predicating the cost offered by the construction industry at
the time of bidding. It is good practice to allow the contractor the option of proposing
an alternative design. This way, technical and practical matters can be catered for and
advantage of good, economical and new construction methods can be exploited.
37
Chapter 4
BRIDGE LOADING
4.1 Introduction
Bridges serve their function under different types of loads. Loads determine the safety and
serviceability of structures. The minimum loads to be taken for design are given in codes
and standards to insure safety and serviceability. These loads may be classified as dead, live,
environmental and other loads. Another way to classify these loads is as permanent or
transient based on the duration of their action. Any of the limit states should not be
exceeded under the most unfavorable combinations of these loads.
First will be treated the different types of loads acting on bridge superstructure and
substructure. Then will be discussed load combinations and the corresponding load factors
to be considered for the different limit states. Construction loads are not specified in here
and the designer should obtain pertinent information from the prospective contractors.
4.2. Type of Loads

The following permanent and transient loads will be considered for bridge design
where applicable. These may also be used for structural evaluation of existing bridges.
Permanent Loads Wind
Loads
Dead Loads WL: wind on live load
DC: dead load of structural components and WS: wind load on
structure Nonstructural attachments Earthquake Load, EQ
DW: dead load of wearing Earth pressure due to live load surcharge, LS
Surfaces and Utilities Force effects due to superimposed deformations
EV: vertical pressure from TU: uniform temperature
Dead load of earth Fill TG: temperature gradient
Earth Loads SH:
shrinkage EH: horizontal earth pressure load CR:
creep
ES: earth surcharge load SE: settlement
DD: down drag EL: accumulated locked-in effects resulting
Transient Loads From the construction
process
Live Loads Friction Forces, FR
LL: Vehicular live load Vessel Collision, CV
PL: pedestrian live load
IM: vehicular dynamic load allowance
CE: vehicular centrifugal force
BR: vehicular braking force
CT: vehicular collision force
Water Loads, WA
Static pressure
Buoyancy
Stream pressure
Wave load
38
Change in foundation due to scour
39
4.3. Different Standards for Bridge Loading
Different countries have got different codes. Some of the most widely used codes are
those of:
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) DIN Standard (in Germany)
BS 5400 Code (British Standard)
IRC (Indian Roads Congress) Bridge Code
AASHTO is the code used in Ethiopia for highway bridge design. Ethiopian Roads
Authority (ERA) has developed Bridge Design Manual, mainly adopting the
specifications of ASHTO 98 to our local condition, which may be used for highway bridge
design.
4.4. AASHTO – 2005 Load Specifications
4.4.1 Dead Loads: DC, DW and EV

Dead loads include the weight of all components of the structure, appurtenances and utilities
attached to the bridge, earth cover, wearing surface, future overlays and planned widening.
The design of all bridge structural elements is based on a set of loading conditions which
the component of element must withstand.
In the absence of more precise information, the densities specified in Table 4.1 may be
used
2
Table 4.1 Densities (acceleration of gravity, g=9.8066m/s for unit weight
computation)
Density Density
Material 3 Material 3
(Kg/m ) (Kg/m )
Bituminous wearing surface 2250 Cast iron 7200
Rolled gravel, macadam or ballast 2250 Soft clay 1600
Cinder filling 960 Steel 7850
Compacted sand, silt or clay 1925 Stone masonry 2725
Concrete, normal 2400 Fresh water 1000
Loose sand, silt or gravel 1600 Salt water 1025
4.4.2 Live Loads

a) Vehicular Live
Loads
Design vehicular live loads on roadways of bridges consist of the combination
of Design truck or design tandem and
Design lane load
Design truck is given in Fig. 4.1. Except in some cases the spacing between the 145kN axles
will be varied between 4.3 and 9m to produce extreme force effects. The design tandem
40
consists of a pair of 110kN axles spaced 1.2m apart.
41
The design lane load consists of a uniform load of 9.3kN/m2, longer than the bridge in
the longitudinal direction, and distributed over 3m width in the transverse direction. This
is to represent vehicle live load on bridges moving slowly during traffic jam. Both the
design truck and the lane load occupy a design lane width of 3m in the transverse direction
(number of design lanes is the integer part of W/3.6 where W is clear roadway width
between curbs in meters).
Fig 4.1 Characteristics of the Design

Truck
This live load model consisting of a truck or tandem coincident with a uniformly
distributed lane load was developed as a notional representation of the shear and moment
produced by a group of vehicles routinely permitted on highways.
b) Pedestrian Live
Loads
A pedestrian load of 3.6kPa shall be applied to sidewalks wider than 0.6m and
considered simultaneously with the vehicular live load.
c) Multiple Presence of Live

Loads
This accounts for the smaller possibility of simultaneous occurrence of maximum live
loads on the bridge. The extreme live load force effects will be determined by considering
each possible combination of number of loaded lanes multiplied by the corresponding
factor specified in Table 4.2. For the purpose of determining the number of lanes for
determination of multiple presence factor, M, when the loading condition includes
pedestrian live loads, the pedestrian live load combined with one or more lanes of vehicular
live loads, the pedestrian walkway may be counted as one loaded lane.
Table 4.2 Multiple presence factor of live loads, M

Number of loaded lanes 1 2 3 >3
Multiple presence factor, M 1.2 1.0 0.85 0.65
d) Dynamic Load Allowance:

IM
Due to hammering effect of wheel assembly on riding surface discontinuities such as deck
joints, potholes, cracks and delaminations or due to surface undulations such as that caused
by settlement of fills or due to resonance of vehicle and bridge vibration, a dynamic
allowance should be made. Field test carried out on the majority of bridges in the US show
42
that the dynamic component of the response does not exceed 25% of the static response to
vehicles. Table 4.3 gives dynamic load allowance, IM. IM shall not be applied to pedestrian
live loads, to design lane load, to centrifugal and braking forces.
43
Table 4.3 Dynamic load allowance, IM
Component Deck joints – All limit states All other components for the following limit state
Fatigue & Fracture All other limit state
IM 7.5% 15% 33%
The dynamic load allowance for culverts and other buried structures in % shall be taken
as
-
IM = 33(1.0 – 4.1 *10
4
DE)>0%
Where DE is the minimum depth of earth cover above the structure (mm).
Dynamic load allowance need not be applied to
Retaining walls not subjected to vertical reactions from the superstructure, and
Foundation components that are entirely below ground level du to
damping effect of the soil mass
e) Centrifugal Force: CE
Centrifugal force is due to inertia force of vehicles on curved bridges at speed. It will be
taken as the product of the axle weights of the design truck or tandem and the factor c
givgn in equation 4.1
2
4v
C= . . . . . (4.1)
3gR
Where:V is highway design speed (m/s)

G gravitational acceleration
2
(m/s )
R is radius of curvature of traffic lane (m)
Centrifugal forces shall be applied horizontally at a distance of 1.8m above
the roadway surface.
f) Braking Force: BR
Based on energy principles, and assuming uniform deceleration, the braking
force determined as a fraction „b‟ of vehicle weight is
2
b= 2ga v . . . . . . (4.2)
Where a is the breaking length (distance) of uniform

deceleration.
Breaking forces shall be taken as 25% of the axle weights of the design truck or tandem
per lane placed in all design lanes headed in the same direction. This applies to truck or
tandem vehicles headed in the same direction because the reaction time can be the same and
they can brake in phase. This factor does not apply to lane load because the many
vehicles during traffic jam can break out of phase.
The braking force will be applied at 1.8m horizontally in the longitudinal direction. The
multiple presence factors apply here.
g) Vehicular Collision Force:

CT
44
Unless protections are provided a horizontal force of 1800KN applied at a.2m above
the ground should be considered.
45
4.4.3 Water Loads: WA
a) Static Pressure
Static pressure of water acts perpendicular to the surfaces retaining the water. It varies
with depth linearly.
b) Buoyancy
Buoyancy is an uplift force acting on submerged part of a structure. It equals volume
of water displaced by the structure multiplied by unit weight of water.
c) Stream Pressure
i) Longitudinal: The pressure of flowing water acting in the longitudinal directionof
substructures will be taken as
-4 2
P=5.14x10 CV . . . . . . (4.3).
Where: P is pressure of flowing water (MPa)

CD is drag coefficient given in Table 4.4
V is design velocity of design flood
(m/s)
The longitudinal drag force will be taken as the product of longitudinal stream pressure and
the projected area of substructure subjected to the force.
ii) Lateral
The lateral uniformly distributed pressure on a substructure due to water flowing at an
angle 0 to the longitudinal axis of the pier as shown in Fig. 4.2 is
- 2
4P=5.14x10 . . . . . . (4.4).
CL V
Where: P is lateral pressure (MPa)

CL is lateral drag coefficient given in Table 4.4.
Fig 4.2 Longitudinal and transverse water pressure on a pier
Table 4.4 CD and CL

Table for Drag Coefficient, CD Table for Lateral Drag Coefficient, CL
Type CD Angle 0 in Fig. 4.2 CL
Semi-circular nosed pier 0.7 00 0.0
Square ended pier 1.4 500 0.5
Debris logged against the pier 1.4 10 0.7
0
Wedge nosed pier, nose angle <900 0.8 20 0.9
40
0
>30 1.0
40
4.4.4 Wind Loads: WL and
WS
a) Wind Pressure on
Structures
Wind load on bridges is assumed to be uniformly distributed acting perpendicular to
the projected area of exposed components. The pressure specified here is for a base
wind velocity of 160Km/hr.
The design wind pressure on structures PD in MPa may be determined from
Where:PB is base wind pressure given in table 4.5

VDZ is design wind velocity at design elevation, Z(km/hr)
V10 is wind velocity 10m above low ground or design water level
(km/hr) VB is base wind velocity, 160km/hr
Z is height of structure at which wind load is calculated,
>10m V0 is friction velocity given in Table 4.6
Z0 is friction length of upstream fetch given in Table 4.6
Table 4.6 PB, V0 and Z0
Table for PB, MPa Table for V0 and
Z0
Structural Component Windward Leeward Condition Open Suburban City
Pressure Pressure, Country
Trusses, columns, arches 0.0024 0.0012 V0,(km/hr) 13.2 17.6 19.3
Beams 0.0024 NA Z0,(mr) 0.7 1.0 2.5
Large flat surface 0.0019 NA
Equation (4.4) is based on boundary layer theory combined with empirical observations
and represents the most recent approach to define wind speed as used in metrology.
The wind load shall not be taken less than 4.4kN/m on the windward side and 2.2kN/m on
the leeward side for trusses and arch components, and not less than 4.4kN/m on beam
or girder components.
The transverse and longitudinal forces to be applied directly to the substructure shall
be calculated from an assumed base wind pressure of 0.0019Mpa. For skewed wind
direction, this force will be decomposed in to longitudinal and transverse components.
b) Wind Pressure on Vehicles:

WL
It is possible for wind to blow when vehicles are on the bridge. Therefore, the design wind
pressure will be applied to both the structure and the vehicles. Win pressure on vehicles
41
shall be taken as a moving force with the vehicle of 1.46kN/m acting normal to and
1.8m above the roadway.
42
c) Aerodynamic
Instability
Aerodynamic force effects shall be taken in to account for bridges and components that
are wind-sensitive. A rough value of span to depth or width ration above which bridges
become wind-sensitive is 30.0.
Fig.4.3 Failure of Tacoma Narrows bridge under a gale of 67km/hr due to aerodynamic
instability
Flexible bridges such as cable-supported or very long spans of any type may require
special studies based on wind tunnel test.
4.4.5 Earthquake Effects:

EQ
Earthquake forces are inertia forces due to mass of bridges when a sudden shaking of
the ground occurs. These are taken as horizontal forces obtained as the product of
seismic coefficient Csm and the equivalent weight of the structure. The equivalent weight
is the function of the actual weight and bridge configuration
. . . . . . . (4.7)
43
44
Where: Pe(x) is equivalent static earthquake loading
Csm is dimensionless elastic seismic response coefficient
P0(x) is a uniform load arbitrarily set to 1N/mm
Vs(x) is deformation corresponding to P0 (mm) (Fig.4.3)
W(x) is unfactored dead load of the bridge superstructure and tributary substructure
(N/mm)
th
Tm is period of vibration of the m mode
A is acceleration coefficient which is the ratio of horizontal seismic
ground acceleration expected in an area to that of gravity, in EBSC8: 1995.
S is site coefficient given in Table 4.7
The factors have units of mm2, N-mm and N-mm2 respectively
Table 4.7 Sie coefficients

Soil type
Site coefficient I II III IV

S 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0
Fig 4.3 Bridge deck subjected to assumed transverse and longitudinal loading
45
In locations where the soil properties are not known in sufficient detail to determine the
soil type or where the type does not meet any of the four types, the site coefficient for soil
type II shall be used.
Soil
Types
Type I - rock or stiff soils where the soil depth is less that 60m, and the soil types
overlying the rock are stable deposits of sand, gravel or stiff clay.
Type II - stiff cohesive or deep cohesionless soil, with soil depth greater that 60m and
the soil type overlying the rock are stable deposits of sand, gravel or stiff clay.
Type III – soft to medium stiff clays and sands
Type IV – soft clays or silts greater that 12m deep
Seismic analysis is not required for single span bridges. Minimum design connection force
between the superstructure and substructure in the restrained direction greater that or equal
to the product of S, A and the tributary permanent load.
Seismic analysis is not required for bridges in areas with A

0.09.
It is uneconomical to design a bridge to resist large earthquakes elastically. Columns are

allowed to deform in elastically in which case smaller sections can be used. The force used
to design members can be obtained dividing force for elastic design by response
modification factor, designated R, given in Table 4.8
Table 4.8 Response modification

factors
For Substructures For Connections
Importance cate.
Essentia R for
Critical Other Connection
l All
Substructure
Wall-type pier, 1.5 1.5 2.0 Superstructure to abutment 0.8
larger dimension
Single column 1.5 2.00 3.0 Expansion joints within a span of the 0.8
bents superstructure
Multiple column 1.5 3.5 5.0 Columns, piers to cap beam or 1.0
bents superstructure
Columns of piers to foundations 1.0
The basis of classification include social/survival and security/defense requirements.

Essential bridges are generally those that should, as a minimum, be open to
emergency vehicles and for security/defense purposes immediately after the earthquake,
i.e., a 475-year return period event. However, some bridges must remain open to all
traffic after design earthquake and be usable by emergency vehicles and for
security/defense purposes immediately after a large earthquake, e.g., a 2500 year return
period event. These bridges should be regarded as critical structures.
4.4.6 Earth Pressure: EH, ES, LS and

DD
46
Soil exerts lateral earth pressure on retaining walls. The magnitude of the earth pressure
depends on type and density of retained soil, soil – structure interaction, degree of
compaction, location of GWT, amount of surcharge and earthquake effects. Fig. 4.4 shows
variation of lateral earth pressure with movement of retaining walls. Movement required
to
47
reach the minimum active or the maximum passive pressures is the function of wall height, H
and soil type. Table 4.9 gives approximate values of relative movement /H to reach the
minimum active or the maximum passive earth pressures.
a) Movement of soil surrounding model b) Effect of wall

displacement Retaining wall in a laboratory on lateral pressure
Fig 4.4
Table 4.9 Approximate values of /H required to activate

extreme active and passive earth pressures
Values of /H
Active Passive
Type of backfill
Dense sand 0.001 0.01
Medium-dense sand 0.002 0.02
Loose sand 0.004 0.04
Compacted silt 0.002 0.02
Compacted lean clay 0.01 0.05
Compacted fat clay 0.01 0.05
There are two earth pressure theories commonly used. These are Rankine and Coulomb earth
pressure theories.
i) Rankine Arth Pressure Theory – this assumes smooth and vertical wall surface.
The
second assumption is that there is sufficient wall motion that the soil is in a plastic state of
equilibrium
The second assumption is satisfied if retaining walls move sufficiently to activate the active
and passive states, which is the case for free standing abutments.
The first assumption is not satisfied for masonry and RC abutments, in which case the result
obtained deviate significantly from the actual. Therefore, Coulomb earth pressure is give by
AASHTO.
For horizontal backfill, the magnitude of the resultant force does not differ greatly as
computed by Rankine and Coulomb methods, but the directions differ greatly.
ii) Coulomb Earth Pressure Theory – this is based on the concept of the sliding wedge
theory of a wedge bounded by the face of the wall and a failure plane passing through the
48
base of the wall. Wall friction is considered for this case. This does not account
for cohesion, and neglecting that adds to the safety because cohesion contributes favorably.
In literature, the pressure distribution is not given and only the resultant force is given.
But AASHTO gives a triangular distribution as shown in Fig. 4.5.
Fig 4.5
Basic earth pressure is assumed to vary linearly proportional to depth
P=K s
gs Where:
P is basic earth pressure in pascals

Kh is coefficient of lateral earth pressure taken as K0 for at rest condition, Ka for
walls moving sufficiently away from backfill to reach minimum active earth
pressure, and KP for walls moving sufficiently against earth to activate
maximum passive earth pressure.
3
s is density of soil (kg/m )
z is depth below the surface of earth
2
(m) g is gravitational acceleration (m/s )
a) At Rest Pressure Coefficient K0

For normally consolidated soil, the coefficient of lateral earth pressure may be taken
as K0 = 1 - sin f. . . . . . . (4.12)
f friction angle of drained soil

For over consolidated soil, K0 may be assumed to vary as a function of the over
consolidation ration, OCR
sin
K0 = (1 – sin f ) (OCR) f
a) Active Pressure Coefficient, Ka

Values for active earth pressure may be taken as
49
Ka=
Where is friction angle between fill and wall taken as specified in table 4.10
is angle of fill with horizontal as shown in Fg. 4.5, in degrees
is angle of back of wall with the horizontal in degrees
‟ is effective angle of internal friction in degrees
Table 4.10 Friction angle for dissimilar materials

Interface Materials Friction Angle, (deg)
Mass concrete or masonry on the following foundation materials:
Clean sound rock 35
Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixtures, coarse sand 29 to 31
Clean fine to medium sand, silty medium to coarse sand silty or
clayey gravel 24 to 29
Clean fine sand, silty or clayey fine to medium sand 19 to 24
Fine sandy silt, non- plastic silt
Very stiff and hard residual or pre consolidated clay 22 to 26
Medium stiff and stiff clay and silty clay 17 to 19
Steel sheet piles against the following soils:
Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixtures, well-graded
rock fill with spalls 22
Clean sand, silty sand-gravel mixture, single-size hard rock fill 17
Silty sand, gravel, or sand mixed with silt or clay 14
Fine sandy silt, non - plastic silt 11
Formed or precast concrete or concrete sheet piling against the
following soils
Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixture, well-graded rock fill with spalls 22 to 26
Clean sand, silty sand-gravel mixture, single-size hard rock fill 17 to 22
Silty sand, gravel, or sand mixed with silt or clay 17
Fine sandy silt, non plastic silt 14
Various structural materials:
Masonry on masonry, igneous, and metamorphic rocks
dressed soft rock on dressed soft rock 35
dressed hard rock on dressed soft rock 33
dressed hard rock on dressed hard rock 29
26
Masonry on wood in direction of cross grain
17
Steel on steel at sheet pile interlocks
c) Passive Pressure Coefficient,

Kp
For non-cohesive soils, values of the coefficient of passive earth pressure may be taken from
Fig. 4.6 for the case of a sloping or vertical wall with a horizontal backfill or from Fig 4.7
for the case of a vertical wall and sloping backfill. For conditions that deviate from
those described in Fig. 4.6 and 4.7, the passive pressure may be calculated by a trial
50
procedure
51
based on wedge theory. When wedge theory is used, the limiting value of the wall
friction angle should not be taken larger than one-half the angle of internal friction, .
Fig. 4.6 Computational Procedures for Passive Earth Pressures for Sloping Wall
with Horizontal Backfill
52
Fig 4.7 Computational procedure of passive earth pressure for sloping backfill
Surcharge Loads: Earth Surcharge (ES) and Live Load Surcharge(LS)

Where a uniform surcharge acts on a backfill retained by a wall, a constant horizontal
earth pressure will be added to the horizontal earth pressure.
P = Ksqs . . . . . (4.14)
Ks is coefficient of earth pressure, Ka for active case, K0 for at rest case and
Kp for passive pressure
qs is uniform surcharge applied to the upper surface of the active earth wedge
Lateral earth pressure due to live load surcharge has the distribution shown.
53
Live load surcharge will have to be considered for vehicular loads acting with in a distance
of the wall height behind the back face of the wall. The increase in pressure due to live
load surcharge may be estimated from
p=K sgheq . . . . . . . (4.15)
Where:
3
s is density of soil (kg./m )
g is acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
heq Equivalent height of soil for the design truck, which may be taken from Table 4.11
Table 4.11 Equivalent height of soil for vehicular loading
Wall height (m) heq (m)

1.5 1.7
3.0 1.2
6.0 0.76
9.0 0.61
Downdrag
When soil surrounding piles settle, it applies a downward force. In case this occurs,
this force should be considered.
4.4.7. Force Effects due to Superimposed Deformations: TU, TG, SH, CR, SE
a) Uniform Temperature (TU) – when the surrounding temperature of a bridge

rises or falls, bridge materials expand or contract. Temperature deformation can
be big for bridges due to their size and exposure to temperature variations. The
difference between the lowest or the highest temperature and the base
construction temperature assumed in the design shall be used to calculate
thermal deformation effects.
b) Temperature Gradient (TG) – Temperature rise can differ on the top and bottom
surfaces of a bridge because the top surface is subjected to direct solar
O
radiation. There is not data for Ethiopia but T1 may be taken 30 C and T2
O O O
7.8 C for lowlands, and T1 as 25 C and T2 as 6.7 C for highlands in Fig. 4.8
50
for concrete
50
O
bridges and steel superstructures with concrete deck. T3 will be taken as 0 C. T1,
T2 and T3 are not absolute temperatures, but relative
A = 0.3m for concrete super structure with depth 0.4m and

A = depth – 0.1m for depth < 0.4m
Fig 4.8
c) Shrinkage (SH) and Creep (CR) – where appropriate, differential shrinkage

strains shall be considered. Creep should also be accounted for and force effects
due to creep depends on time and changes in compressive stress.
d) Settlement (SE) – Differential settlement causes internal forces in continuous
structures. Extreme values of differential settlements should be determined and
used to analyze for internal forces.
4.5. AASHTO – 2005 Load Factors and Load Combinations
In Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) method, load factors are applied to the loads
and resistance factors to the internal resistances or capacities of sections. The value of a load
factor depends on the accuracy with which a load can be determined and the probability of its
simultaneous occurrence with other loads in a combination for a specific limit state.
Components and connections in a bridge shall satisfy Eqn (1.1) reproduced below for
convenience, for the applicable combinations of factored extreme force effects as specified at
each of the following limit states.
Where:
i = load factor, a statistically based multiplier applied to force effects, specified
in Tables 4.12 and 4.13
= resistance factor, a statistically based multiplier applied to nominal resistance
Qi = is force effect, Rn = nominal resistance and Rf – factored resistance = Rn
ηi = load modifier, a factor relating to ductility (ηD), redundancy (ηR), and
operational
importance (ηI) as given in Eqns 4.16 and 4.17
51
For loads for which a maximum value of i is appropriate
52
ηi = ηD ηR ηI 0.95 . . . . . . (4.16)
For loads for which a minimum value of is appropriate
STRENGTH I – Basic load combination relating to the normal vehicular use of the
bridge without wind
STRENGTH II - Load combination relating to the use of the bridge by ERA – specified
special design vehicles, permit vehicles, or both without wind
STRENGTH III - Load combination relating to the bridge exposed to wind velocity
exceeding 90 km/h. Vehicles become unstable at higher wind velocities.
Therefore, high winds prevent the presence of significant live load on
the bridge.
STRENGTH IV - Load combination relating to very high dead load to live load force
effect ratios. For bridges with upto 180m spans, this load combination
will govern where the dead load to live load force effect ration
exceeds 7.0.
STRENGTH V - Load combination relating to normal vehicular use of the bridge with
wind of 90km/h (25m/s) velocity.
EXTREME EVENT I - Load combination including earthquake
EXTREME EVENT II - Load combination relating to ice load, collision by vessels and
vehicles, and certain hydraulic events with a reduced live
load other than that which is part of the vehicular collision load,
CT
SERVICE I - Load combination relating to the normal operational use of the bridge with
a 90km/h wind and all loads taken at their nominal values. Also related to
deflection control in buried metal structures, tunnel liner plate, and
thermoplastic pipe and to control crack width in reinforced concrete
structures. This load combination should also be used for the investigation
of slope stability
Compression in prestressed concrete components is investigated using

this load combination.
SERVICE II - Load combination intended to control yielding of steel structures and slip
of slip critical connections due to vehicular live load.
SERVICE III - Load combination relating only to tension in prestressed concrete structures
with the objective of crack
control.
FATIGUE - Fatigue and fracture load combination relating to repetitive gravitational
vehicular live load and dynamic responses under a single design truck
having the axle spacing of 9m between the 145kN axles.
53
Table 4.12 Load combinations and load factors
Load Combination DC EV LL PL WA WS WL FR TU TG SE
DD ES IM LS CR
Limit state DW CE EL SH
EH BR
Strength I (unless noted) p 1.75 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE
Strength II p 1.35 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE
Strength III p - 1.00 1.40 - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE
Strength IV - -
EH, EV, ES, DW p - 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20
DC only 1.50
Strength V p 1.35 1.00 0.40 1.0 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE
Extreme Event I p EO 1.00 - - 1.00 - - -
Extreme Event II p 0.50 1.00 - - 1.00 - - -
Service I 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.30 1.0 1.00 1.00/1.20 TG SE
Service II 1.00 0.80 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 - -
Service III 1.00 0.80 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 TG SE
Fatigue-LL, IM,CE only - 0.75 - - - - - - -
The load factor for temperature gradient, TG, and settlement, SE, should be considered on
a project specific basis. In lieu of project specific information, TG may be taken as 0.0 at
the extreme event limit states, 1.0 at the service limit state when live load is not considered,
and 0.50 at the service limit state when live load is considered.
For segmentally constructed bridges, the following combination shall be investigated at the
service limit state:
DC+DW+EH+EV+ES+WA+CR+SH+TG+EL
Load Factors for Construction

Loads
Load factors for the weight of the structure and appurtenances shall not be taken less
than 1.25.
Unless otherwise specified by ERA, the load factor for construction loads, for equipment
and for dynamic effects shall not be less than 1.5. The load factor for wind shall not be less
than
1.25. All other load factors shall be taken as
1.0.
The load factors presented here should not relieve the contractor of the responsibility
for safety and damage control during construction.
54
Table 4.13 Load factors for permanent loads, p
Load Factor
Type of Load Maximum Minimum
DC: Components and attachment 1.25 0.90
DD: Downdrag 1.80 0.45
DW: Wearing surface and utilities 1.50 0.65
EH: Horizontal earth pressure
Active 1.50 0.90
At rest 1.35 0.90
EL: Locked-in erection stresses 1.0 1.0
EV: Vertical earth pressure
Overall stability 1.35 N/A
Retaining structure 1.35 1.00
Rigid buried structure 1.30 0.90
Rigid Frames 1.35 0.90
Flexible buried structure other than metal
box culverts 1.95 0.90
1.50 0.90
Flexible metal box culverts
ES: Earth surcharge 1.50 0.75
For conventional construction, resistance factor shall be taken as
For flexure and tension of RC 0.9 For compression in strut-and-tie model 0.70
For flexure and tension of PSC 1.00 For compression in anchorage zones 0.80
For shear and torsion 0.90 For tension in steel in anchorage zones 1.00
For bearing on concrete 0.70 For resistance during pile driving 1.00
For axial compression with spiral or ties 0.75
For compression members with flexure, the value of may be increased linearly too
the value for flexure as the factored axial load resistance, Pn decreases from 0.10f‟ cAg to 0.
55
Chapter 5
SUPERSTRUCTURES
5.1. Introduction
An efficient design of bridge superstructure is essential to achieve overall economy in

the whole bridge structure in that the superstructure dead weight may form a significant
portion of the gravity load the bridge must sustain and transmit to the foundation. A light
superstructure is economical not only in material requirements of the superstructure but
also requires smaller size for substructure and foundations. A clear understanding of the
structural behavior of superstructures under loads is essential for efficient design.
A bridge superstructure is an integrated body of various members of reinforced

concrete, prestressed concrete, steel, composite, diaphragms, trusses, arches, etc.
Determination of forces in these components is essential for design purposes. The method
of analysis may be static or dynamic based on the response characteristics of the
superstructure to various loadings. Static analysis will be used for structures that are
relatively insensitive to dynamic action of moving live loads and, wind and earthquake
loads, and which undergo small deformations. Most commonly constructed bridges of
small and medium size fall under this category for which small deformation theory is used
(deformations are small and negligible as not to affect force effects). For these types of
bridges, static analysis is used with dynamic magnification factor, IM for vehicular live
loads, to account for larger load effect that the same load applied statically. However, for
flexible bridges and long slender components, due to their susceptibility to vibration and
their large deformations, dynamic analysis should be made. For these types of bridges
dynamic effects of moving live loads may exceed the allowance for impact, IM.
Dynamic analysis should be carried out not only for wind and earthquake loads but also
for moving live loads.
Analysis for internal actions will be followed by section analysis and design by the
strength design method.
Therefore, structural analysis and section design of different types of bridge

superstructures will be made in this chapter. Emphasis will be given to reinforced concrete
bridges of small and medium spans because these are the most commonly constructed
types of bridges in Ethiopia.
5.2. Reinforced Concrete
The two principal materials used in superstructure construction are steel and concrete.
Reinforced concrete bridges possess several advantages over steel bridges. The major
ones
are the adaptability of concrete to a wide variety of structural shapes and forms, and low
cost of maintenance (less than 1% of construction cost per year). The other advantages are
long life and better resistance to temporary overloads and dynamic loads than steel bridges.
Cast- in-place reinforced concrete structureare continuous and monolithic, attributes,
56
which translate into easy construction, low cost and good seismic resistance. They can
also be given the desired aesthetic appearance.
57
The disadvantages of concrete are large dead weight (which require larger foundation),
difficulty to widen or rebuild, longer construction time and that it requires formwork
and false work, which are expensive.
A bridge deck is the medium through which all bridge loads are transferred to other
components. Fig. 5.1 shows load path from bridge deck down to the supporting foundation
soil.
Fig. 5.1 Load path from bridge deck down to foundation
Bridge live loads occupy partial area of the decks unlike live loads in buildings which is
taken uniformly distributed all over the floor area. Live load on bridges can occupy random
positions both longitudinally and transversely, and thus effect the live load shared by
various beams. This aspect of live load distribution is one of the primary concerns in the
analysis of bridge decks.
Influence lines will be used to determine load position for maximum effect and the
magnitude of these effects. Fig. 5.2 shows influence lines for shear and moment.
Fig. 5.2. Influence lines for absolute maximum shear and

moment
There are various methods of deck analysis varying from hand calculation to
computer software, and the applicability of an analytical method to a bridge depends on the
complexity of its structural form and its behavioral characteristics. From this standpoint the
most commonly used type are the following:
56
1. Slab bridges
2. Beam and slab deck bridges (T-Girder Bridges)
3. Cellular deck bridges
4. Frame bridges
5.2.1 Slab Bridges

Slab bridges are most commonly used to span short spans up to 12m. The load carrying
mechanism is by plate action, i.e., by bending and twisting due to continuity in all
directions, as shown in Fig. 5.3. Application of a load on the portion make the slab deflect
into a dish shape locally, causing a two-dimensional system of bending and twisting
moments, the mechanism through which the load is transferred to the adjacent elements of
the deck, which are less severely loaded.
The governing equation for the vertical deflection of a loaded plate developed by S.
D. Poisson and boundary conditions modified by G.R Kirchhoff is
Z is the downward deflection of the plate

q is intensity of uniform load
D is flexural rigidity of the plate and h is thickness of slab, poisson‟s
ratio
Fig. 5.3 Load carrying mechanism of slab bridge treated as a

plate
In the absence of closed form solution to Eqn.(5.1), approximate methods are

developed. One method is the method of influence surfaces, which uses design charts. These
charts have been prepared by Pucher for slabs of various shapes and support conditions
(1964), and by Rusch and Heregnroder (1961) and Balas and Hanuska (1964) for simply
supported skew slabs.
Another method is the grillage method. Some softwares are developed for this
method.
57
Fig. 5.4 Grillage idealization of slab bridge
Yet another method is line solution technique, which reduces the partial differential
equation to their finite difference equivalents in one direction.
Another method is the strip method, which AASHTO recommends to use.

The equivalent width E of an interior longitudinal strip per lane for both shear and
moment with one lane loaded, (i.e., two lines of wheels) may be determined from
E = 250 + 0.42 . . . . . . (5.2)
The equivalent width E per lance with more than one lane loaded, may be determined
from E=2100 + 0.12
Where: E is equivalent width (mm)

L1 is the lesser of actual span or 18000mm, where actual span is c/c of
supports or clear span plus effective depth whichever is smaller
W1 is actual edge to edge width of bridge or 18000mm for multi lane loading or
9000mm for single lane loading, whichever is lesser.
W is physical edge to edge width of bridge (mm)
NL is the number of design lanes
For edge strip, the equivalent width E is [Art.

4.6.2.1.4]
E = distance from edge to face of barrier + 300mm + ½ interior strip width ≤ full
strip width of interior strip or 1800mm
AASHTO Art 9.7.4 requires that at lines of discontinuity, the edge of the slab deck
shall either be strengthened or be supported by a beam or other line component. The
beam or component shall be integrated with the deck.
Durability of deck slabs is a subject of universal concern. As riding surfaces of vehicular

traffic they must have durability against abrasion to repetitive cycles of loading The
other major durability problem is corrosion of reinforcing steel. This can be protected by
58
providing minimum cover to reinforcement.
59
Minimum reinforcement cover is given in Table 5.12.3-1 of AASHTO. For bottom
reinforcement of cast in place slabs for reinforcement of diameter 36mm or less, a cover
of 25mm shall be provided.
Traditional minimum depth given in Table 1 will be began with for design, which will
later be checked for concrete strength.
Table 1: Traditional minimum depths for constant depth superstructures [AASHTO

2005, Art. 2.5.6.2.3].
Section analysis for flexure

follows
60
Fig. 5.5
The factor β1 shall be taken as 0.85 for concrete strengths exceeding 28MPa, β1 shall be
reduced at a rate of 0.05 for each 7MPa of strength in excess of 8MPa, 1≥0.65 Art 5.7.2.2
Horizontal force equilibrium, C=T
0.85f‟ cab=Asfy a = Asfy /0.85fc‟b = pfyd/0.85f‟c
a = (Asfy – A‟sf‟y) / 0.85fc‟b for doubly reinforced sections
Moment equilibrium Mn = T(d-a/2) = Asfy (d-a/2)

Mu = Mn = Asfy (d-
0.588pfy/f‟c)
Mu= [Asfy (d-a/2)-A‟sf‟y(d‟-a/2)+0.85f‟c(b-bw)βhf(a/2-hf/2)]
Limits for reinforcement [Art 5.7.3.3]

Maximum reinforcement is such that, c/d≤0.42, if c>0.42d, then the section is over
reinforced
Minimum:
5.2.2 T-Girder
Bridges
T-Girders are used for bridges spanning from about 10-25m. These usually consist of equally
spaced beams (generally with spacing of 1.8 – 3.6m) spanning longitudinally between
60
supports.
60
Fig. 5.4 T-girder RC Temcha

bridge
The slab is structurally continuous across the top. The slab serves the dual purpose of
supporting the live load on the bridge and acting as the top flange of the longitudinal beams.
Diaphragms are provided transversely between the beams over the supports and depending
on the span, at midspan and other intermediate locations. The purpose of providing
diaphragms is to ensure lateral distribution of live loads to various adjacent stringers, the
magnitude of the share of each stringer depends on the stiffness of the diaphragms relative
to the stringers and on the method of connectivity.
Under loads, the response of a slab is characterized by longitudinal bending with the
stringers as top flanges accompanied by transverse bending as a continuous slab. The
transverse bending of the slab makes the remote beams to share load, which also
causes twisting of beams for compatibility of deformation as shown in Fig. 5.5. The
participatory action of these remote beams depends on the stiffness of the slab and its
span, spacing and stiffness of beams.
The participatory action of remote beams and various superstructure components is

referred to as load distribution.
Design of T- girder bridges consists of deck slab analysis and design, and the T-
girder analysis and design.
Structural analysis of the deck slab involves taking a continuous strip perpendicular to
the girders (Art. 9.6.1) and analyzing by moment distribution or using design aid given
by AASHTO ILS for critical position of loads. Extreme positive moment at any point will
be taken to apply to all positive moment regions (Art 4.6.2.1.1). The width of equivalent
interior transverse strip over which the wheel loads can be considered distributed
longitudinally in cast – in – place concrete decks is given as [Table Art. 4.6.2.1.3-1]
61
Fig. 5.5 Deformation of slab and girders under loads
Overhang, 1140+0.833X
Positive moment, 660+0.55S
Negative moment,
1220+0.25S
Where X is the distance from the wheel load to centerline of support and S is the spacing of
the T-beams.
In the design of overhang deck slab, design forces acting on the barrier should be considered.
Table 5.1 Design forces for a performance level 2(PL-2) barrier
Direction Force Length

Transverse 240kN 1.07m
Longitudinal 80kN 1.07m
Vertical 80kN 5.00
These tables give classification of cross section of girder bridges
62
63
These tables give empirical load distribution factors to girders for moment and shear
[Art. 4.6.2.2.2]
64
65
66
67
Section analysis and design is similar to slab bridges.
In T-girder analysis, transverse placement of lines of wheels that give maximum shear
and moment is one line on the beam and the other with in span if S>1.8m.
Placement of line load in the longitudinal direction for maximum effect is made using
influence lines.
68
Section analysis and design follows that for T-beams. The deck slab serves as the top flange
of the T-beam.
Design for
Flexure
Mu= [Asfy(d-a/2)-A‟sf‟y(d‟-a/2)+0.85f‟c(be-bw)βhf(a/2-
hf/2) Where be - is effective width of the flange at span

A‟s – is compression reinforcement for doubly reinforced beams
hf – thickness of flange slab
The effective flange width for interior beams may be taken as the least of: [Art. 4.6.2.6.1]
One quarter of the effective span length
12 times the average depth of the slab plus the greater of the web thickness or
top flange of the girder
The average spacing of adjacent beams
For exterior beams, the effective flange width may be taken as one half of the
adjacent interior beam plus the least of: [Art. 4.6.2.6.1]
One -eighth of the effective span length
6 times the average depth of the slab plus the greater of one half the web
thickness or one quarter of the width of the top flange of the basic girder
The width of the overhang
This formula is a general one, which can be used for T-beams, rectangular singly
reinforced and rectangular doubly reinforced beams. Limits for reinforcement given for slabs
apply here also.
c/d≤0.42,
Minimum
Depth from deflection requirement is began with {Art. 2.5.2.6.3 Table 1}
D = 0.07L for RC T-beams of simple span
D = 0.065L for RC T-beams of continuous
spans. minimum slab thickness is 175mm Art. 9.7.1.1
minimum cover is as given in Table 5.1 [Art. 5.12.3]
End hook anchorage requirement of reinforcement bar is as given in Fig. [Art. 5.11.2.4]
69
Design for shear

The nominal shear resistance, Vn is
Vn=Vc+Vs
Vn=0.25 F‟cbwd
For which Vc – 0.083βbwd f‟c
Vs=[Avfyd(cot +cot )sin /S
0
For = 90 ‟ Vs=Avfyd cot /S
Where:
Vu= Vn
β=2.0 for sections containing at least minimum shear reinforcement or having

=450 overall depth less than 400mm
70
Minimum reinforcement (Art.

5.8.2.5)
Where transverse reinforcement is required, the minimum reinforcement is
Maximum spacing (Art. 5.8.2.7)
S ≤0.8d≤ 600mm if Vu<0.1f‟cbwd

S≤0.4d ≤300mm if Vu ≥0.1f‟cbwd
5.2.3 Box Girder

Bridges
Concrete box girder bridges are economical for spans of above 25 to 45m. They can be
reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete. Longer span than 45m will have to be
prestressed.
They are similar to T-beams in configuration except the webs of T-beams are all
interconnected by a common flange resulting in a cellular superstructure. The top slab, webs
and bottom slab are built monolithically to act as a unit, which means that full shear transfer
must be provided between all parts of the section.
Reinforced concrete box girders have high torsional resistance due to their closed shape
and are particularly suitable for structures with significant curvature. This construction also
lends itself to aesthetic treatment.
Concrete box girder bridges have several advantages over other

types;
1. The relatively shallow depth of box girders is an advantage where headroom is
limited like in urban overpasses.
2. Monolithic construction of the superstructure and substructure offers structural as well
as aesthetic advantage. The pier caps for continuous box girders can be placed within
71
the box, facilitating rigid connection to the pier.
3. They provide space for utilities such as water and gas lines, power, telephone and
cable ducts, storm drains and sewers, which can be placed in the hollow cellular section.
71
4. The other advantages are, as mentioned previously, their torisional stiffness
and aesthetics.
Typical cross sections are shown in Fig. 5.6. While the interior webs are all vertical, the
exterior webs may be vertical, inclined or curved. When the exterior webs are inclined, their
slope should preferably be 1HL 2V.
Fig. 5.6 Typical box girder cross sections
Design
Considerations
The structural behavior of box girders is similar to T-beams. Box girders are essentially T-
beams with transverse bottom flange resulting in a closed, torsionally stiff multi-cell
configuration.
The interior webs resist shear and often only a small portion of girder moments.
Consequently they are usually thinner than the webs of T-beams. This is so because, in the
case of continuous T-beams, the webs must resist the negative girder moments as well all
the shear, and contain all the reinforcement for positive moments.
The bottom slab (soffit) contains reinforcement for the positive moment and also acts as a
compression flange in the negative moment regions of continuous spans. The bottom slab
also affords a superstructure considerably thinner that a T-beam bridge of the same span
and permits even longer spans to be built.
Cross-sections are taken as shown in Fig 5.7 a and b for analysis for exterior and
interior girders respectively. The structural analysis is same as for T-beams. Section analysis
is also same except the compression bottom flange for continuous spans. The entire slab
width is assumed effective for compression.
72
First Smester
e 2012/13 A.
a) Exterior girder b) Interior girder

Fig. 5.7 Box girder cross sections taken for analysis
Proportions
Depth - is dictated by deflection requirement
D = 0.06L for simple spans
D = 0.066L for continuous spans
D = 0.045L for precast, cast-in-pace prestressed, simple spans
D – 0.040L for continuous spans
Top slab thickness: minimum is 175mm

Bottom slab thickness has no requirement except 140mm thickness required for
placing concrete around reinforcement.
Web
s There are no provision in the AASHTO specifications governing the spacing and
thickness of webs (girders). Their primary purpose is to resist shear and only a small
portion of the moments. Optimum web spacing are suggested to be between 2.1 and
2.75m for span up to 45m, and as much as 3.66 for longer spans. A web thickness of
200mm is considered a desirable minimum for practical considerations for shear
reinforcement and concrete pouring. For prestressed concrete, a minimum of 300mm is

used for placement of tendon ducts.
5.2.4 Continuous Reinforce Concrete

Bridges
Advantages
i- Less number of bearings than simply supported bridge since on line of
bearings are used over he piers.
ii- Reduced width of pier, thus less flow obstruction and less amount of
material.
iii- Requires less number of expansion joints due to which both the initial cost
and maintenance cost become less. The rigidity quality over the bridge is
thus improved.
iv- Lesser depth of girder, hence economical
supports.
v- Better architectural appearance.
vi- Lesser Vibration and
73
deflection.
Disadvantage
s
i- Analysis is laborious and time
consuming.
74
ii- Not suitable on yielding foundations.
Fig. 5.8 Continuous RC girder bridge

(Haunched) The deck can be slab, T-beam or box section.
Fig. 5.9 Piccolo Abay continuous haunched RC girder bridge
Fig. 5.10 Abay bridge on Bure-Nekemt road, continuous haunched RC pre stressed
box girder bridge
74
Balanced cantilever method of construction is used for this bridge. Fig. 5.11 shows
example of this method of construction.
Fig. 5.11 Balanced cantilever method of construction with moving formwork
5.2.5 Reinforce Concrete Rigid Frame Bridges

In rigid frame bridges, the deck is rigidly connection to the bridge and piers. All the
advantages of a continuous span bridge are present here.
Additional advantages of rigid frame bridges over continuous ones
are i- More rigidity of the structure
ii- Less moments in deck being partly transferred to the supporting members
iii- Non bearings are required
iv- Better aesthetic appearance than the continuous span structure
As in continuous span bridges, these structures also require unyielding foundation
materials. The analysis is however, more laborious than the former.
The frames may be hinged or fixed at the base.
Hinged base
The moments carried over to the base rotate only the vertical supports thereby
reducing the moments very considerably and no moments are carried over to the footings.
Fig. 5.12 Rigid frame bridges
75
Only the vertical load and the moment caused by the thrust at the hinge level are to be
considered in designing the footings.
The moments at the base of supports and at the rafts are very small but the span
moments are greater than those of fixed frames.
Fixed base
The moments from the superstructure are carried over to the footings since the
vertical supports cannot rotate independently without rotating the footings along with
them. This state is achieved if the foundation rests on solid rock or unyielding foundation.
5.3. Steel Bridges
Steel bridge construction consists of rolled steel beams, plate girders or trusses with
reinforced concrete deck or steel plate deck-beam bridges.
Steel has got several advantages
It is a high quality, homogeneous, isotropic material that is perfectly elastic to its
yield point. It has high tensile and compressive strengths. Past the yield point it
offers considerable ductility to provide a large reserve of strength.
Steel bridges can be built faster than reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete bridge.
They can be erected with ease and this minimizing construction costs.
Steel superstructures are usually lighter than concrete superstructures wich translates into
reduced substructures costs, which can be significant when soil conditions are poor.
Steel superstructures can be designed with shallower depth than RC, which is an
important consideration when overhead clearance is required.
Steel bridges are easy and faster to repair than RC.
Steel bridges have some major disadvantages that make them much less favorable than RC
or PSC bridges
Corrosion of steel is the major drawback which requires prohibitively high

maintenance cost. Corrosion can reduce cross section of structural members and
weaken the superstructure also.
The second disadvantage is that steel fatigues under repeated loading (its strength
decreases under repeated loading at high number of cycles of loading)
The different types of steel bridges will now be treated one by
one.
5.3.1 Rolled Steel Beam

Bridges
This is the most common type of construction for short and medium span highway
bridges.in Europe and North America. This usually consists of equally speed rolled
beams place parallel to traffic to span between supports as shown in Fig 5.13. These are
transversely spanned by cast-in-place reinforced concrete slab that serves as bridge deck
and providers lateral stability to stringers. Diaphragms are provided at the ends and at
76
intermediate points to provide lateral stability.
77
Fig. 5.13 Rolled steel beam bridge
Rolled steel beam and plate girder bridges can be classified as composite or non-
composite types. In a non-composite structure steel beams act independently of the
deck slab in resisting both the dead load as well as the live loads.
In composite construction, the dead loads are resisted by the steel beams alone
(assuming unshored construction), whereas the superimposed dead loads and live loads are
resisted by the composite action of the slab and the steel beam acting as a unit. Shear
connectors are required in this case in the form of studs or channels as shown in Fig. 5.10 or
angles.
5.3.2 Plate Girder and Steel Box Girder

Bridges
Plate girder and steel box girder bridges are built up sections made of plates by
welding, bolting or riveting. The decks are made of RC. They are suitable for medium to
long span bridges. Additional plates can be bolted, riveted or welded to the plate girder
to provide added strength at sections of maximum moment as in Fig 5.11a and c
Fig 5.14 Steel deck with shear studs in a composite steel

beam
7
7
.
First Semester 2012/13 A. Y
Fig 5.15 Fig. 5.16
Due to high depth-to-thickness ratio of their webs (h/tw), webs can buckle under
compression. These are overcome by stiffening as in Fig 5.12. Lateral braces should also be
provided as shown in Fig. 5.13 to resist wind force that can act over their large exposed area.
Fig. 5.17
Composite steel box girder constructions are used for medium to long spans. Fig 4.12 shows
various type of composite box girder bridges. This can be used for curves and super
elevations.
Fig 5.18
5.3.3. Steel Truss
Bridges
Steel truss bridges are used for medium to long span crossings. The problem with steel is
78
it requires a prohibitively high maintenance cost. The other problem with steel is fatigue.
79
Fig 5.15 shows typical steel truss bridge
types.
Fig. 5.19 Variable depth through truss Fig. 5.20 Constant depth truss
bridges bridges
5.3.4 Plate Deck – Stringer

Bridges
Orthotropic plate deck and steel plate deck box girder bridges are commonly used for long
span bridges in girder bridges or with trusses and girders in cable-stayed and
suspension bridges. Fig 5.16 shows typical orthotropic deck.
Fig 5.21 Typical orthotropic

deck
5.4 Special
Bridges
5.4.1 Arch
Bridges
Arches are generally characterized by the development of inclined rather than vertical
reactions under vertical loads.
Cross-sections are designed for thrust, moment and shear, with magnitudes depending on the
location of the pressure line as shown in fig. 5.17. If the pressure line coincides with the axis
of structure (as in a uniformly loaded parabolic arch), all cross sections will be subjected to
80
compression, with no moment or shear. If the pressure line falls with in the kern, there will
not be tension. But if shape of structure and pressure line differ, moment may become
dominant. Fig. 5.18 shows parts of arch bridges.
81
Fig. 5.22 Fig. 5.23 Different parts of an arch

bridge
Fig. 5.24 Abay deck concrete arch bridge on Goha Tsion – Dejen
road
Compared to the girder bridges, arch bridges are economical because the dead load
moments in arch bridges are almost absent when the arch is properly designed.
The loads on the arch are carried by the arch ribs mainly through direct axial thrusts,
the bending moment and shear forces being small compared to girder bridge which
requires larger section. This is due to the hogging moment which balances the sagging
moment created by the horizontal force, H, at the support.
80
Fig. 5.25 Through arch bridge at Finote Selam
The main parameter of an arch is the rise to span ration, r/1 91/6 to 1/10)
From economic point of view it is attempted to coincide the center of pressure of a given load
with center of line of the arch.
M=M1 - H.V
Where M=arch moment
M1 = moment considering the arch as simply supported
H = horizontal force
V = vertical ordinate
The center of pressure in the arch is thus M=0
V=
Types of arch bridges

Based on
a) Location of deck with respect to the arch rib
i) –Deck
ii)-Through
iii)-Semi-through
81
Fig 5.26
b) Structural arrangement of arch

rib
i) - Two hinged
ii) - Three
hinged iii)-Fixed
arch
iv)-Tied arch or bow string
Fig 5.27
Fixed Arch
Needs absolute un-yielding foundation because forces and moments in fixed arches
change both due to rotation and displacement of the supports.
Two-hinged
Arch
Structure is not_affected due to rotation of the abutments but is affected due to
the displacement of the same.
-may be designed with small displacement of the
supports.
82
Three-hinged
Arch
Even with rotation and small displacement of the foundation or unequal settlement of
the foundations, the thrust and moments are not significantly affected in three-hinged arch
bridges.
83
Fig 5.28 Truss arch bridge
Masonry and Concrete Arch

Bridges
Stone masonry arch bridges were dominant in Ethiopia prior to the 1950s. If made from
granite or similar hard stone they may withstand any standard highway loading. In Europe
several 2000 year-old bridges are still in use. This type of bridge may still be preferred where
weather-resistant rocks may_be obtained, provided that the ground will not allow any
horizontal sliding between the footing and the soil, and that skilled masons are to be found.
One should however be cautious that even outside of earthquake zones failures may occur. In
England some old bridges have suddenly fallen apart. Research has commenced, but we still
do not know why some stone masonry arch bridges fail, believed to be dependent on
the movements of the fill on the arches. Until further results are presented it is
recommended to use stone rubble, or similar material that does not move easily, instead of
gravel fill.
Granites can be found mainly west of Nakemte, in Tigray, in the southwestern regions,
south of Dodola where however there are very few bridges. For most small and medium
sized bridges (below 50 m length) the hardest types of basalt stone, sandstone and
limestone can also be used, and therefore nearly the whole country could make use of
stone masonry bridges. Hard burned clay stones (called clinker) could also be utilized
for this type of bridge.
5.4.2 Cable Stayed

Bridges
Cable stayed bridges are ideal for spanning natural barriers of wide rivers and deep
valleys because they can provide long spans unobstructed by piers.
a) Span proportions
The most popular span arrangements are:
84
1. Two span (symmetrical or asymmetric)
85
Fig. 5.21
b) Stay arrangements
The arrangement of the cable stays is one of the fundamental items in the design of
cable- stayed bridges. It influences, in fact, not only the structural performance of the
bridge, but also the method of erection and economies.
Transverse cable arrangement

Single plane ---- usually for pedestrian bridges
Double plane ---- majority of existing
structures.
Multiple plane ---- for urban areas where the number of lanes are many
Longitudinal cable arrangement

i) Radiating (converging)-Fan because the cables are at maximum angles of inclination
to the girders, the cables take maximum component of DL & LL loads.
ii) Harp – It causes bending moment in the tower.

- The harp pattern is not the best from the static of economic point of views
- It is superior aesthetically
86
87
iii) Fan /Modified fan/ - Combination of radiating and harp types and combining
the advantages of both.
Large number of cable-stayed bridges have been built using
this
iv) Star – Aesthetically

pleasing
No staging or false work is required for the construction of Cable-Stayed

bridges.
The cables from deck of a cable-stayed bridge are connected to the main tower by aut and
inclined but straight cables.
5.4.3 Suspension
Bridges
The twin main cables from the tower of a suspension bridge from a catenary from which the
hangers are suspended and fixed to the deck.
Sag ratio for cables should be L/9------
L/13
Suspension bridges are economical when the span exceeds 300m. Suspension bridges
consist of one main span and two side spans.
L1/L = 0.17 to
0.50
The cables being very flexible do not take any bending moment and are subjected only to
tensile forces. The stiffening truss stiffens the deck and distribute the live load of the deck on
to the cables. Otherwise the cables would be subjected to local sag due to action of
concentrated live load and thus causes local angle change in the deck system.
88
The stiffening trusses are hinged at the towers and suspended at node points from
suspender, which are usually high tensile cables.
89
Vertical suspenders have been used in many bridges but diagonal suspenders have
the advantage of increasing the aerodynamic stability.
1) Simple suspension bridge
Akashi-kaiko suspension bridge
90
CHAPTER 6
SUBSTRUCTURE
Substructure is part of a bridge that supports the superstructure and transmits all loads to the
foundation soil. It consists of the following elements:
Abutments - are earth-retaining structures which support the superstructure at the beginning
and end of a bridge. These are retaining walls with the additional function of
supporting vertical permanent and transient loads.
Piers - are substructure elements that support the superstructure at intermediate points
between abutments for bridges with two or more spans.
Backwall - is the primary component of the abutment on which the superstructure
structural members are supported.
Wingwall - is a side wall of the abutment that assist in supporting loads and in confining
earth behind the abutment under the approach roadway.
The minimum height of piers and abutments is governed by requirements of

accessibility for maintenance of the superstructure and bearings, of protection against
spray for bridges over water and vertical clearance requirements for floating debris for
river bridges and vertical clearance requirements for bridges over traveled ways. There is
no upper limit for pier heights except that imposed by economy.
6.1.ABUTMENTS
Abutments are structural elements of a bridge located at the ends of a bridge
which provide the basic functions of
supporting the one end of the first or last span
retaining earth under the approach road way and
supporting the approach road way or slab if necessary
A variety of abutment forms are in use to serve the above functions. Selection of type
depends on the magnitude of loads supported, depth to suitable bearing soil, scour
depth, facing appearance and ease and cost of construction.
6.1.1 Type of Abutments

a) Gravity Abutment – resist horizontal earth pressure with its dead weight
and dead weight of retained soil for abutments with inclined back face. These
may be constructed of stone masonry or concrete masonry (mass concrete).
These are used for abutments of small height.
b) Cantilever Abutment – derive lateral resistance through embedment of

the stem by cantilever action. These are constructed of reinforced concrete.
91
c) Counterfort Abutment – this is similar to cantilever abutment with the
difference that ties called counterforts are provided to tie the stem to the
footing. This is used for larger heights for which cantilever abutments will be
uneconomical
a) Gravity retaining wall b) Cantilever retaining wall c) Counter fort retaining wall
Fig. 6.1 Retaining walls of abutments with preliminary dimensions (Alemayehu Tefera)
d) Stub Abutment – is a relatively short abutment which is used at the top of

an embankment or slope. Unless rock foundation exists at the site, stub
abutment is supported on piles.
e) Spill Through Abutment – this utilizes two or more columns with a cap
beam at the top. The cap beam supports the superstructure. The fill is
allowed to spill through the open spaces between the columns and only a
portion of the embankment is retained. The approach slab is supported on the
abutment.
92
Fig. 6.2 Spill through abutment
e) Reinforced earth Abutment – consists of modular facing units that retain the
soil which are tied in to the fill by roads, strips or bars. The ties are in tension and
are kept in position by friction forces on their surfaces. This is not used so far
in Ethiopia. It is being used in many parts of the world, and is preferred for its
low cost and aesthetics.
Fig. 6.2 Reinforced earth abutment
6.1.2 Design of Abutments

a) Loads on Abutments
An important load acting on abutments that need not be considered for piers is
earth pressure as discussed in chapter 4
For seismic areas, seismic forces should be considered for the back face of
the wall due to inertia of the retained soil mass. AASHTO recommends to use
the Mononobe – Okabe method, which is an extension of Coulomb‟s
sliding wedge theory. This method gives horizontal and vertical inertia
forces K hWs and KvWs Fig 5.3a, where Kh and Kv are horizontal and
vertical seismic coefficients respectively given as a function of bed rock
acceleration ration, and Ws is the weight of soil mass in the wedge. Kh and
Kv are given by:
Kh = o/2 and
0.3Kh Kv ≤ 0.5Kh
93
For free standing abutments
o - is bedrock acceleration ratio given by EBCS8:1995.
If horizontal displacement is restrained like for abutments supported on batter piles
Kh = 1.5 o
The Mononobe – Okabe method applies for cohesionless bakfill soil, which is usually the
case.
= tan „[Kh/(1-Kv)]
Unlike static active pressure force which acts at H/3 from the base, the seismic
active pressure force is found to act at a larger distance from the base which may be
taken as 0.6H.
b) Design
Criteria
The length of abutment backwall is determined by the bridge width. For a given trial
position the length of the wingwalls is dictated by terrain height of the bridge deck
above ground and level of the HWM.
Fig. Typical dimensions of gravity retaining

wall
Abutment retaining walls will be dimensioned to ensure stability against possible modes
of failure by satisfying the following criteria for factors of safety (AASHTO Art.
5.5.5). The usual practice is to assign tentative dimensions and check for overall stability.
Overturning
Sliding
90
If factor of safety against sliding could not be obtained, shear key may be used at
the bottom. Passive pressure will be considered for the key. The other alternative is to
0
slope the footing (slope ≤10 )
Table 5.5.5B can be used as a guide to get friction
coefficients Bearing Capacity of Foundation
Soil
Max ≤ all
Location of resultant X from the toe

is:
B/3 ≤ X ≤ 2B/3 for base on soil

B/4 ≤ X ≤ 3B/4 for base on
rock
After stability checks, cantilever and counterfort retaining walls will be designed
for internal forces. The stem and footings of a cantilever are designed as cantilever.
The stem and footing portion of a counterfort are designed as continuous one-way slab
supported on the counterforts. The footing portion at the front is designed as cantilever.
If the section of the footing portion is uneconomically thick buttresses can be used to
reduce to section.
Finally, it should be pointed out that it is important to provide drainage facilities as

show in Fig. 6.2
Fig. 6.2
6.2. PIERS
Piers are structural elements, which sustain superstructure dead and live loads, at
intermediate points, carry their own weight and transmit all loads to the foundation
soil. They are constructed of masonry or reinforced concrete.
91
There are different types of piers. The selection of type greatly depends on the form and
size of the superstructure. Aesthetics and economy are other factors to be considered in
selection of pier type.
92
The arrangement and shape of piers should be such as to cause minimal obstruction to
flow of water or traffic under the bridge.
6.2.1. Type of Piers

a) solid Wall Pier – is a continuous wall pier that extends from the foundation
footing or piles to the superstructure. This is constructed with pedestals at the top
on which the superstructure structural elements rest. Solid wall piers are often
used at water crossings since they can be constructed to proportions that are both
slender and streamlined, which has a minimal resistance to flow. An advantage of
a solid wall pier is that it is not prone to accumulation of debris unlike multiple
column piers.
b) Hammer Head Pier – consists of one or more columns with a pier cap in the shape
of hammer. This is constructed with pedestals at the top (Fig 6.3c -5 pedestals) on
which the superstructure structural elements are supported. The columns can have
different shapes: rectangular, polygonal or circular. These are used for high piers.
These are predominantly used in urban areas because they are attractive and
occupy minimum space providing relatively large clearance for underpass traffic.
This is constructed with pedestals at the top on which the superstructure structural
elements rest.
a) Solid wall pier b) Single column c) Double column

93
Hammer head pier hammer head pier
94
Fig. 6.3 Solid wall and Hammer head piers
c) Column Bent Pier – consists of a cap beam and supporting columns in the form of a
frame. Column beni piers are made of RC and are supported on either footings or
piles. The cross sections of the columns are predominantly circular, but rectangular
and polygonal cross sections are also common.
a) A column bent pier b) A pile bent pier
Fig 6.4 Column bent and Pile bent piers
95
d) Pile Bent Pier – is similar to column bent pier but the columns are replaced by piles
extending from bearing strata to cap beam. These are common in marine
environment. The end piles are generally battered in the transverse direction.
6.2.2 Design of Piers
a) Loads on Piers
Loads to be considered in the design of piers are:

a) Dead load of superstructure and the pier itself. In stability analysis the possibility of
one spam loaded by superstructure dead load while the other is not yet
constructed should be considered.
b) Live load on bridge, AASHTO standard truck and land loading
c) Impact effect of live loads. According to AASHTO highway live loads shall be
increased to allow for dynamic, vibratory and impact effects for piers
excluding footings and portions below the ground. For pile bents also impact shall
be considered for portions above the ground. To simplify the work, impact is
usually considered for the stem of masonry piers, and for frame of column bent and
hammerhead piers. Impact is excluded for the design of footings.
d) Wind load acting on superstructure and on live load will be transferred to the
substructure.
e) Wind load acts directly on exposed areas of piers (abutments also). This will be
decomposed in to transverse and longitudinal components for skewed wind direction.
f) Buoyancy shall be considered for submerged parts. This can be neglected if the pier
is anchored to rock by dowels.
g) Forces of stream current due to flowing water
h) Longitudinal forces due to attractive effect and breaking of vehicles is given as 5%
of the live load in all lanes headed in one direction. The load used the lane load with
the concentrated force for moment. The point of application of this force is 6ft above
the floor slab and to be transmitted to the substructure through the superstructure.
To this should be added longitudinal force due to resistance in bearings. In order
to reduce the net longitudinal force in bearings, it is common to make bearings of
two spans located on a pier of the same type, i.e., expansion bearings or fixed
bearings. Still a variation of about 10% in the friction coefficients of sliding
bearings may be assumed.
i) Centrifugal forces should be considered for curved bridges.
j) In regions where earthquakes are anticipated, bridges shall be designed to resist
earthquake motions by considering the relative location of the site from active faults,
seismic response of the soil at the site, and the dynamic response of the total bridge.
For simple bridges, the equivalent static force method can be used to
determine seismic loading. The factors that are dependent on locality cannot be
adopted from AASHTO. The specifications of EBCE: 8, 1995 shall be used for
these.
k) Force due to collision of barge in navigable water during storms and foggy
weather for piers for which fenders are not provided should be considered.
96
97
2. Piers on a single row of piles are planned at the pile connections to the footing.
3. Piers on spread footings with an allowable foundation pressure of more that 317-633 Kpa
= 30% fixed at the bottom of the footing.
4. Piers on spread footings with an allowable foundation pressure of more than 633-950
KPa = 40% fixed at the bottom of the footing.
5. Piers on spread footings with an allowable foundation pressure of more than 950 KPa
(competent rock) = 100% fixed at the bottom of the footing.
Table 6.1 Foundation fixity

parameters GB
1.5 Footing on rock anchored
3.0 Footing on rock not anchored
5.0 Footing on rock soil
1.1 Footing on piles (add 3.05m to the effective
length) EI
for
columns L
GB -
EI
L
Many structures are detailed el eliminate deck joints. One technique removes abutment
backwalls and compacts the approach embankments against the superstructure end
beams. The AASHTO specifications specify that an accurate secondary analysis be used to
account for “the influence of axial loads and variable moment of inertia on member
stiffness and fixed end moments, the effect of deflections on moments and forces, and the
effects of the duration of loads.” These secondary effects can be approximated by the
moment magnifier method.
The moment magnifier equation can b derived by examining Feg. 6.6. It is important to note
that this equation is intended only to magnify pier moments that result from lateral loads,
in spite of which most designers magnify the total pier moment conservatively.
By examining Fig. 6.6 we obtain the primary deflection Δ1caused by the end moments
M1 :
Fig. 6.6
98
The moment magnifier procedure, as first derived, assumes columns with pinned ends,
single curvature, equal and moments, and no side sway. Therefore each pier design
must be modified by an effective length factor k to correct it to an equivalent pin ended
column with single curvature and no side away. The value of k is used to determine
reasonable column dimensions for stability and to compute the critical bulking load Pcr.
99
The variation in effective length factors can be large as the end conditions change and as the
degree of bracing against side sway varies.
Effective length factors can be determined from Fig. 6.7 or for framed structures from
the Jackson-Moreland Charts shown in Fig. 6.8. These charts use the parameter
Fig. 6.7 Effective length factors K Fig. 6.8 Alignment charts for effective length of
Columns in continuous frames a) sidesways
prevented b) sidesway permitted
100
The same parameter can be applied in the equations suggested by Cranston for braced
columns, where
k = 0.7 + 0.05(GA + GB) ≤1.0
k = 0.85 + 0.05(Gmin) ≤1.0
(use the smaller of the two value) and four unbraced columns, as suggested by Furlong
for
Table 6.1 lists the value G to be used for various foundation

conditions.
Another important influence on the effective length factor k is bracing against side
sway. Presently k can be determined only for braced and unbraced conditions; therefore the
unbreaced condition for bridge pier design is recommended. A braced condition should be
considered only in a case similar to a row of columns in a bent strutted by a large drift wall
with considerable stiffness against lateral movement in the transverse direction.
E1 = EcIs/2.5 is extremely inaccurate for high percentages of reinforcement

and
EI = EcIg/5 + EsIs is somewhat inaccurate for low percentages. Therefore it is recommended
that EI=EcIg/2.5 be used for the design of piers with 2% reinforcement or less and EI
= EcIg/5 + EsIs in the design of piers with reinforcement of more than 2%. Again these
values are to be applied only in the computation of critical buckling loads. These
specification formulas also give bukling loads for a constant moment of inertia. If the
columns are tapered, the critical bukling loads can be computed by referring to other
references.
The formulas for EI contain the expression I +βD, which accounts for the effect of creep
due to sustained loads. The value of 1 + βD decreases EI and thereby increases the
moment magnification. The specifications defined βD as the ratio of maximum dead load
moment to the maximum design total load moment (always positive), which means that βD is
the ratio of dead load moment to the sum of all moments neglecting signs.
Section
Analysis
In the analysis of a pier section, subjected to the most critical loading conditions,
compilation of stresses for serviceability and capacity for maximum loads is involved.
Modern aesthetics often require that an analysis be made for irregular and nonsymmetrical
shapes. In addition to vertical reinforcement, it is essential to evaluate the requirements
for lateral reinforcing (hoops, ties, and spirals).
In general, bridge pier sections are governed by moment and not load. Therefore the most
101
critical loading of all the many possible loadings on a pier will be the one that produces
the largest moment about the weakest pier axis. When two loads produce similar moments,
with variations in load, the load producing the maximum eccentricity will normally control.
102
The AASHTO design specifications indicate that biaxial bending and direct load should be
analyzed at ultimate load, based on stress and strain compatibility, or, as an alternate, by
one of the following approximate formulas:
According to Furelong, it is reasonable to use the elliptic

equation
It should be noted that two inaccuracies occur in the biaxial bending and direct load
analysis:
1. An approximation of the true shape of the compression block with a rectangular block
over a portion of the compressive area tends to underestimate the capacity.
2. Experimental data show that in some cases a strain value of 0.4% is reasonable as a
limiting value before the concrete deteriorates.
These inaccuracies are on the conservative side and are accepted by most
designers.
The ultimate strength analysis of irregular and unsymmetrical shapes involves problems
similar to those encountered in ultimate biaxial bending analysis; however, minimal
research has been conducted in pier analysis. Marin has performed some mathematical
modeling of L type of section, but experimental tests are required to verify his work. The
designer should therefore be cautious when designing this type of sections. In particular
adequate shear and lateral reinforcement across thin wall portions must be examined.
There is considerable variation in thought in regard to the requirements for hoops, ties,
and spirals. It is known that lateral reinforcement does little to enhance structural
performance before initial concrete deterioration, after which the action of lateral
reinforcement is significant. Appropriate details and design can be the difference between
catastrophic failure and safety. Experience has shown that spirals perform better than
hoops and ties. This is probably due to the closer spacing provided by spirals and to the
better confining capabilities of the circular hoop tension they develop. Studies have shown
that column ductility can be greatly improved by using closely spaced hoops, ties, and
spirals in potential plastic hinge areas. Ductility in these areas can serve as a means of
energy dissipation under extreme dynamic earthquake loadings. Ductility in these areas
can serve as a means of energy dissipation under extreme dynamic earthquake loadings.
Ductility is measured by what is called the ductility factor (µ), which is defined as the
100
ratio of the maximum displacement under the design earthquake to the theoretical yield
displacement. According to studies performed in New Zealand, the design value of µ can be
reasonably set at 6.
100
6.3.Scour Protection
Scour is the erosive effect of water flow on river bed or banks.
When a bridge structure and its associated embankment encroach upon the flow of
river during flood there will be a risk to the structure, the embankments and the
surrounding land upstream. It is not economical, however, to construct a bridge to clear a
wide flood pain because bridge works cost more than earth embankments.
Approximately half of the river bridge failures are due to scour. Bridge works may alter the
scour pattern by restricting the free flow of water and/or causing turbulence. Therefore it is
important to protect bridges from scour.
Fig. Effect of scour on a wall

pier
Fig. 6.9b shows a wide flood plain in which both the pier and abutment foundations
are below the DFL(HWM). Where a small river has a wide flood plain (Fig. 6.7c), the
most economical solution may be a relatively small bridge with approach embankments.
Relief culverts are used to prevent flood water from rising high on the u/s side while river
training works channel the flow through the main channel and some protection
provided for the embankments. Scour protection is required for the abutment due to
restriction of flow.
There are four types of

scour
natural scour and channel shifting on alluvial rivers – this can be combated by river
training
101
scour caused by changes to the river channel u/s or d/s
general scour caused by reduction in the channel width at bridge site
local scour at the base of piers, abutments and river training works due to turbulence
102
Estimates are required for depth of general scour and local scour at a bridge site. Some
methods and empirical formulae are developed and will be discussed subsequently.
Fig. 6.9 Bridges for different flood widths Fig. 6.10 Adjustment of waterway
to Accommodate general scour
 Scour Depth
a) General
Scour
This is caused by reduction in channel width and the flow area due to piers and
abutments. There are many formulae developed to predict depth of general scour, all of
which assume fairly simple channel geometry. The two most common methods will be
discussed here.
i) The Area – Velocity

Method
In this method the flow through the structure is assumed to be equal to the unrestricted
flow calculated on the basis of velocity measurement or estimates made. It involves
drawing a probable scour line as shown in Fig. 6.8a, determining the flow area A and
wetted perimeter P and determining the velocity from
V- is velocity of flow in m/s, A – is area of flow, S – is bed slope
103
and n – is manning‟s rogosity coefficient
Then V.A will be checked against Qunrestricted. This process is repeated until V.A =
Qunrestricted.
104
ii) The Competent Velocity
Method
The competent velocity (Vc) is the largest velocity that will not cause scour to the river bed.
In this method a probable scour line is drawn and area of flow increased (by As) as shown
in Fig. 6.10a until the resulting mean velocity of flow is reduced to Vc. Vc is obtained from
the following table for cohesive bed material and from Fig. 6.11 for non-cohesive bed
material.
Depth Competent mean velocity, Vc

of flow (m) Low values Averages High values
(easily erodible material) valoes (resistant material (m/s)
(m/s)
1.5 0.6 1.0 1.8

3 0.65 1.2 2.0
6 0.7 1.3 2.3
0.8 1.5 2.6
Fig. 6.11 Competent velocity chart for non – cohesive
a) Local
Scour
In addition to general scour discussed previously, there will be local scour of the
bed material due to turbulent flow around obstacles such as pier and abutments.
i) Local Scour at
Piers
Angle of
attack
4
0 o 1.00
5oo 1.17
10 1.33
o
15 1.50
103
Fundamentals of Bridge Design –CENG 5501 o Lecture
20 1.67
o
25 1.83
o
30 2.00
2012/13 A.
Fig 6.12 Curves for estimating local scour at bridge piers
Table. Multipliers for estimating scour depth at abutments and training works
Nature of location Multiplier
Nose of groynes or guide banks 2.0 to 2.75
Flow impinging at right angles on 2.25

bank
Flow parallel to bank 1.5 t 2.0
6.3.2
Protection
Scour protection is required when some restriction is made to the flow of design flood at
a bridge.
Protection can made be by: riprap, gabion, reno mattresses, aprons or revetments,
groynes, piled walls or vegetation. These protective measures must not protrude in to
the design waterway at the crossing.
In here will be dealt with materials and methods of
protection
a) Materials
i) Riprap
Is carpet of loose stones, which protects the loose bed material for bed protection and
loose bank or embankment material from erosion by water current. The stone elements
must be heavy enough not to be carried away by water. Fig. 6.13 gives recommended riprap
nominal stone size for different velocity of water. A stone with good grading is
effective. The thickness will be equal to the largest stone size and about twice the nominal
median diameter. Riprap should not be installed in a way that reduces area of flow.
104
Fig 6.13 Riprap stone size Fig 6.14 Gabion basket and
Reno mattresses
ii) Gabion and Reno

Mattresses
The standard gabion is a rectangular basket made of steel wire mesh with sizes of 2m, 3m
and 4m long by 1m wide by 0.5m or 1m high. Reno mattress is a mattress – shaped version
of the gabion for use when the gabions height and bulk are not needed as in lining river
beds and banks. Their standard size is 6m length, divided in to 6 compartment of 1m
width. After assembly on site, the mattresses are wired together and filled to form a
continuous blanket or lining. Table below gives minimum thickness of reno mattresses for
different bed soil types and maximum water velocity.
iii) Filter
Blankets
If the river bed and bank materials are non – cohesive and fine, they may be washed
away through the space between the voids in riprap or gabion lining. This can be
prevented by using textile filter or using gravel filter. The thickness of the gravel filter will
be half of that of the riprap.
iv) Vegetatio
n
Many plant types can be used to protect river banks against erosion. The most successful
ones are almost always those found growing naturally along the river being bridged.
b) Protection
Methods
i) Pier and Abutment Foundations Mass concrete foundations set on erodible soils need
protection against local scour, though they should be unaffected by general scour if the
size of the water way
Table 6.2 Minimum Reno mattress

thicknesses
105
Bed soil type Maximum Minimum
Water Mattress
Velocity Thickness
(m.sec) (mm)
2 170
(a) Clays and heavy
3 230
cohesive soil
4.5 300
106
2 230
(b) Silts and fine sands
3 300
3.5 170
(c) Shingle with gravel 5 230
6 600
Is adequate. Fig 6.6 indicates the recommended position for riprap. The top of the protective
layers must not protrude above the lowest general scour level, is determined by the
calculations outlined previously. The engineer may select a suitable stone size from Fig 6.13,
remembering that local velocities can be as high as 1.5 times the mean calculated
velocity through the waterway opening.
If stone of the required size for rip rap is too expensive, gabions or Reno mattresses may
be used. The appropriate mattress thickness can be read from Table
ii) Bank protection The same guidelines apply to rip rap stone size for bank protection as
for substructure foundations. The local velocity against the slope of a bank aligned more or
less parallel to the flow may be taken as 0.7 times mean flood velocity where the channel
is straight. The local velocity at the outer bank on a severe bend may be as high as 1.5
times mean velocity. Reno mattresses, laid with their longest dimension up the bank,
provide effective protection against bank erosion and scour in a similar manner to rip
rap. Both methods may be used with a launching apron, as shown in Fig. 6.15. Apron length
la should be 1.5 times the total scour depth as. On most river banks, grasses and shrubs
grow up between the stones of rip rap and mattresses, their roots protected by the
revetment which they in turn help to stabilize.
Steep banks are better protected by gabion walls with the from face vertical or raked back at
a slope of about 1 in 10 (fig 6.16a) or raked back at a slope of 1:10 as shown in Fig. 6.16b
107
Fig 6.15 Slope revetment with a launching
apron
108
Fig. 6.16 Gabion

Walls
6.4. Guide Walls
On meandering and braided rivers, whose widths are greater than necessary to take the
flood discharge, guide walls can be used:
- to confine the flow to a single channel – to control the angle of attack on piers
and prevent meanders encroaching on and eroding the approach roads.
A single guide wall may be sufficient when the stream can be confined to one side of a
valley possessing a natural in erodible bank (fig. 6.15a). Two guide banks are necessary
when the waterway opening is in the middle of a flood plain. The minimum width between
guide walls is the width necessary to provide the required waterway opening through the
bridge. A greater width may be preferable because it is more difficult and expensive to
place an earth embankment in flowing water than to construct it on dry land or in still
water. The guide walls should extend upstream by about three quarters of the waterway
opening and downstream by about one quarter, unless a longer length is necessary to
prevent an upstream meander working behind the guide wall and breaching the approach
embankment (fig. 6.17b).
109
CHAPTER 7
BEARINGS AND RAILINGS
1. Bearings
7.1.1 Introductio
n
Bearings are structural devices that transmit superstructure loads to the substructure
and allow for movement of the superstructure. These functions should be served without
bearing stresses in the bearings, piers / abutments and superstructure exceeding permissible
stresses.
Bearings are important components of bridges and call for care in design, skill in
execution, and regular attention in maintenance. Faulty design or malfunctioning bearings
due to clogging by debris have often resulted in collapse of bridges due to the high stresses
110
induced due to restrained motion.
111
On certain major bridges bearing cost is as high as 10-15% of the total cost. It is
worth designing carefully and inspecting regularly for maintenance.
Movements should be accommodated properly and these result from

a) longitudinal movement due to temperature changes – reversible
b) rotation due to deflection of girders – live load deflection is reversible
c) vertical movement due to settlement of supports – irreversible
d) movement due to shrinkage, creep or prestressing – irreversible
Bearings are categorized in to two as

a) Fixed bearings – fixed against translation, but free to rotate
b) Expansion bearings – free to translate and rotate
Selection of the type depends on the type of superstructure, type of substructure supports and
the length of the span
1. a simply supported span requires fixed bearing at one and expansion bearing at
the other
2. a continuous girder require fixed bearing at one and expansion bearings at all
other supports
3. a two span girder will have fixed bearing at the center support and expansion bearings
at the two abutments
7.1.2 Types of Bearings

For slab bridges no special bearings are provided because the translational movement is
very small. Edges of supports are beveled to allow for rotation.
The following are the different types of bearings for girder bridges
- Sliding plate bearing – is the simplest type of bearing. This utilizes one plate sliding
on another. This type is used for bridges up to 30m span. Flat plates were common
but due to freezing and high frictional forces the surface of the upper plate is
slightly curved as shown in Fig. 7.1a.
- Roller bearing – in this type rotation is accommodated by the pin and translation
by the use of a roller or a group of rollers (fig. 7.1b). This is used for spans of
moderate length.
- Rocker bearing – this is used for longer spans and is used to accommodate large
live load deflections. (Fig. 7.1c0.
In seismic areas suitable guide should be provided to prevent the roller and
rocker components from being displaced off abutments and piers during earthquakes.
- Elastomeric bearing – is made of a polymeric substance called eleastomer. This can

be reinforced with steel plates, which is usually the case, or may be
unreinforced (Fig.7.1d). This is very strong in compression and relatively week
in shear, thus allowing horizontal displacement. This has shown good weathering
performance and so incur low maintenance cost. This type is favoured for bearings.
This is used for medium to large spans.
112
- Lead rubber bearing – is an elastomeric bearing equipped with lead core
(Fig.7.1e) and is used in highly seismic areas.
7.2 Railings
Railings are provided along edges of bridges for protection of traffic and pedestrian. There
are three types of railings.
Traffic railings
Pedestrian railings
Combination railings
The following guideline indicate the application of various types of rails
Traffic railings is used when a bridge is for the exclusive use of highway traffic
A combination railing in conjunction with raised curb and sidewalk is used on low-
speed high ways.
On high-speed highways the pedestrian path should have both an out board pedestrian
railing and an inboard combination railing
Aesthetics and freedom of view from passing vehicles should also be taken in
to consideration.
7.1.2 Traffic Railings

The primary purpose of traffic railings is to contain and redirect errant vehicles. Specifically
they serve the purposes of
Primarily containing the average vehicle
Protecting the occupants of a vehicle in collision with the railing
Protecting other vehicles near the collision
Protecting people and property on roadway and nearby areas under neath
110
a) Lead rubber bearing
Fig. 7.1 Bearings
A traffic railing should provide a smooth and continuous face on the traffic side. Steel and
concrete post should set back from the face to the rail.
hmin = 0.61m
hmin = 0.685m for concrete parapet wall
7.2.2 Pedestrian Railings

material: concrete metal, timber
hmin = 1.06m, opening ≤150mm
A pedestrian walkway should be separated from roadway by a barrier curb, traffic railing or
combination railing
111
a) Traffic railings b) Pedestrian walkway
Fig. 7.2 Railings
CHAPTER 8
CULVERTS AND LOW LEVEL
WATER CROSSINGS
8.1 CULVERTS
Culverts are cross drainage works used to drain rain run off collected by side
ditches from one side of the highway to the other. In any highway or railway project, the
majority of cross drainage works fall under this category.
2
Where the waterway opening is less than about 15m , and particularly where the
road crosses the waterway on a relatively high embankment, a culvert will usually be
cheaper than a bridge.
112
In addition to providing culverts at the lowest point, it is good practice to install

culverts for cross drainage at regular intervals down a long grade. This avoids the
necessity of building a large culvert at the bottom of the grade and may also provide the
opportunity for safer dispersal of water in smaller mitre drains on the lower slope. The
appropriate frequency of these cross drains is best decided on the basis of local experience
and depends on gradient, soil characteristics, intensity of rainfall and related factors. As a
general rule, there should be at least one culvert every 300m, unless the road follows a
ridge. Therefore, cost of culverts account for a significant proportion of the project cost.
Culverts may be constructed using a variety of materials from vitreous clay to

glass reinforced plastics, but the most common and cheapest forms of construction are:
- Precast concrete joined pipes
- Single or multi-cell reinforced concrete boxes, prefabricated or built in situ.
- Corrugated steel pipes made of prefabricated panels
2
Single precast concrete pipe culverts are commonly used for small openings up to 2m ,
while multiple concrete pipes with common headwalls cater for larger areas.
Alternatively,
reinforced concrete pipes with common headwalls cater for larger areas. Alternatively,
reinforced concrete box culverts are used with internal box sizes up to 4m x 3.5m. Twin or
multiple boxes may be required for larger waterway openings. In difficult ground conditions
either by increasing its structural strength or by segmenting the culvert along its length to
allow it to flex. In theory such a solution may appear to be satisfactory, but the provision of
water tight joints to permit flexing to occur can be costly and the satisfactory performance
of the joints cannot always be guaranteed. Leakage from culverts, particularly those
carrying embankments, can have serious consequences, since weakening of the
embankment material may lead to an embankment failure. If properly constructed, a
reinforced concrete culvert is likely to have a service life in excess of 60 years and will
almost certainly be more durable and require less maintenance that a steel pipe, culvert,
well protected against corrosion by plating and bitumen coating, can be expected to have a
working life in the order of 30 to 40 years in a non-aggressive environment. It is usual to
design culverts to last the life of the highway. Despite the best efforts of the engineer, it
must be expected that some culverts will become silted or obstructed by debris. For this
reason, pipes of internal diameter less then 0.6m are not recommended since they are
difficult to clean.
CULVERT HYDRAULICS
Like bridges, culverts are designed to be large enough to pass the design flood
without damage to the embankment or surrounding land. In practice this usually means
limiting the height of the flood on the upstream side. The required size of the culvert
is found by calculating the area required to permit a flow that will maintain the upstream
head of water below the critical level. The head downstream is taken to be either the
design flood level before the embankment is built or the top of the culvert, whichever is the
higher.
The operating head H is defined as hu –

hd
Where hu is the upstream head and hd is the downstream

113
head.
The head, H, can then be said to equal the sum of the losses at the culvert,
i.e
H=he + hf + ho
114
Where he is the loss on entry, hf is the friction loss and ho is the loss at the outlet.
These losses are estimated using the velocity head:
2
he = ke.V
2g
2
ho = ko.V
2g
2
hf = F.L.V
D.2g
Where V = flow velocity (m/sec)

g = acceleration due to gravity
2
(m/sec ) L = culvert length (m)
D = culvert internal diameter (m)
The coefficients Ke and f depend on the entry size and shape
ko = 1.0 for all pipes
ke = 0.15 for concrete box culvert
ke can be as high as 0.9 for corrugated steel pipes projecting from the
fill ke = 0.5 for corrugated steel pipes with head walls
f = 0.016 for concrete pipes
f = 0.075 for corrugated steel pipes
EROSION CONTROL
Highway drainage ditches collect general run-off water which is cross drained
using culverts. This concentration of flow is almost certain to cause erosion damage to many
types of soil. Before or at the entrance to culverts it is important to control the flow
velocity, particularly since an abrupt change in direction of flow may occur at these
point making erosion damage more likely. Control may be achieved by reducing the
gradient, installing check-drains (Fig. 7.1b) or by building a drop inlet (Fig.7.1c). It is also
important to control the velocity of flow at the outlet, because erosion damage to the road
embankment or surrounding farmland occurs more frequently at the discharge end. For
this reason, where gradients are steep, the arrangements shown in Figs 7.1b and 7.1c are
preferred to that shown in Fig. 7.1a. A curtain wall is often necessary at the outlet of a
culvert carrying more than a minimal flow, in order to prevent scour undermining the
structure. A concrete or rip rap apron may be required to dissipate the energy of the
discharge, or it may be necessary to contain the flow in a paved channel until the natural
gradient becomes small enough not to induce fast flows with consequential depending of
the channel(Fig. 7.3). Fig. 7.2 shows the most common failure of culverts installed in soft
soils, due to erosion and undermining which progress, if not checked, to the point of
embankment collapse.
114
Y.
Fig. 8.1 REDUCING WATER VELOCITY THROUGH CULVERT FIG 8.2

TYPICAL EROSION IN SOFT SOIL
115
Fig 8.3 Details of culvert with aprons and head walls
LOCATION AND ALIGNMENT
The proper location of each culvert is important because it affects the drainage
pattern and hence the strength of the surrounding soils, the area of waterway, ditch and
culvert maintenance, and erosion damage.
There are four rules concerning location and alignment of culverts

- Where a road crosses a valley, the lowest point requires a vent, whether there is
an established stream or not
- Where there is an established stream, the culvert should follow the existing
alignment, unless the alignment can be improved (Fig. 7.4)
- The gradient of the culvert should be the same as the gradient of the stream.
- Measures may be necessary to ensure that the watercourse does not move. This could
cause severe damage and the consequent change of location of the culvert would
be expensive.
The gradient of the culvert is important because it affects future maintenance. If it is too
steep, it will encourage erosion at the outlet. If it is less steep than the stream, there is likely
to be a sediment problem. A gradient of 2 to 4 per cent is advisable where silts are carried in
the flow; a minimum of 0.5 per cent is recommended for clear water. It is also important to
set the culvert invert at the same level as the natural stream bed. Culverts are frequently set
low to avoid humps in the road above, which results in silting and a consequent reduction
in the waterway. Where the road embankment is not high enough to provide adequate
clearance above the pipe, the ditch has to be lowered on both sides of the road or the
embankment raised. This may necessitate widening the side slopes and demonstrates the
importance of detailing drainage structures early in the design of a road. Where an
established stream is met at an angle to the road alignment, it is usually better to follow the
line of the stream with a skewed culvert, even though the construction cost will be
increased by the greater length. An abrupt change in the direction of flow at the inlet and
outlet of square crossing may be accommodated without problem for most of the year, but
when heavy rains cause maximum flow the change of direction can result in severe
erosion or wash-out. It may also be necessary to stabilize a shifting channel or even
move it to improve the geometry where stream and road interact. The principal objectives
here are:
- to avoid a bend at either end of the culvert if possible

- if a bend is unavoidable, to place it at the outlet
Any change of stream channel must be constructed so that there is no possibility of
the stream regaining its original course. Fig. 7.4 illustrates these principles.
116
Fig. 8.4
HEADWALLS
Headwalls retain and protect the embankment at the ends of a culvert and
help to counteract the dislocation of jointed pipes due to the spreading forces at the base of
large embankments. They also divert debris from falling into the waterway, reduce
seepage of water into the embankment and prevent small animals from burrowing
alongside the pipe. Where conditions favour erosion, headwalls should incorporate deep
curtain walls and side slope protection in the form of gabions or hand-pitched stone.
Since large headwalls are expensive to build, it is advisable initially to make the
culvert pipe long enough to reach the toe of the embankment and to monitor the effects for a
year: a small headwall may be adequate, provided that side slopes are shallow enough not
to need retaining, embankments are relatively low or one-piece pipes are employed, and
there is no build-up of water. Headwalls are usually made of masonry or concrete.
Concrete Pipe Culverts

On most road constructions, sections of concrete pipe are butted together
and connected by mortar, and the embankment material is compacted around them. This is
cheap and often serves for several years. A far better quality culvert is obtained by
surrounding the pipe with concrete. If the sub grade is likely to settle under the weight of
the embankment, the concrete surround should be reinforced to take tensile stresses.
All soft clay material and rock should be excavated from below the pipe to
a depth of at least 200mm and replaced with good granular material, well compacted.
FLEXIBLE STEEL CULVERTS
These are made from pre-formed corrugated sections bolted together to form
a circular or elliptical tube. They can accept a certain amount of longitudinal or radial
deformation without sustaining damage and so are better suited to unstable conditions
than rigid concrete structures. They are also easier to transport and faster to construct
than the equivalent size of pre-cast pipe culvert, but require specialist manufacture.
All soft unstable material should be excavated and back filled to

foundation level with gravel mixture, crushed stone or other suitable material. In the
case of rock foundations, the rock should be excavated to at least 250mm below the
foundation level and
117
wide enough to prevent the pipe resting directly on rock at any point. It should then be
back filled to provide a cushion for the pipe.
Back filling will be made in layers of approximately 200mm, loading each side
evenly and fully compacting each layer before placing the next. The inside shape may need
to be protected by strutting as the fill is built up on each side and eventually above the pipe.
All the fill material should be of good quality, extending to a distance

roughly equal to the pipe diameter each side and above, or up to the road base if this distance
is less.
The degree of protection against corrosion required to extend the working life
of a corrugated steel pipe structure is determined on the basis of:
- the importance of the structure and its required working life

- the corrosive nature of the environment in which is exists.
Durability studies indicate that metal loss associated with corrosion

usually originates on the interior surface of the structure and progresses towards the exterior
or buried face. The conclusion is that protective treatment to the exposed surfaces should
generally be superior to that applied to the buried surfaces. All corrugated steel structures
should be hot- dipped galvanized or treated with alu-zine and hot coated with bitumen on the
inside. Bituminous paving to the invert of the pipe will also help extend the life of the
structure.
REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX CULVERTS
Reinforced concrete box culverts may be constructed either as a monolithic

box or as a U section with a simply supported top slab propping the sidewalls. Twin or
multiple cell box culverts are used where the horizontal opening is more that about 4m.
These too may be constructed with monolithic top slab and walls or with a separately cast
lid. Culverts with separately constructed top slabs are simpler to construct because they
require less complicated steel reinforcement and, though containing more material, they
generally offer a more economical form of construction. Owing to reversal of bending
moment in the wall and bottom slab, reinforcement to both faces of these elements is
required but the top slab of a single cell culvert requires only bottom reinforcement.
For a twin box culvert with a separately cast top slab, the outer walls are again
propped apart and the centre wall may be positively located to the top slab by the provision
of dowel bars. The top slab of a twin box culvert is designed as a two span continuous
beam spanning over the central wall and requires top reinforcement in the region of the
central wall.
8.2 Low Level Water Crossings
In favourable conditions, low level water crossings can provide economical and
relatively simple alternatives to conventional bridges. These are of two basic types:
- fords and bed-level causeways
- vented causeways and submersible bridges.
Both types are appropriate for sites where traffic volumes are low or where a
118
reasonably short detour provides access to an all-weather bridge. For most of the year the
maximum depth of water over the carriage way should be less than 150mm. The success of
119
service life of the structure will depend considerably on its hydraulic design. Fords and bed-
level causeway, like conventional bridges, will be constructed so that they cause little
interference with the design flood. Vented causeways and submersible bridges inevitably
disrupt river flow, and so are liable to sustain damage or indirectly cause scour to the river
bed or banks, which in turn may affect the road approaches to the crossing.
Since fords and bed-level causeways are overtopped by any water flowing in the
river channel there is no reason to raise the road surface above the stream bed.
Vented causeways and submersible bridges usually present a dry carriage way for
ordinary flows and are overtopped during the design flood.
The best location for a low level crossing is similar to that recommended for a
conventional bridge, with the exception that a broad, straight stretch of river will
provide slower and shallower water as well as easier road approaches. The maximum
gradient for motor traffic should be 10 per cent, and for animals 5 per cent. The change
of gradient should be gradual to prevent the underside of vehicles touching the road and to
preserve long sight distances. Equal cut and fill construction of the approach roads requires
less work than the cut and remove spoil, but the placing of the spoil in the river channel
may cause scour problems during a flood. On roads where speeds are naturally slow and
where the horizontal curve on the approach side is clearly visible, steep approaches may be
relieved by diagonal descent of the river bank. Even where the road is a single track, it is
advisable to make the crossing and its approaches two lanes in width, so as to allow
traffic to pass any vehicle, which breaks down or fails to mount the gradient.
8.2.1 Ford
s
Fords are the simplest form of river crossing at places where the stream is wide,
shallow and slow, the approaches gentle, and the surface firm. Improvements to the
approaches are usually confined to reducing the gradient. The running surface in the stream
can be strengthened and made more even using stones brought in and burjed just below
the surface. Alternatively, if stones are carried in the flow, these may be trapped by
barriers made of boulders, gabions or piles.
a) Boulders
Large stones placed across the river bed at the downstream side of the crossing
are claimed to filter the flow of water and retain gravel and sand, which eventually form a
more level and even surface for vehicles. However, if the stones are too large or for too high
a wall (>300mm), scour may result; if they are not heavy enough, they will be washed
away at the first flood. Fig 7.5a shows a typical cross section of a ford with downstream
boulders.
b) Gabions
A more durable improvement may be made to the running surface by replacing the
boulders with gabions as shown in Fig. 7.5b. It is important that the gabions protrude no
more than 150-300mm above the natural bed level of the river, otherwise they will act as
a weir and cause heavy scour downstream of the crossing. The gabion baskets are
wired together and dropped into a prepared trench. The central gabion is filled first and,
using that as an anchor, the line of gabions is pulled taut and straightened by a chain
attached to a truck or winch. This tension is maintained while the remaining baskets are
fukked. When filling is complete, final adjustments are made to the top course of rock and
the baskets are closed. As an alternative to conventional gabions, a tube basket can be made
from a roll of fencing mesh laid across the bed of the stream and filled with rock. During
filling, the edges are raised and bent over at the top to form a tube and then tied. Finally a
wire tope is attached as shown in
119
Fig 7.5c and securely anchored at each end. Tube baskets need to be installed in a previously
excavated trench approximately half the depth of the basket, ie 0.2 to 0.3m. After
installation, sand and gravel transported by the stream is tapped behind the basket,
building up a fairly level surface suitable for the passage of vehicles.
c)
Piles
Where gabions are unobtainable, timber piles driven into the river bed with or without
stone protection make an acceptable cut-off wall (Fig. 7.5d). To be fully effective, timber
piles should have a length of about 2m, and should be placed at no more that 0.6m centers. If
the river is fast flowing a continuous line of piles may be necessary. A curtain wall may be
required on the upstream as well as the downstream side if the roadbed is erodible.
Fig. 8.5 Ways of improving the running surface at a

ford
8.2.2 Bed Level

Causeways
Where the type of traffic or the lack of a nearby all-weather crossing justifies
the expense, a pavement may be laid on the riverbed. A paved ford is also called a bed-
level causeway. Fig. 7.6 illustrates three common designs.
To protect the pavement from scour damage, curtain walls are usually required on both
sides of the roadway and these must continue up the approaches to the height of the design
flood. It is recommended that curtain walls should be 1m deep on the upstream side and 2m
deep on the downstream side, unless rock is reached before that depth. If the bed is in
erodible, the causeway need not have curtain walls but the bed on both the upstream and
downstream sides of the crossing should be trimmed flat to reduce turbulence.
1
First Semester 2012/13
A.
20
Y.
Fig. 8.6 Bed level

causeways
Fig. 8.6a shows a section through a basic bed level causeway suitable for light traffic
and maximum water flows below 2m/sec. The crossing shown in Fig. 86b requires good
concrete technology and may sustain damage to the apron that is difficult to repair. Fig. 8.6c
shows a design employing a good combination of concrete pavement with flexible
protection. Generally, a 1:2:4 concrete, by volume, is used and slabs are jointed using
crack inducers every 5m.
8.2.3 Vented
Causeways
Vented causeways are built where the river flow is too great for too many days in
the year to allow the traffic to cross a ford or bed level causeway. Structures like he one
depicted in Fig. 87 are designed for a design flood less than the annual flood, provided it is
acceptable that the carriageway may be overtopped for a few days each year during the
annual high flood. Since these structures present a considerable obstacle to the free flow
of both an ordinary flood and the design flood, they must be built sufficiently massive
to withstand water pressure and debris impact. They must also have scour protection
where the bed is erodible, and market posts.
2012/13
121
First Semester A. Y.
Fig. 8.7
The vents are usually concrete or corrugated steel pipes from 0.6m to 1.0m
diameter, set in a block of concrete or masonry. Where pre-cast concrete pipes are
unavailable, vaulted masonry tunnels have proved successful. Concrete or masonry retaining
walls and aprons are needed to channel the flow and prevent.
To prevent blockage of the stream by debris or silting the pipes must be set level with
the streambed and at the same slope.
8.2.4 Submersible Bridges

Where are traffic density justifies a dry crossing of a substantial ordinary flood and
the annual high flood is much greater, a submersible bridge designed to pass the
ordinary flood but to be overtopped by the high flood will be considerably cheaper than a
high level, all weather bridge. Submersible bridges have the advantage of being able to
pass a larger flow that the vents of a causeway of the same height, but are more susceptible
to damage by the river. The overturning moment at the pier foundation becomes very large
unless the piers are kept short, and the horizontal and vertical forces on the decks
require solid restraint. Because of these difficulties submersible bridges are not
recommended for any foundation other than rock, and even then a vented causeway or
conventional bridge is likely to be a more durable alternative.
CHAPTER 9
ELEMENTS OF BRIDGE PROJECT AND
CONSTRUCTION OF BRIDGES
Any bridge project comprises of the following after the need for it is felt.
Appraisal
Feasibility Study
Design
Construction
After construction, there should be regular follow up, monitoring and maintenance of bridges.
122
9.1. Appraisal and Feasibility

Study
9.1.1
Appraisal
Is the first investigation in the project design. It consists of highway planning, site selection,
preliminary surveys, gathering general hydrological information and geological
information. From this information, the possible alternative bridge types and size can be
decided.
9.2.2 Feasibility
Study
Is a more detailed extension of the appraisal. The objectives of feasibility study are selection
of the final bridge site and preliminary estimates of cost for the different alternative
bridge types. It means that more details are necessary for the finally chosen bridge site.
These are site survey, hydrographic data, geotechnical data, environmental report and
other pertinent information about the selected bridge site.
a) Site
Survey
Topographic profile along the center line of the bridge is required. Determination of high,
medium and low water levels is also required.
b) Hydrographical
Data
This data extending over many years should be available (e.g. peak velocity of the
river water). For undeveloped area you make hydraulic study of the entire region.
c) Geotechnical
Data
One or two soil borings may be sufficient at this stage. In the final design stage borings will
be made at each abutment and at each pier.
d) Environmental
Report
The impact of the bridge on the landscape, and on the natural ecology should be assessed
and reported.
e) Other
Data
Such patient information as the location of aggregates for concrete, the cement supply,
the type and condition of access roads, the availability of water for concrete in the vicinity
of the bridge site are important information which have a direct bearing on the cost of
construction.
f) Feasibility
Report
The data gathered and study made at the feasibility stage will be reported as a
feasibility report. This report help several important decisions to be made such as selection
of the most suitable bridge site, cost evaluation, comparison of different bridge types and
selection of the best, evaluation of the environmental impact of the bridge construction,
and assessment of special loads or environmental hazards.
9.2.3 Desig
n
123
Design consists of structural analysis, section design and satisfying stability requirements
of the structure and its structural components. This culminates in producing structural
drawings and material specifications.
For design additional subsoil investigations (boring at each abutment and pier
location), additional research work (like wind tunnel test for suspension bridge,
aerodynamic investigations), studies on the earthquake response of the bridge, and special
connections and bearings are required.
9.3.
Construction
In the construction stage, what is on the design drawings will be put into the physical
structure. Design drawings, material and technical specifications and bill of quantities make
up a contract document that will be issued to contractors for bidding. Then the contractor
that wins the bid will take the job. The contractor may use a construction method stipulated
while preparing the bill of quantities (of materials and tasks) or he may use his own method
that may be cost effective and that require shorter construction time. Well, this requires the
approval of the client‟s engineer.
The contractor has to carry out detailed analysis and design of the components of the
structure (and prepare his own detailed working drawings) to avoid failure due to
fabrication, handling and erection stresses.
Before construction begins the contractor is required to prepare his work schedule and
submit. Bar chart may be used for small bridges and network methods (CPM or PERT) for
big and complicated bridge projects.
In carrying out the construction, human and non-human resources will be so managed so
that the construction activities conform to the schedule or the plan. The quality of the work
will be attended and approved by the client‟s engineer.
9.4. Inspection and Maintenance

9.4.1 Inspection
The construction of bridges represents a very substantial national investment, and their
use involves public safety. The service life expectancy of a bridge is 100 years. If the
maintenance is faulty and if the structures are inadequate for present day traffic and
loading, the useful life may be drastically reduced.
Though the importance of proper maintenance cannot be over-emphasized, the practice

of maintenance of bridges leave much to be desired in most cases. The obligation of
assuring bridge safety and the conservation of the national investment on bridges rests with
the public agencies that operate and maintain these bridges. In order to meet this
responsibility, it is essential to evolve and implement suitable inspection and evaluation
procedures. The objective of bridge inspection comprises the monitoring and the
evaluation of the performance of each bridge structure throughout its service life so that
any deficiency in performance could be detected and corrected early. Each State
Highway Department or Railway Zonal Administration should preferably have a separate
cell for bridge inspection under the control of an experienced bridge engineer, capable of
inspecting and pinpointing any trouble area that could cause the abandonment,
replacement or repair of a bridge. The cell should maintain individual files on each bridge
in its jurisdiction containing structural drawings, and particulars of first construction repairs,
124
maintenance works, inspections, etc.
125
The inspections could be classified as: (i) routine inspection; (ii) in-depth inspection and
(iii) special inspection. The routine inspection is particularly applicable to short span
bridges. It usually involves a general examination of the structure, conducted on a regular
basis, to look for obvious outward physical evidence of distress that might require repair
or maintenance attention. An in-depth inspection requires a detailed visual examination of
all superstructure and substructure elements. This is particularly necessary in the case of
old bridges and structures of major proportions where structural failure could result in
catastrophic consequence. The in-depth inspection may be scheduled once in three to five
years. The special inspection is undertaken after special events such as earthquake, cyclone
or passage of unusually heavy loads.
The common locations of deficiencies are related to foundations, bearings, floor systems,
and connections and truss members. In general, the trouble spots to be checked are: (a)
deterioration and cracks in concrete; (b) evidence of foundation settlement and movement;
(c) metalwork cracks; (d) loose connections; (e) damaged members; (f) poorly farmed
structural details; (g) indiscriminate past repairs; (h) excessive vibrations; (i) distress near
expansion joints; (j) inoperative expansion bearings; and (k) areas which have shown
problems on other similar structures.
One of the common defects in road bridge maintenance is the periodical addition of surface
dressing resulting in dead loads much in excess of original design. Other areas of neglect
include the bearings and expansion joints, which are often inoperative due to defective
maintenance. Painting of steel bridges should be attended to properly. In case of every major
bridge, the inspecting engineer should perform a Structural Integrity Examination at
least once in five years to evaluate the performance and adequacy of the entire foundation
and the structural system. In addition, the inspecting engineer should personally inspect
the bridge on the following schedule: (a) once a year for a complete inspection from
foundation up; (b) after each major flood, in case of river bridge, to examine effects of
scour and changes in stream bed and banks; (c) during one high temperature period and
one low temperature period each year to check the bearings for proper movement and
joints for performance; and
(d) after each accident on the bridge, to check for damages with a view to initiate
immediate
repairs
.
MAJOR CAUSES
The bridge engineer should take every possible precaution to avoid failures, as serious
failures of bridges will often result in loss of lives, interruption of vital traffic and
costly repairs. Every bridge engineer would do well to study the circumstances leading
to any bridge failure that he may come across, so as to learn lessons from such failures. The
failure may be, partial or complete. Complete failures generally attract attention. But partial
failures also merit careful study to avoid recurrence of the defects.
Based on a study of 143 bridge failures that occurred throughout the world between 1847
and 1975, Smith has categorized the causes of failures as in Table below. About sixty
percent of the bridge failures listed were due to natural phenomena, i.e., due to flood,
126
earthquake and wind.
127
FLOOD
FAILURES
Almost half of the failures listed in the following table were due to floods. The
precaution
BARGE
IMPACT
Damages to bridges across navigable river caused by barges or ships are on the increase. The
vessels may be adrift or may hit the piers under power. The damage to the bridge can be
minimized by providing properly designed protective fendering. When potential damage
due to barge impact exists, it is prudent not to use pile foundation with exposed piling above
the river bed. In such cases, sturdy well foundation with protective fendering will be
desirable. There is scope for research study into the distribution of the energy due to impact
causing damage to the vessel, the protective fendering and the bridge.
FALSEWORK
FAILURES
Failures of false work can result in loss, injury, death and interruption to traffic as much
as bridge collapse. The problem of avoiding false work failures is not easy to solve because
of many economic and administrative problems. Falesework is a temporary structure
designed and erected to last long enough to support the final structure during
construction. Traditionally, this has been left to the contractor and as an economic necessity,
the formwork construction needs to use secondhand materials to the extent possible, thus
lacking the finesse of a finely designed structure. With increased spans of our bridges,
falsework design has become more complicated. The bridge falsework design should be
prepared by a competent engineer, should be checked by the governmental engineers and its
128
erection should be under proper supervision. Immediately prior to and during the placing of
concrete, the constructed falsework should be carefully checked for joint fits,
bracing, stiffness, overturning
129
possibilities, and foundation settlement and general adequacy. By improved methods of
construction and constant vigilance, we can avoid falsework failures.
DESIGN
WEAKNESSES
Bridge failures due principally to design weakness are relatively few. According to Silby and
Walker, failures due to weakness in design follow a 30-year cycle, as evidenced by
the following examples: Dee bridge (1847), Tay bridge (1879), Quebec bridge (1907),
Tacoma Narrows bridge (1940) and the steel box girder bridges including West Gate
bridge (1970). In each of these cases, a factor, which was originally of secondary
importance, became with increasing scale, of primary importance and led to failure.
EARTHQUAKE
FAILURES
Several types of failures have been noticed during earthquakes. A common failure way by
slab shortening. As abutments and piers moved together, some decks buckled, some were
crushed and some collapsed. Another type was the horizontal displacement of piers due to
movement of piles in liquefied soils subjected to lateral loading. A third type involved
differential settlement of piers and abutments due to differences in soil characteristics due
to liquefaction. Column failures by crushing of concrete due to ex-treme torsion have
been noticed. In some cases, decks slid off their supports due to violent shaking.
Liquefaction of approach fills have resulted in settlement of fills in relation to abutments,
causing accidents to motor vehicles by impact against the abutment backwall.
Several preventive measures have been suggested. Heavier and closer spaced spiral
reinforcement should be provided for columns. Such reinforcement would retain the concrete
in the core and prevent collapse. Restraint should be provided at expansion joints and
articulations such that ordinary expansion due to temperature is permitted but larger
movements under earthquake are restrained. No splices are to be allowed in columns of less
than 9m height, as lapped splices of column bars have been found to be useless
under earthquakes. Approach slab with one end resting on abutment should be provided to
permit a smooth transition in case of settlement of approaches due to liquefaction of the fill.
FAILURES DUE TO
WIND
Bridge failures have occurred due to wind. Major examples include the collapse of the Tay
bridge in 1879, and Chester bridge over Mississippi in 1944. Tay bridge failed due to
aerostatic instability, as the design did not include provisions for wind forces.
Tacoma Narrows first bridge failed in 1940 due to aerodynamic instability. The recurrence
of these type of failures is avoided in recent designs through streamlining the deck and
adequate stiffening. Chester bridge was blown off into the river during a tornado. While
very little can be done to save a structure from the attack of a severe tornado the damage can
be minimized by providing proper anchorage of the deck with the substructures.
130
FATIGUE AND
CORROSION
131
Fatigue may be defined as the gradual weakening of a structure due to repetitive loading
and is accompanied by spreading of crack. If the steel is corroded at the tip of the
crack, progression of the crack is accelerated. An example of fatigue failure is the collapse
of the Point Pleasant bridge (eye bar suspension bridge) in 1957 due to fracture at the
pinhole of a single eye bar.
Corrosion of reinforcement in concrete bridge may lead to spalling of concrete and

may render the bridge unsafe for modern traffic. Potential damage due to corrosion in a
backwater area can be prevented only by careful attention to concrete cover to
reinforcement, by proper placement and compaction of concrete to avoid honeycombing,
and by proper curing with potable water.
Special care should be devoted to grouting prestressing cable soon after stressing so as to
avoid corrosion of the prestressing tendons. Delayed grouting and inadequate grouting of
tendons may contribute to the failure of prestressed concrete bridges.
132

Bridge Lecture Note (All Chapter)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bridge Lecture Note (All Chapter)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fundamentals of Bridge Design –CENG 5501 Lecture Note

1.1 General Introduction

Transportation network is crucial for the development and prosperity of a country.

1- Deck and overpass 2- Stringer(longitudinal beams) 3-Bearing 4- Pedestal

1.2 Overview of Bridge Types

Cross section of solid slab bridge

Slab Stringer bridge: example is temcha river bridge

Photo of whole bridge

Part side view view from underneath

Abay bridge on Goha Tsion – Dejen road

West Lilac overpass arch bridge, California, USA

Truss arch - New River Gorge bridge

New Orleans through truss bridge

Brooklyn bridge, Newyork city

Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, Japan Suspension bridge

Four level directional interchange:

Interchange, San Diego California

The Chinese were building stone arch bridges since 250

Fig. 1.1. Development of Bridges

The following roads were constructed by Italians during this

Historical Development of Bridge Construction in

1.4 Elements of a Bridge

First Semester 2012/13 A.

First Semester 2012/13 A.

1.5 Design Objectives

First Semester 2012/13 A.

First Semester 2012/13 A.

Although beauty in anything is somewhat subjective and undefinable, experience has

The different limit states may be defined

 The proposed road alignment

2.2. Site selection

There are three initial considerations to bear in mind in selection of the

Several computer programs are available. An example is a computer program developed in

2.3. Site Investigation

High-water marks or profiles and related frequencies.

2.3.1. Catchment Area and Run off

Table 2.1 Distance to be covered by contour plans

d) Cross-section and longitudinal sections of the river – Cross-sections are taken at

2.3.3. River Survey

Q=C*An, Q=C*A Ryve‟s formula …. (2.1)

2.3.4. Soil Investigation

2.4.4 Free Board

Bridges are classified according to their superstructure and superstructure may be

Material Load path characteristics

By material of construction, bridges can be classified as steel, concrete, timber or

It is customary to identify bridges as short-span, medium-span, and long-span depending

In the absence of any established criteria, a common practice is to classify bridges by

3.1.1 Classification by Structural Form

Table 3.1 Span lengths for various types of superstructures

Fig. 3.2 Orthotropic deck bridge

Fig. 3.3 Through truss bridge

Fig. 3.4 Constant depth truss bridges

Rigid frame bridges consist of superstructures supported on vertical or slanted

Arches can be classified different

Both types of bridges rely on very high strength steel cables or

Simple span bridges – are suitable for short

Classification by Load – Path

One-dimensional systems – slab bridges. These are one-way

Classification by Position for Movable

Classification based on Life Span of

Permanent bridges – bridges that serve for a longer period of

Combination and Double-Deck

3.2. Selection of Bridge Type

3.2.1 Factors to be considered in

Q=CAn, Q=CA Ryve‟s formula …. (2.1)