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Fundamentals of
Wastewater
Treatment and
Engineering
Fundamentals of
Wastewater
Treatment and
Engineering
Second Edition
Rumana Riffat
Taqsim Husnain
Cover image: Avigator Fortuner/Shutterstock
Second edition published 2022
by CRC Press
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
and by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
First edition published by CRC Press 2013
CRC Press is an imprint of Informa UK Limited
© 2022 Rumana Riffat and Taqsim Husnain
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the
author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or
the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the
copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copy-
right holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copy-
right material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may
rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted,
reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other
means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permis-
sion from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access
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able on CCC please contact mpkbookspermissions@tandf.co.uk
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trade-
marks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Riffat, Rumana, author. | Husnain, Taqsim, author.
Title: Fundamentals of wastewater treatment and engineering / Rumana
Riffat, Taqsim Husnain.
Description: Second edition. | Abingdon, Oxon ; Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press,
2022. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021053524 (print) | LCCN 2021053525 (ebook) | ISBN
9780367681302 (hbk) | ISBN 9780367681326 (pbk) | ISBN 9781003134374
(ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Sewage--Purification.
Classification: LCC TD745 .R54 2022 (print) | LCC TD745 (ebook) | DDC
628.3--dc23/eng/20211228
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021053524
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021053525
ISBN: 978-0-367-68130-2 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-68132-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-13437-4 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003134374
Typeset in Sabon
by SPi Technologies India Pvt Ltd (Straive)
This book is dedicated to my husband Wahid Sajjad, who has
been my best friend forever; to my children Roshan and
Mehran, who have always been my love and inspiration;
and to my parents Umme Salma and Muhammad Chishty, who
have taught me the two most important things in life –
compassion and humility.
I dedicate this book
• to the memories of Mubarak Hussain and Kazi Abdus Salam

• to the encouragements of Nilufar Hussain and Zulfia Salam
• to the love of Nazia Salam
• to my greatest inspirations, Rania and Zaheen
• to everyone who will be motivated by this book to make the
world better
Contents
Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xix
List of symbols xxi
List of abbreviations xxiii
About the authors xxvii
1 Sustainable wastewater treatment and engineering 1

1.1 Introduction and history 1
1.2 Current practice 3
1.3 Emerging issues 5
1.4 Future directions 5
1.5 Regulatory requirements 7
1.5.1 United States regulations 7
1.5.2 European Union regulations 9
1.5.3 United Kingdom regulations 10
References 11
2 Reaction kinetics and chemical reactors 13

2.1 Reaction kinetics 13
2.2 How to find the order of a reaction 14
2.3 Zero order reaction 16
2.4 First order reaction 17
2.5 Second order reaction 18
2.6 Reactors 19
2.6.1 Conversion of a reactant 20
2.6.2 Detention time in a reactor 20
2.7 Batch reactor 20
2.7.1 Design equation 22
2.8 Plug flow reactor 23
vii
viii Contents
2.9 Continuous-flow stirred tank reactor 25

2.10 Reactors in series 27
2.11 Semi-batch or semi-flow reactors 30
Problems 30
References 33
3 Wastewater microbiology 35
3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 Bacteria 36
3.2.1 Cell composition and structure 37
3.2.2 Bacterial growth curve 38
3.2.3 Classification by carbon and energy requirement 39
3.2.4 Classification by oxygen requirement 41
3.2.5 Classification by temperature 41
3.2.6 Bacteria of significance 41
3.3 Archaea 42
3.4 Protozoa 43
3.5 Algae 44
3.6 Fungi 45
3.7 Virus 47
3.8 Major outbreaks 49
3.8.1 SARS-CoV-2 (Coronavirus) 49
Problems 52
References 52
4 Natural purification processes 55

4.1 Impurities in water 55
4.2 Dilution 55
4.3 Sedimentation 57
4.4 Microbial degradation 57
4.5 Measurement of organic matter 58
4.5.1 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) 58
4.5.1.1 BOD kinetics 58
4.5.1.2 Laboratory measurement 62
4.5.1.3 Unseeded BOD test 62
4.5.1.4 Seeded BOD test 64
4.5.1.5 Determination of k and Lo 65
4.5.1.6 Thomas’ graphical method 65
4.5.2 Theoretical oxygen demand 66
4.6 Dissolved oxygen balance 67
4.6.1 Dissolved oxygen sag curve 69
4.6.1.1 Critical points 70
4.6.1.2 Limitations of the oxygen sag curve model 74
Contents ix
Problems 75
References 78
5 Wastewater treatment fundamentals 79

5.1 Introduction 79
5.2 Sources of wastewater 80
5.3 Wastewater flow rate 80
5.3.1 Design period 80
5.3.2 Population projection 81
5.3.2.1 Constant growth method 81
5.3.2.2 Log growth method 81
5.3.2.3 Percent growth method 82
5.3.2.4 Ratio method 82
5.3.2.5 Declining growth method 82
5.3.3 Wastewater flow 85
5.3.3.1 Residential wastewater flow 85
5.3.3.2 Commercial and institutional
wastewater flow 86
5.3.3.3 Industrial wastewater flow 86
5.3.4 Infiltration and inflow 86
5.3.5 Variability of wastewater flow 87
5.4 Wastewater constituents 88
5.5 Wastewater treatment methods 89
5.5.1 Physical treatment 89
5.5.2 Chemical treatment 90
5.5.3 Biological treatment 90
5.6 Levels of wastewater treatment 90
5.6.1 Preliminary treatment 90
5.6.2 Primary treatment 90
5.6.3 Enhanced primary treatment 91
5.6.4 Conventional secondary treatment 91
5.6.5 Secondary treatment with nutrient removal 91
5.6.6 Tertiary treatment 91
5.6.7 Advanced treatment 91
5.7 Residuals and biosolids management 91
5.8 Flow diagrams of treatment options 92
5.9 Types of biological treatment processes 94
Problems 95
References 96
6 Preliminary treatment 99
6.1 Introduction 99
6.2 Screens 99
x Contents
6.2.1 Trash racks 99

6.2.2 Coarse screens or bar screens 100
6.2.2.1 Design of coarse screens 101
6.2.3 Fine screens 104
6.2.3.1 Design of fine screens 105
6.2.4 Microscreens 106
6.3 Shredder/Grinder 106
6.4 Grit chamber 107
6.5 Flow equalization 111
6.5.1 Equalization tank design 112
Problems 115
References 116
7 Primary treatment 117

7.1 Introduction 117
7.2 Types of settling/sedimentation 117
7.3 Type I sedimentation 118
7.3.1 Theory of discrete particle settling 118
7.3.1.1 Stokes equation 120
7.3.2 Design of ideal sedimentation tank 122
7.4 Type II sedimentation 125
7.5 Primary sedimentation 129
7.5.1 Rectangular sedimentation tank 130
7.5.2 Circular sedimentation tank 131
7.6 Chemically enhanced primary treatment (CEPT) 137
Problems 137
References 140
8 Secondary treatment – suspended growth process 141

8.2 Microbial growth kinetics 142
8.2.1 Biomass yield 142
8.2.2 Logarithmic growth phase 144
8.2.3 Monod model 144
8.2.4 Biomass growth and substrate utilization 145
8.2.5 Other rate expressions for rsu 146
8.2.6 Endogenous metabolism 146
8.2.7 Net rate of growth 147
8.2.8 Rate of oxygen uptake 147
8.2.9 Effect of temperature 148
8.3 Activated sludge process (for BOD removal) 148
8.3.1 Design and operational parameters 150
8.3.2 Factors affecting microbial growth 154
8.3.3 Stoichiometry of aerobic oxidation 154
Contents xi
8.4 Modeling suspended growth processes 154

8.4.1 CSTR without recycle 154
8.4.2 Activated sludge reactor (CSTR with recycle) 157
8.4.2.1 Other useful relationships 160
8.4.3 Activated sludge reactor (plug flow
reactor with recycle) 161
8.4.4 Limitations of the models 163
8.4.5 Aeration requirements 168
8.4.5.1 Types of aerators 169
8.5 Types of suspended growth processes 172
8.5.1 Conventional activated sludge 172
8.5.2 Step aeration or step feed process 172
8.5.3 Tapered aeration process 173
8.5.4 Contact stabilization process 173
8.5.5 Staged activated sludge process 174
8.5.6 Extended aeration process 174
8.5.7 Oxidation ditch 175
8.5.8 Sequencing batch reactor (SBR) 176
8.5.9 Membrane biological reactor (MBR) 176
8.6 Stabilization ponds and lagoons 177
8.6.1 Process microbiology 178
8.6.2 Design of pond or lagoon system 179
8.6.3 Design practice 180
8.7 Septic tank system 183
8.7.1 Process description 183
8.7.2 Types of septic systems 185
8.7.3 Design considerations 186
Problems 187
References 189
9 Secondary treatment – Attached growth and combined

processes 193
9.2 System microbiology and biofilms 194
9.3 Important media characteristics 195
9.4 Loading rates 197
9.5 Stone media trickling filter 197
9.5.1 Design equations for stone media 200
9.6 Bio-tower 203
9.6.1 Design equations for plastic media 203
9.7 Rotating biological contactor (RBC) 207
9.8 Hybrid processes 209
9.8.1 Moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR) 209
9.8.2 Integrated fixed-film activated sludge (IFAS) 210
9.8.3 Fluidized bed bioreactor (FBBR) 210
xii Contents
9.9 Combined processes 211

Problems 213
References 214
10 Secondary clarification and disinfection 217

10.2 Secondary clarifier for suspended growth process 217
10.2.1 Settling column test 218
10.2.2 Solids flux analysis 220
10.2.2.1 Theory 221
10.2.2.2 Determination of area required
for thickening 223
10.2.2.3 Secondary clarifier design based
on solids flux analysis 225
10.2.3 State point analysis 233
10.2.3.1 Theory 233
10.2.3.2 Clarifier evaluation based on
state point analysis 234
10.3 Secondary clarifier for attached growth process 236
10.4 Disinfection 238
10.5 Post-aeration 240
Problems 241
References 243
11 Anaerobic wastewater treatment 245

11.2 Process chemistry and microbiology 247
11.2.1 Syntrophic relationships 249
11.3 Methanogenic bacteria 250
11.4 Sulfate-reducing bacteria 252
11.5 Environmental requirements and toxicity 252
11.6 Methane gas production 254
11.6.1 Stoichiometry 254
11.6.2 Biochemical methane potential assay 256
11.6.3 Anaerobic toxicity assay (ATA) 257
11.7 Anaerobic growth kinetics 257
11.8 Anaerobic suspended growth processes 258
11.8.1 Anaerobic contact process 258
11.8.2 Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket process 259
11.8.2.1 Design equations 260
11.8.3 Expanded granular sludge bed (EGSB) 262
11.8.4 Anaerobic sequencing batch reactor 264
11.8.5 Anaerobic migrating blanket reactor 267
Contents xiii
11.9 Anaerobic attached growth processes 267

11.9.1 Anaerobic filter 267
11.9.2 Anaerobic expanded bed reactor 269
11.10 Hybrid processes 269
11.10.1 Anaerobic fluidized bed reactor 269
11.10.2 Anaerobic membrane bioreactor 269
Problems 270
References 271
12 Solids processing and disposal 275

12.2 Characteristics of municipal sludge 276
12.3 Sludge quantification 276
12.4 Sludge thickening 282
12.4.1 Gravity thickener 282
12.4.2 Dissolved air flotation 286
12.4.3 Centrifugation 287
12.5 Sludge stabilization 288
12.5.1 Alkaline stabilization 289
12.5.1.1 Chemical reactions 289
12.5.1.2 Lime pretreatment 289
12.5.1.3 Lime post-treatment 290
12.5.2 Anaerobic digestion 290
12.5.2.1 Single-stage mesophilic digestion 292
12.5.2.2 Two-stage mesophilic digestion 295
12.5.2.3 Thermophilic anaerobic digestion 303
12.5.2.4 Temperature-phased anaerobic
digestion (TPAD) 304
12.5.2.5 Acid-gas phased digestion 305
12.5.2.6 Enhanced Enzymic HydrolysisTM 305
12.5.2.7 CambiTM process 306
12.5.3 Aerobic digestion 307
12.5.3.1 Autothermal thermophilic
aerobic digestion 308
12.5.3.2 Dual digestion 309
12.5.4 Composting 310
12.6 Conditioning of biosolids 311
12.7 Biosolids dewatering 312
12.7.1 Centrifugation 312
12.7.1.1 High-solids centrifuge 312
12.7.2 Belt-filter press 313
12.7.3 Drying beds 314
12.8 Disposal of biosolids 314
12.8.1 Incineration 314
xiv Contents
12.8.2 Land disposal methods 314

12.9 Biosolids disposal regulations in the US 315
12.9.1 Class A biosolids 316
12.9.1.1 Processes to further reduce
pathogens (PFRP) 317
12.9.2 Class B biosolids 317
12.9.2.1 Processes to significantly reduce
pathogens (PSRP) 318
Problems 318
References 321
13 Advanced treatment processes 325

13.2 Nitrogen removal 325
13.2.1 Biological nitrogen removal 326
13.2.1.1 Nitrification–denitrification 327
13.2.1.2 Nitritation–denitritation 339
13.2.1.3 Deammonification 340
13.2.2 Physico-chemical process for nitrogen removal 342
13.2.2.1 Air stripping 342
13.3 Phosphorus removal 343
13.3.1 Chemical precipitation 343
13.3.2 Biological phosphorus removal (BPR) 344
13.3.2.1 Selected processes for BPR 344
13.3.2.2 Phoredox 345
13.3.2.3 A2OTM process 345
13.3.2.4 Modified BardenphoTM (five stage) 345
13.3.2.5 UCT process 345
13.4 Solids removal 345
13.4.1 Granular media filtration 347
13.4.2 Activated carbon adsorption 348
13.4.3 Membrane filtration 350
13.4.3.1 Fundamental equations 350
13.4.3.2 Membrane fouling 352
13.4.3.3 Membrane configurations 353
13.4.4 Membrane filtration 354
Problems 354
References 355
14 Resource recovery and sustainability 359

14.2 Sustainable design principles 359
14.3 Nutrient recovery 360
14.3.1 Nutrient applications 361
Contents xv
14.4 Energy recovery 362

14.4.1 Energy applications 363
14.5 Water recovery 363
14.5.1 Reclaimed water applications 364
14.6 Examples of best practices 365
References 369
15 Design examples 373

15.2 Design example – conventional wastewater
treatment plant 373
15.3 Design example – decentralized wastewater
treatment in a rural location 390
References 392
Appendix A 393
Index 395
Preface
Over the years, wastewater has been evolving from waste to valuable
resource. Recovery of water, nutrients, and/or energy are becoming essential
elements of wastewater treatment design. The second edition of this book
has been completely updated to reflect current advances in design, resource
recovery practices, and research. A new chapter (Chapter 14) has been
added on resource recovery and sustainability, along with real-life examples
from all around the world. A new section on microbiology on the Coronavirus
(SARS- CoV-2) is presented along with its implications in wastewater.
Another highlight of this edition is chapter 15, which provides a culminat-
ing design experience of both urban and rural wastewater treatment
systems.
This book is designed for a course on wastewater treatment and engineer-
ing for senior-level or early graduate-level students. The book covers the
fundamental concepts of wastewater treatment followed by the engineering
design of unit processes for the treatment of municipal wastewater and
resource recovery. The students should have background knowledge of envi-
ronmental chemistry and fluid mechanics. One important characteristic of
this book is that each design concept is explained with the help of an under-
lying fundamental theory, followed by a mathematical model or formula-
tion. Worked- out problems are used to demonstrate the use of the
mathematical formulations and apply them in design.
Chapter 1 starts with a history of wastewater treatment, followed by cur-
rent practices, emerging concerns, future directions in resource recovery,
and pertinent regulations that have shaped the objectives and directions of
this important area of engineering and research. Chapters 2 and 3 describe
the fundamental concepts of reaction kinetics, reactor design, and wastewa-
ter microbiology. A new section on the Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) is pro-
vided along with its effects and implications in wastewater. Chapter 4
introduces natural purification processes and the dissolved oxygen sag
curve. The concept of simple mass balances is introduced in this chapter.
Chapters 5–10 describe the unit processes in primary and secondary treat-
ment, in detail. Mass balance is used to develop design equations for bio-
logical treatment processes. A separate chapter (Chapter 11) is provided for
xvii
xviii Preface
anaerobic treatment, which is becoming more and more important due to

the energy production potential from methane gas generation. Chapter 12
describes solids processing and disposal, together with pertinent regulations.
A number of worked-out problems are used to demonstrate the calculation
of mass and volume of sludge, perform mass balance of solids, and calculate
process efficiency. Chapter 13 describes advanced and tertiary treatment
processes. Recent advances in nitrogen and phosphorus removal are pro-
vided, followed by processes for solids removal. Chapters 14 and 15 are new
additions. Chapter 14 presents sustainable design principles for the recovery
of water, energy, and nutrients from wastewater. Examples of resource
recovery and water reuse practices from around the world are provided.
Chapter 15 provides a culminating design experience based on all the con-
cepts explained in the previous chapters. Using the fundamental principles
together with parameters used in practice, the overall design of a wastewa-
ter treatment system, urban and rural, is explained with the help of example
problems.
The layout of the book is similar to the manner in which the first author,
Dr. Riffat, has taught this course at George Washington University for the
last 28 years. The course is taken by senior-level and graduate students of
the Civil and Environmental Engineering Department. The material is cov-
ered in one semester consisting of 14 weeks. At the end of the course, the
student should have an understanding of the fundamental concepts of
wastewater treatment, and be able to design the unit processes for the treat-
ment of municipal wastewater with an overall goal of resource recovery and
sustainability.
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank my husband, Wahid Sajjad, for all his advice and sup-
port, which made it possible for me to complete the second edition. My
daughter, Mehran, and my sister-in-law, Farhana Sazzad Mita, provided tre-
mendous support at the family level, to make things easier for me during the
coronavirus pandemic; and my son, Roshan, for his constant encourage-
ment of my academic endeavors.
It was a pleasure to work with my co-author and former student, Taqsim
Husnain, on the additions, modifications, and new chapters. He has also
diligently and beautifully prepared all the diagrams and illustrations for this
book. I would like to thank my former doctoral students Sebnem Aynur and
Kannitha Krongthamchat, for their contributions to Chapters 11 and 12.
Finally, I would like to thank my extended family for all their love and
inspiration.
Writing a book is more rewarding than I could have ever imagined. And it
has been possible for the enormous opportunity and support from my
teacher and doctoral adviser, Dr. Rumana Riffat. I would like to express my
deepest appreciation to her for providing constant mentorship and inspira-
tion, and for always believing in me.
A very special thanks to my beloved wife, Nazia Salam. From reading the
early draft to checking the calculations, she played an important role in get-
ting this book completed. She stood by me during every struggle and all my
successes with love, patience, and encouragement. My children, Rania and
Zaheen, were very excited to advise me on the cover selection. Thank you so
much, my dear family.
xix
List of symbols
α Oxygen transfer correction factor

β Salinity–surface tension correction factor
C Concentration
Cd Drag coefficient
DO Dissolved oxygen
dp Diameter of particle
F Fouling factor
Fg Force due to gravity
Fb Force due to buoyancy
FD Drag force
Φ Shape factor of particle
g Acceleration due to gravity
Ks Half saturation coefficient
k1 BOD rate constant
k2 Reaeration rate constant
kd Endogenous decay coefficient
kt Reaction rate coefficient
Lt Oxygen equivalent of organic matter remaining at time t
Mo Mass of oxygen
μ Specific growth rate of biomass
μmax Maximum specific growth rate of biomass
μw dynamic viscosity of water
ρp Density of particle
ρw Density of water
Px Biomass wasted
Q Flowrate
R Recycle ratio
Re Reynolds number
rd Rate of decay
rg Growth rate of biomass
rmax Maximum biomass production rate
ro Rate of oxygen uptake
rsu Rate of substrate utilization
xxi
xxii List of symbols
S Substrate concentration
St Substrate concentration at time t
t Time
T Temperature
θ Hydraulic retention time
θc Solids retention time
V Volume of reactor
VL Volumetric loading rate
vt Terminal settling velocity
X Biomass concentration
Y Biomass yield coefficient
List of abbreviations
AC Alternating current
AEBR Anaerobic expanded bed reactor
AMBR Anaerobic migrating blanket reactor
AOTR Actual oxygen transfer rate
APD Acid phase digestion
AS Activated sludge
ASBR Anaerobic sequencing batch reactor
ATA Anaerobic toxicity assay
ATAD Autothermal thermophilic aerobic digestion
AWTP Advanced wastewater treatment plant
bCOD Biodegradable chemical oxygen demand
BOD Biochemical oxygen demand
BOD5 5 d Biochemical oxygen demand
BMP Biochemical methane potential
BNR Biological nutrient removal
BPR Biological phosphorus removal
CEPT Chemically enhanced primary treatment
CHP Combined heat and power
COD Chemical oxygen demand
CSTR Continuous flow stirred tank reactor
DAF Dissolved air flotation
DC Direct current
DD Dual digestion
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid
DO Dissolved oxygen
DPR Direct portable reuse
E. coli Escherichia Coli
EEH Enhanced enzymic hydrolysis
EGSB Expanded granular sludge bed
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EU European Union
FBBR Fluidized bed bio-reactor
FC Fecal coliform
xxiii
xxiv List of abbreviations
GAC Granular activated carbon

HRT Hydraulic retention time
IFAS Integrated fixed-film activated sludge
MAD Mesophilic anaerobic digestion
MBBR Moving bed biofilm reactor
MBR Membrane biological reactor
MCFC Molten carbon fuel cell
MF Microfiltration
MGD Million gallons per day
MLE Modified Lutzack-Ettinger
MLSS Mixed liquor suspended solids
MLVSS Mixed liquor volatile suspended solids
MPN Most probable number
N Nitrogen
NH3 Ammonia
NF Nanofiltration
NOD Nitrogenous oxygen demand
OLR Organic loading rate
PAC Powdered activated carbon
PAFC Phosphoric acid fuel cell
PAO Phosphorus accumulating organisms
PFR Plug flow reactor
PFRP Processes to further reduce pathogens
PSRP Processes to significantly reduce pathogens
POTW Publicly owned treatment works
PVC Polyvinyl chloride
RAS Return activated sludge
RBC Rotating biological contactor
RNA Ribonucleic acid
RO Reverse osmosis
SBR Sequencing batch reactor
sCOD Soluble chemical oxygen demand
SDNR Specific denitrification rate
SHARON Single reactor system for high ammonium removal over nitrite
SOFC Solid-oxide fuel cell
SOR Surface overflow rate
SOTR Oxygen transfer rate at standard temperature and pressure
SRT Solids retention time
STP Standard temperature and pressure
TC Total coliform
TF Trickling filter
ThOD Theoretical oxygen demand
TOC Total organic carbon
TPAD Temperature phased anaerobic digestion
TS Total solids
List of abbreviations xxv
TSS Total suspended solids

UASB Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket
UF Ultrafiltration
UV Ultraviolet
VFA Volatile fatty acid
VS Volatile solids
VSS Volatile suspended solids
WAS Waste activated sludge
WRF Water reclamation facility
WWTP Wastewater treatment plant
About the authors
Dr. Rumana Riffat is Professor of the Civil and Environmental Engineering

Department at George Washington University, in Washington, DC. She
obtained her graduate degrees in Civil and Environmental Engineering
from Iowa State University, in Ames, Iowa; and her Bachelor's degree in
Civil Engineering from Bangladesh University of Engineering and
Technology, in Dhaka, Bangladesh. She has been involved in teaching and
research for the last 28 years.
Dr. Riffat’s research interests are in wastewater treatment, specifically
nutrient removal and anaerobic treatment of wastewater and biosolids.
She and her research group have conducted extensive research on pro-
cesses to further reduce pathogens, such as dual digestion, temperature-
phased digestion, and thermal hydrolysis pretreatment options. Her
nutrient removal research has focused on partial denitrification with
anammox, determination of kinetics, and evaluation of various carbon
sources for denitrification. Dr. Riffat is currently involved in several
research projects with EPA, Water Research Foundation, and DC Water
and Sewer Authority at Blue Plains Advanced Wastewater Treatment
Plant, in Washington, DC, among others.
Dr. Riffat received the Distinguished Teacher Award from the School of
Engineering and Applied Science of George Washington University in
2011. She received the GW Service Excellence Award for Sustainability
team in 2012. She received the George Bradley Gascoigne Wastewater
Treatment Plant Operational Improvement Medal of Water Environment
Federation in 2010. She is a member of several professional organizations,
including the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), the Water
Environment Federation (WEF), and the International Water Association
(IWA). She is a registered Professional Engineer (PE) of the District of
Columbia.
Dr. Taqsim Husnain is Assistant Professor in the Department of Engineering
at William Jewell College in Liberty, Missouri. He earned a Ph.D. in
Environmental Engineering from George Washington University in
Washington, DC, an M.S. in Civil Engineering from Virginia Tech, an
xxvii
xxviii About the authors
M.Eng. in Transportation Engineering from the Asian Institute of

Technology, Thailand, and a B.S. in Civil Engineering from Bangladesh
University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Dr. Husnain has been instrumental in the development of the new Civil
Engineering program at William Jewell College. He has been involved in
curriculum development and, design and setup of the environmental engi-
neering and fluid mechanics laboratories. He has developed and taught a
number of civil engineering courses including introduction to civil engi-
neering, sustainability and environmental engineering, fluid mechanics for
civil engineers, and water distribution and treatment design. Dr. Husnain’s
area of expertise is in sustainable water and wastewater treatment pro-
cesses and wastewater reuse applications. He has conducted research in
sustainable reuse of wastewater with advanced membrane processes and
temperature-phased anaerobic digestion. He is currently involved with
undergraduate researchers to investigate the potential application of
temperature- driven membrane distillation for wastewater treatment
plants.
Dr. Husnain is an ASCE ExCEEd fellow, and a member of several pro-
fessional organizations, including the American Society of Civil Engineers
(ASCE), American Water Works Association (AWWA), and the American
Society of Engineering Education (ASEE). He is a registered Professional
Engineer in the state of Missouri and an Envision Sustainability
Professional (ENV SP).
Chapter 1
Sustainable wastewater
treatment and engineering
1.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY
The science and engineering of wastewater treatment has evolved signifi-

cantly over the last century. As the population of the world has increased, our
sources of clean water have decreased. This has shifted our focus towards
pollution reduction and resource recovery. Disposal of wastes and wastewa-
ter without treatment in lands and water bodies is no longer an option. An
increasing body of scientific knowledge relating waterborne microorgan-
isms and constituents to the health of the population and the environment
have spurred the development of new engineered technologies for the treat-
ment of wastewater and potential reuse.
The term wastewater includes liquid wastes and wastes transported in
water from households, commercial establishments, and industries, as well
as storm water and other surface runoff. Wastewater may contain high con-
centrations of organic and inorganic pollutants, pathogenic microorgan-
isms, as well as toxic chemicals. If the wastewater is discharged without
treatment to a stream or river, it will result in severe pollution of the aquatic
environment. The decline in water quality will render the stream water
unusable for future drinking water purposes. Sustainable wastewater engi-
neering involves the application of the principles of science and engineering
for the treatment of wastewater, to remove and/or reduce the pollutants to
an acceptable level prior to discharge to a water body or other environment,
without compromising the self-purification capacity of that environment.
The treatment, disposal, and beneficial reuse of the generated solids and
other by-products are an integral part of the total process.
If we look back in time, wastewater engineering has progressed from col-
lection and open dumping, to collection and disposal without treatment, to
collection and treatment before disposal, all the way to collection and treat-
ment prior to reuse. Evidence of waste collection in the streets, and then use
of water to wash them through open sewers have been found in the ancient
Roman Empire. In the early 1800s, the construction of sewers was started in
London, in Great Britain. In 1843, the first sewer system of Hamburg,
Germany, was officially designed by a British engineer Lindley (Anon, 2011).
DOI: 10.1201/9781003134374-1 1
2 Fundamentals of Wastewater Treatment and Engineering
In the United States (US), in seventeenth-century Colonial America, house-

hold wastewater management consisted of a privy (toilet) with an outlet
constructed at ground level that discharged outside to a cesspool or a sewer.
With low population densities, privies and cesspools constructed in this way
did not cause many problems (Duffy, 1968). But as the population increased,
the need for an engineered system for wastewater management in large cities
became more evident. Scientists and public health officials started to under-
stand the relationship between disease outbreaks and contamination of
drinking water from wastewater. Nuisance caused by odors, outbreaks of
diseases, e.g. cholera, and other public health concerns prompted the design
of a comprehensive sewer system for the city of Chicago in the 1850s. At
that time, the sewer system was used to transport the untreated wastewater
outside of the residential community to a stream or river. Dilution of the
wastewater with the stream water was the primary means of pollutant
reduction. These were called water-carriage sewer systems.
Public health concerns in the 1850s also resulted in the planning and
development of a water-carriage sewer system for the city of London. A
cholera epidemic struck London in 1848 and again in 1854, causing a total
of more than 25,000 deaths (Burian et al., 2000). Dr. John Snow was the
first doctor at that time who established a connection between the cholera
outbreak and a contaminated water supply at the Broad Street public well.
In addition, he showed statistically that cholera victims had drawn their
drinking water from a sewage-contaminated part of the river Thames, while
those who remained healthy drew water from an uncontaminated part of
the river. These findings together with the discoveries by Pasteur and Koch
prompted the British parliament to pass an act in 1855, to improve the
waste management system of the city of London. This led to the develop-
ment of a comprehensive water-carriage sewer system for London, designed
by Joseph Bazalgette (Hey and Waggy, 1979).
Toward the beginning of the twentieth century, sewage treatment plants
mainly used settling tanks (primary treatment) to remove suspended parti-
cles from the wastewater before discharge to streams and rivers. In the early
1900s, about one million people in the US were served by 60 such treatment
plants. During that time, the first trickling filter was constructed in Wisconsin,
Madison to provide biological (secondary) treatment to wastewater. The
Imhoff tank was developed by German engineer Karl Imhoff in 1906 for
solids separation and further treatment. The first activated sludge process
was constructed in San Marcos, Texas, in 1916 (Burian et al., 2000).
Advances in sludge digestion and gas production were also being accom-
plished by researchers and utilities. From the mid-1900s to the present time,
we have seen the development of various types of biological and biochemi-
cal processes for the removal of pollutants from wastewater. The earlier
objectives were mainly to reduce the total suspended solids (TSS), biochemi-
cal oxygen demand (BOD), and pathogens. Primary and secondary biologi-
cal treatment was considered sufficient for the production of treated
Sustainable wastewater treatment and engineering 3
wastewater of acceptable standards. With industrialization and scientific

advances, chemical and toxic compounds have been detected in municipal
wastewater. This has resulted in the need for additional treatment beyond
the secondary, giving rise to tertiary treatment. Tertiary or advanced treat-
ment can be physical, chemical or biological, or a combination of these
processes.
1.2 CURRENT PRACTICE
The primary treatment in most municipal wastewater treatment plants con-

sists of preliminary and primary stages. It typically includes screens, grit
chambers, comminutors, and primary clarifiers, depending on the flow rates.
Larger plants use chemically enhanced primary clarification for higher sol-
ids removal efficiency. The primary treatment is followed by a secondary
treatment. The secondary treatment consists of a biological process fol-
lowed by a secondary clarifier. If the secondary effluent meets the regulatory
standards for BOD and TSS, it is discharged to receiving waters following
disinfection. The solids and sludge collected from the various units undergo
further processing and treatment before disposal. Various options are avail-
able for sludge processing. A conventional wastewater treatment plant is
illustrated in Figure 1.1.
More than half of the municipal wastewater treatment plants in the US
are capable of providing at least secondary treatment. About 92% of the
total flow is treated by plants with a capacity of 0.044 m3/s (1 million gal-
lons per day or MGD) or larger (Metcalf and Eddy et al., 2013). In the last
two decades, nutrient removal has become increasingly more important in
Preliminary and primary treatment Secondary treatment Disinfectant
Wastewater
influent Biological Effluent
Grit Primary Secondary
Screens Comminutor reactor
chamber clarifier clarifier
Sludge recycle
Screens to Grit to Primary Secondary
landfill landfill sludge sludge
Gravity
thickener
Effluent recycled Anaerobic

Biosolids
to secondary Centrifuge for land
digester
Wastewater flow reactor application
Sludge flow
Sludge treatment
Figure 1.1 Flow diagram of a conventional wastewater treatment plant.

parts of the US, as well as in Europe and Asia. Eutrophication caused by

excessive nitrogen and phosphorus in wastewater discharges has disrupted
the aquatic life in receiving water bodies with a subsequent decline in water
quality. Wastewater treatment plants in affected areas and watersheds have
to provide additional nutrient removal prior to discharge. Biological nutri-
ent removal is incorporated as part of the secondary treatment, or as tertiary
treatment. Nutrient removal is no longer considered an advanced treatment
option. An example of this is the Chesapeake Bay watershed in the eastern
US, and the municipal wastewater treatment plants within the watershed.
Most of the plants use biological nitrification–denitrification together with
BOD removal, and/or chemical precipitation for removal of phosphorus.
The use of granular media filtration as a tertiary treatment for the reduction
of TSS is also quite common. Table 1.1 presents the pollutants commonly
found in municipal wastewater and the physical, chemical, and biological
processes used to remove or reduce their concentrations.
Table 1.1 C
ommon wastewater pollutants and the processes used to reduce/
remove them
Pollutants Unit processes
Suspended solids Coarse screens, fine screens
Grit chamber
Clarification
Filtration
Chemically enhanced clarification
Colloidal and dissolved Chemical precipitation
solids Membrane filtration
Ion exchange
Activated carbon adsorption
Biodegradable organics Suspended growth processes (aerobic and
anaerobic)
Attached growth processes (aerobic and anaerobic)
Ponds and lagoons
Membrane bioreactors
Pathogens Chlorination
Ozonation
Ultraviolet disinfection
Nutrients
Nitrogen Biological nitrification–denitrification
(suspended and fixed film variations)
Air stripping
Breakpoint chlorination
Phosphorus Biological phosphorus removal
Chemical precipitation
Volatile organic Activated carbon adsorption
compounds Air stripping
Source: Adapted from Metcalf and Eddy et al. (2013), and Peavy et al. (1985).
1.3 EMERGING ISSUES
The following are areas of importance and concern for municipal wastewa-
ter treatment plants:
• Rising energy costs for the operation of treatment plants.

• Disposal of biosolids in a sustainable manner.
• Performance and reliability of treatment plants in the digital age.
• Presence of endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDC) in wastewater.
• Presence of toxic chemicals in wastewater from household products.
• More stringent discharge limits due to continued degradation of water
bodies.
• Scarcity of freshwater sources.
• The need to upgrade aging infrastructure and treatment plants.
• The need for adequate mathematical models and software for process
analysis and control.
1.4 FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Based on the emerging issues, wastewater engineering and research should

be focused on the following areas in the future.
• Energy generation – Typically, wastewater treatment plants have

high energy requirements for plant operation. They are big consum-
ers of energy or electricity. Wastewater plants can generate significant
amounts of methane gas from the anaerobic digestion of the sludge.
The gas can in turn be used to heat the digesters, as well as generate
power that can be used by the plant or sold to nearby industries. With
rising energy costs, this should be the future direction of operation
of wastewater treatment plants. For sustainable operation, treatment
plants need to evolve into energy producers from energy consumers.
Blue Plains Advanced Wastewater Treatment Plant (AWTP) of DC
Water has implemented the thermal hydrolysis process (THP) together
with anaerobic digestion to produce Class A biosolids and generate
energy. This is the first THP facility in North America and the larg-
est in the world. The THP process pressure-cooks the waste solids to
generate combined heat and power, generating a net 10 MW of elec-
tricity (DC Water, 2019a and 2019b). The project has resulted in a
30% reduction in energy purchased from the grid, a 41% reduction in
greenhouse gas production, and a 50% reduction in biosolids shipping
costs (CDM Smith, 2021).
Another example of energy production using anaerobic digestion
is the East Bay Municipal Utility District, California, which cogen-
erates electricity and thermal energy onsite from waste methane.
This resulted in an annual reduction in energy costs from $4.6 mil-

lion to $2.9 million (EBMUD, 2021). Other examples are the Encina
Wastewater Authority and Point Loma Wastewater Treatment Plant
in California, among others. The West Point Treatment Plant in Kings
County, Washington, uses the methane gas generated from anaerobic
digestion to run generators that produce electricity. They are able to
produce 1.5–2 MW of electricity, which is sold to the local utility com-
pany after meeting plant demands (WPTP, 2021).
• Beneficial reuse of biosolids – The cost of processing and disposal of
the biosolids produced at a wastewater treatment plant can amount to
almost 50% of the total capital and operation costs. Future direction
should be more toward producing a product that can be reused in a
beneficial manner, such as fuel or fertilizer. One example is the produc-
tion of Class A biosolids by Blue Plains AWTP and marketed under
the product name Bloom. This is applied on land as a soil blender,
fertilizer, etc., and nutrients are recycled back to the soil (CDM Smith,
2021). Another example is the Encina Wastewater Authority which
produces biosolids pellets that are sold to a cement-manufacturing
facility as an alternative fuel (EWPCF, 2021).
• Wastewater reuse – As freshwater resources become more scarce, the
need for recycled wastewater is increasing. Future directions should
include increased research on water quality and safety of recycled
wastewater, as well as public education for direct potable reuse. The
island nation of Singapore uses reclaimed water that is produced from
a multiple-barrier wastewater treatment process. The wastewater is
first treated by conventional treatment, followed by microfiltration/
ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, and finally by ultraviolet disinfection.
NEWater is the brand name given to the reclaimed water in Singapore
(NEWater, 2021). The water is used for non-potable use and indirect
potable use for reservoir recharge. There are five NEWater plants cur-
rently supplying up to 40% of Singapore’s water needs. The goal is to
meet up to 55% of the future water demand by 2060 (PUB, 2021).
• Fundamental research – With an increasing aging population and an
increase in the use of pharmaceutical products, a vast number of new
and emerging contaminants have found their way into wastewater
treatment plants. Of concern are the endocrine-disrupting compounds
(EDCs) which have caused the feminization of fish in the waters of
Maryland, among others. A number of these compounds pass through
the treatment plant unchanged and end up in streams and rivers, hav-
ing various consequences on aquatic life. Fundamental research is nec-
essary to determine the characteristics of these compounds of concern
and to develop methods for treatment and removal.
• Mathematical modeling – Wastewater engineering is still in its infancy
when compared to other engineering disciplines, with regard to the
development and availability of process models for design and con-

trol of treatment operations. There are a few models developed by
IWA (International Water Association), and Biowin®, among others.
In order for this body of science and engineering to have a signifi-
cant positive impact on the planet’s scarce water resources, the future
direction should be focused on attracting brilliant scientific minds to
develop adequate and versatile process models.
1.5 REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS
Regulatory requirements have played a significant role in the development

and application of wastewater treatment processes. Emerging research and
subsequent regulations have shifted current goals, or added new goals to
the treatment process from time to time. This has resulted in the innovation
of new engineered processes. In the following sections, the development of
regulations and standards pertaining to wastewater in the US, European
Union, and the United Kingdom (UK) will be discussed in detail.
1.5.1 United States regulations

The Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA) of 1948 was the first
legislation enacted by the Federal government to address urban wastewater
management issues (Public Law, 1948). The act provided for comprehensive
programs for eliminating or reducing the pollution of interstate waters and
tributaries, and research and technical assistance for improving the sanitary
condition of surface and ground waters. Major amendments to the FWPCA
were enacted in 1961, 1966, 1970, 1972, 1977, and 1987. The 1966 amend-
ments, titled the Clean Water Restoration Act, strongly addressed the issue
of protecting water quality (Public Law, 1966). It provided for authorization
of a comprehensive study of the effects of pollution, including sedimenta-
tion, in the estuaries and estuarine zones of the US on fish and wildlife,
sport and commercial fishing, recreation, water supply and power, and other
specified uses. The legislation established a set of water quality standards.
Protecting public health was the primary goal, but additional goals of pro-
tecting aquatic life and the aesthetics of water resources were included.
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 stipulated
broad national objectives to restore and maintain the chemical, physical,
and biological integrity of the Nation’s waters (Public Law, 1972). This
became known as the Clean Water Act (CWA) together with subsequent
amendments in 1977. The CWA established the basic structure for regulat-
ing discharges of pollutants into the nation’s waters and regulating quality
standards for surface waters. New regulations were established for indus-
trial and agricultural polluters. The CWA authorized the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) to establish the National Pollutant Discharge

Elimination System (NPDES) permit program. All municipal, industrial, and
other facilities that discharged their wastewater to surface waters were
required to obtain an NPDES permit from EPA, which specified technology-
based effluent standards for specific pollutants.
The CWA also authorized significant federal funding for research and
construction grants, with the ambitious goal of eliminating all water pollu-
tion by 1985. All Publicly Owned Treatment Works (POTWs) were required
to meet the minimum standards for secondary treatment.
In 1973, the US EPA published its definition of minimum standards for
secondary treatment. This was amended in 1985 to include percent removal
requirements for treatment plants served by separate sewer systems. The
standards were amended again in 1989 to clarify percent removal require-
ments during dry periods for treatment facilities served by combined sewers.
The secondary treatment standards are provided in Table 1.2. The standards
are published in the Code of Federal Regulations (40 CFR, Part 133.102).
Three important effluent parameters are included: BOD5 (5 d BOD), TSS,
and pH. CBOD5 or carbonaceous BOD5 may be substituted for BOD5 at the
option of the permitting authority. Special considerations and alternative
requirements are permitted for POTWs that receive industrial flows or use
waste stabilization ponds and trickling filters (US EPA, 2022).
The CWA was amended in 1987 to emphasize identification and regula-
tion of toxic compounds in sludge, as well as authorize penalties for permit
violations. This amendment was known as the Water Quality Act. The Act
established funding for States to develop and implement, on a watershed
basis, nonpoint source management and control programs. A significant
amendment of the CWA was made in 2000 (Section 303(d) of the CWA),
which required the establishment of a Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL)
or amount of a pollutant that a water body could receive without compro-
mising water quality standards (Preisner et al., 2020).
Table 1.2 Secondary treatment standards as defined by US EPA (2012)

Effluent parameter Average 30-d concentration Average 7-d concentration
BOD 5 30 mg/L 45 mg/L
TSS 30 mg/L 45 mg/L
Removal 85% BOD 5 and TSS
pH Within 6.0–9.0 at all times
CBOD 5 25 mg/L 40 mg/L
Source: US EPA, 2012.
Note: Treatment facilities using stabilization ponds and trickling filters are allowed to have higher
average 30-d and average 7-d concentrations of 45 mg/L and 65 mg/L of BOD5 and TSS, as
long as the water quality of the receiving body is not adversely affected. Exceptions are also
permitted for facilities with combined sewers, etc. The CBOD5 may be substituted for BOD5
at the discretion of the permitting authority.
The use and disposal of treated sludge or biosolids are regulated under 40
CFR, Part 503 (US EPA, 1994). The regulation was promulgated in 1993 to
regulate the use and disposal of biosolids from municipal wastewater treat-
ment plants, and establish limits for contaminants (e.g. metals), pathogens,
and vector attraction. The regulations are applicable to all treatment plants
that use land application for final disposal of biosolids. The regulations are
self-implementing, i.e. permits are not required by the plants. But failure to
conform to the regulations are considered to be violations of the law. The fre-
quency of monitoring and reporting requirements are provided in detail. The
Part 503 Rule defines two types of biosolids, Class A and Class B, based on the
level of pathogen reduction, metal concentrations, and vector attraction reduc-
tion. Class A biosolids can be applied to land without any restrictions. Sludge
stabilization requirements and pathogen reduction alternatives are specified in
the law. Additional details of the Part 503 Rule are provided in Section 12.9.
1.5.2 European Union regulations

The European Union (EU) has established a number of policies or directives
that address the quality of surface and groundwaters. Water supply and
sanitation are the responsibility of each member nation in the EU. However,
the EU directives serve as a baseline for individual nations to form their own
legislation.
There are three major EU directives. They are:
• The Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive (91/271/EEC) of 1991

pertaining to discharges of municipal and some industrial wastewaters;
• The Drinking Water Directive (98/83/EC) of 1998 pertaining to pota-
ble water;
• The Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) of 2000 pertaining to
the management of surface water and groundwater resources.
The Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive was aimed at protecting the
environment from adverse effects due to the collection, treatment, and dis-
charge of wastewater from municipal and some industrial treatment facili-
ties (Europa, 2012). The major elements of the Directive were: (i) Depending
on the population size and designated location, all built-up areas were
required to have urban wastewater collection and treatment systems by the
year 1998, 2000, or 2005 (new members by 2015); (ii) the level of treatment
had to be primary, secondary or tertiary, depending on the sensitivity of the
receiving water (van Riesen, 2004). Member states had to establish lists of
sensitive areas. Primary treatment was deemed sufficient for less sensitive
areas. The Directive was amended by the Commission Directive 98/15/EC in
1998. The discharge standards for normal areas are provided in Table 1.3.
Discharge requirements for nitrogen and phosphorus in sensitive areas are
provided in Table 1.4.
Table 1.3 EU standards for effluent discharge in normal areas

Parameter Concentration, mg/L Minimum reduction, %
BOD 5 25 70–90
COD 125 75
TSS 35 90
Source: Adapted from van Riesen (2004).
Table 1.4 EU standards for nutrient discharge in sensitive areas

Parameter Concentration, max. annual mean Minimum reduction, %
Total Phosphorus 2 mg/L as P (10,000–100,000 PE) 80
1 mg/L as P (>100,000 PE)
Total Nitrogen 15 mg/L as N (10,000–100,000 PE) 70–80
10 mg/L as N (>100,000 PE)
Source: Adapted from van Riesen (2004).
Note: PE indicates population equivalent.
The European Commission (EC) has published a number of reports on

the implementation of the directive. The last report was published in 2020.
The report noted that collection and treatment of wastewater had improved,
with compliance rates of 95% for collection, 88% for secondary treatment,
and 86% for removal of nitrogen and phosphorus (European Commission,
2020). However, there were countries where more infrastructure needed to
be built or improved. Finance and planning were the main challenges facing
these countries. According to an earlier report of the European Commission
(2004), the directive represented the most cost-intensive European legisla-
tion in the environmental sector. The EC estimated that 152 billion Euros
were invested in wastewater treatment from 1990 to 2010. The EU provided
support of about five billion Euros per year for the implementation of the
directive. According to the 2020 report, the member countries would have
to invest an additional 229 billion Euros to ensure long-term compliance.
A review and public feedback were initiated in July 2020, as part of an
impact assessment process for potential revision of the Urban Waste Water
Treatment Directive (European Commission, 2021).
1.5.3 United Kingdom regulations

An example of the adoption of the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive
is discussed in terms of the UK. In the UK, the Urban Waste Water
Treatment Regulations of 1994 were enacted based on the Urban Waste
Water Treatment Directive of the EU. These were later amended in 2003.
The regulations set the standards for the collection and treatment of waste-
water. The law stipulated that a sewerage system be provided for all urban
areas above a specified size, and that the collected sewage should receive at
least secondary (biological) treatment before it is discharged to the environ-
ment. Uncontrolled discharges from the sewerage systems are only allowed
under storm conditions. The law identified sensitive areas, e.g. eutrophic
waters. Larger treatment plants have to reduce their nutrient loads prior to
discharge to eutrophic waters. The regulation also banned the disposal of
sludge to sea, by the end of 1998 (DEFRA, 2012).
The Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) is
responsible for policy on the implementation of the regulations in England,
the Department of the Environment in Northern Ireland, the Scottish
Government in Scotland, and the Welsh Government in Wales. Their envi-
ronmental regulators, (the Environment Agency for England, Northern
Ireland Environment Agency, Scottish Environment Protection Agency, and
Environment Agency Wales), are responsible for monitoring discharges from
treatment plants for compliance with the legislation’s treatment standards
(DEFRA, 2012). The regulatory limits set for the UK are the same as those
provided in Tables 1.3 and 1.4, according to the updated guidance of 2019
(Environment Agency, 2019).
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Chapter 2
Reaction kinetics and

chemical reactors
2.1 REACTION KINETICS
A variety of chemical and biochemical reactions take place in the environ-

ment that are of importance to environmental engineers and scientists. These
include reactions between various elements of the air, water, and soil, as well
as with microorganisms. A number of these reactions are dependent on time,
temperature, pressure, and/or concentration, e.g. biodegradation of organic
matter, bacterial growth and decay, chemical disinfection, etc.
Reaction kinetics can be defined as the study of the effects of temperature,
pressure, and concentration of reactants and products on the rate of a chem-
ical reaction (Henry and Heinke, 1996). Reactions that occur within a single
phase (solid, liquid, or gaseous) are called homogeneous reactions, e.g. nitri-
fication in wastewater. Reactions that involve two or more phases are called
heterogeneous reactions, e.g. gas adsorption on activated carbon.
The rate of reaction, ri, is used to describe the rate of formation of a prod-
uct, or rate of disappearance of a reactant. For homogeneous reactions, ri is
calculated as the moles or mass produced or consumed, per unit volume per
unit time.
Let us consider the following homogeneous reaction:
aA bB cC (2.1)
where
C = product
A, B = reactants
a, b, c = stoichiometric coefficients
The rate equation for the above reaction is
rA k A B k C

(2.2)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003134374-2 13
Zero order
Reaction rate, rA
First order
Second order
Time, t
Figure 2.1 Variation of reaction rate with time.
where
α, β, γ = empirically determined exponents
[A], [B], [C] = molar concentrations of A, B, and C
k = reaction rate constant
The order of a reaction is the sum of the empirically determined expo-

nents, e.g. the order is (α + β) with respect to the reactants A and B, while the
order is γ with respect to the product C. The order of a reaction can be a
whole number (e.g. 0, 1, 2) or a fraction. Figure 2.1 illustrates the variation
of reaction rate rA with time for zero, first, and second order reactions. For
a homogeneous, irreversible, elementary reaction that occurs in a single step,
the empirically determined exponents are equal to the stoichiometric coef-
ficients. In that case, Equation (2.2) becomes
rA k A B k C
a b c
(2.3)
2.2 HOW TO FIND THE ORDER OF A REACTION
Consider the following irreversible elementary reaction where reactant A is

converted to a product C.
A→C (2.4)
The rate equation can be written as
rA k A

Reaction kinetics and chemical reactors 15
[A0]
Concentration of
loge (-rA)
reactant, [A]
Slope of
tangent, rA Slope = α
loge (k)
Time, t loge [A]

(a) (b)
Figure 2.2 ( a) Concentration of A versus time plot, (b) logarithmic plot of reac-
tion rate versus concentration of A.
or
log e (rA ) log e k log e A (2.5)
where
α = order of the reaction (e.g. 0, 1, 2, etc.)
k = reaction rate constant
An experiment is conducted where the above reaction is allowed to pro-

ceed. The concentrations of A ([A]) at various time intervals (t) are mea-
sured. Plot [A] versus t, as shown in Figure 2.2(a). Calculate the slope (rA) of
the tangent at various points along the curve. Plot loge(−rA) versus loge[A],
as shown in Figure 2.2(b). A best-fit line is drawn to represent Equation
(2.5). The slope of the best-fit line is equal to the order of the reaction.
Example 2.1: The data shown in Table 2.1 were obtained from a batch
experiment for the reaction A → P. Determine the order of the reaction.
SOLUTION
An Excel spreadsheet is used to calculate the values, shown in Table 2.2.
Figure 2.3(a) is a plot of concentration versus time. The section of the
curve between each time interval is assumed to be a straight line, and
the rates are calculated from the slope of that section. So, rA = dA/dt =
(100 − 74)/(0 − 10) = −2.59 for the first interval and so on. Figure 2.3(b)
is a plot of ln(−rA) versus ln(A). The slope of the best-fit line is 0.935,
which can be rounded to 1. So the reaction is first order.
Table 2.1 Concentration data from a batch experiment (for Example 2.1)
Time (min) 0 10 20 40 60 80 100
A (mg/L) 100 74 55 30 17 9 5
Table 2.2 Spreadsheet calculation (for Example 2.1)

t, min A, mg/L log e (A) rA log e (−r A )
0 100 4.61
10 74 4.31 −2.59 0.95
20 55 4.01 −1.92 0.65
40 30 3.41 −1.24 0.21
60 17 2.81 −0.68 −0.39
80 9 2.21 −0.37 −0.99
100 5 1.61 −0.20 −1.59
120 1.5
100 1 y = 0.9352x – 3.0474
0.5 R2 = 0.9976
[A], mg/L
Loge(–rA)
80
0
60
–0.5 0 2 4 6
40
–1
20 –1.5
0 –2
0 50 100 150 Loge[A]
Time, min
(a) (b)
Figure 2.3 P
lot of (a) concentration versus time, and (b) log e (−r A ) versus log e (A)
(for Example 2.1).
2.3 ZERO ORDER REACTION
A zero order reaction proceeds at a rate that is independent of the con-

centration of the reactants or products. Consider the following irreversible
elementary reaction where reactant A is converted to product C.
A→C (2.6)
If this reaction is zero order, the rate expression can be written as
rA k (2.7)
or
d A
k (2.8)
dt
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beneath which burned a great fire of smoking herbs, which were
stirred from time to time into greater heat.
Truly the punishment, if it were a punishment, was a fearful one; but
the Indian girl laid a firm, determined clasp upon Montoro de Diego's
arm as she pointed to the young man on his fiery bed.
"He too is my brother," she said, with stern pride—"my eldest
brother. That is his final trial. When he wins through that he will be
enrolled in the noble order of our knights. Now you know why the
Indian warrior fights well."
"You are a noble race, and worthy of a noble fate," murmured the
Spaniard; and many a sigh escaped him as they wended
homewards.
And now we must pass on quickly to the occupation of Mexico itself,

and there, in that island city of flowers and palaces and temples and
turrets, take our final leave of Hernando Cortes, its great, world-
famous conqueror.
CHAPTER XXXVI.
ACROSS THE CAUSEWAY.
Scarcely any one in this nineteenth century, who pretends to the
name of traveller, neglects to visit the world-famous and beautiful
water city of Italy, the white-robed bride of the Adriatic.
When the Spanish discoverers set out for the lands of another
hemisphere they little dreamt that they were to find out there another
Venice, even more strange, more wonderful in its sweet, flowery,
marvellous beauty, than the Venice on their own side of the Atlantic.
As the rough, way-hardened soldiers of Cortes came in sight of the
great Lake of Tezcuco, with its fringe of white, well-ordered, flower-
embowered villages, its dark groves of oak, cedar, and sycamores,
and its richly-cultivated fields, they involuntarily came to a sudden
halt, with first a dead silence, and then the air was rent with a
simultaneous burst of ecstatic admiration.
"But behold!" exclaimed Juan de Cabrera with sudden bewilderment;
"behold, Toro, the very islands on the bosom of yon fair lake are
islands of enchantment!"
"How so?" queried Velasquez, pushing in his eager face between the
two. "What new marvel hast discovered, Juan, where all is past
belief?"
"Past belief, you may well say," returned the other. "I believe not that
Hernando Cortes himself, even in his dreams, hath had thought of
what he was to find out here. As I said before, I have cut the old
world for aye; my home is henceforth here in fairy-land."
"Well, well," retorted Velasquez, "that is stale news now. Thou'st said
that same every time, the past weeks, that thou hast caught sight of
bright blossoms, bright eyes, or a palm tree. What hast seen now of
novelty?"
"Why, his new home on a moving island," said Montoro, laughing.
"Have I not guessed right, Cabrera?"
"That hast thou," was the satisfied answer. "Trust thine eyes, my
Toro, to see farther through a deal board than the very wood-worm
itself. Thine eyes and thy voice make some amends to thy friends for
thy long face and scruples."
"I hope he thanks thee for thy compliment," ejaculated Velasquez,
with his more short-sighted eyes roving here, there, and everywhere
meantime. "But I do wish thou couldst answer a comrade's civil
question, instead of indulging in questionable flatteries. What
meanest thou by moving islands?"
"Just what I say," replied Juan de Cabrera, as the group of men
moved slowly on down the mountain road towards the vast plain of
Mexico, his eyes for the time diverted from the proud island city of
Tenochtitlan to the chinampas, or wandering islands, being propelled
by their owners from one part of the lake to another, as trade or
inclination prompted.
These chinampas might be regarded as the market-gardens of the
capital. Originally they were nothing but masses of earth loosened
from the shore by the action of the water, and held together by the
fibrous roots of the various plants flourishing upon them. Gathering
these into rafts, tightly knit together, of reeds and rushes, the Aztecs
had made for themselves artificial islands two or three hundred feet
in length, on which were grown the fruits and vegetables for
Tenochtitlan.
Bright with luxuriant vegetation, graceful with little fruit-trees, and
homelike with the pretty little wooden hut of the owner, these moving
islands were a feature in the glorious landscape, quite sufficiently
noteworthy to excuse Cabrera for letting his attention be diverted by
them for a few minutes from more important objects. Even the
warlike Velasquez was momentarily charmed into an amused
pleasure with the novel sight.
"I tell thee what it is, Juan," he said, laughing. "Our General will thus
have small trouble in rewarding his faithful followers with lands and
homes. He has but to turn off a score or two of those redskin
beggars yonder and put us on, and there we are."
"Yea, verily," exclaimed Montoro in a tone of indignant scorn. "There
ye would be. Fresh examples of the base, thievish instincts of the
Spanish nation."
Velasquez started forward with flashing eyes, and his sword half-
drawn. But Cabrera dragged him back, muttering hurriedly—
"Nonsense, Leon. Thou mightest as well wish to fight that enthusiast,
Bishop Las Casas, for taking the Indians' part, as this monk-soldier
here. Let him be. He returns to Spain, he tells me, with the next
despatches. See yonder. What is Hernando Cortes regarding thus
intently?"
"Thy magic islands, perchance," was the reply.
But Cortes had no eyes just then for the mere prettinesses of the
majestically-beautiful scene lying stretched out beneath his feet, nor
even for the great volcano Popocatapetl towering above it all. His
eyes were fixed upon the approaches to that great capital of the
powerful empire of Mexico, within which he meant to rest that
coming night. As he gazed upon the city, and its approaches, his
face told nothing of the nature of his intent thought, but in his heart
there was the full confession that his determination was one bold
almost to madness.
On the east of Tenochtitlan there was no access but by water. On the
other three sides the entrances were by causeways. That of
Iztapalapan, built out from the mainland to the city, on the south.
That of Tepejacac on the north, which, running through the heart of
the city as its principal street, met the southern causeway. And lastly,
the dike of Tlacopan, connecting the island city with the continent on
the west.[10]
This last causeway, which a short time hence Cortes and his
companions were to have the bitterest reasons for remembering,
was about two miles in length. All the three were built in the same
substantial manner, of lime and stone, were defended by
drawbridges, and were wide enough for ten or twelve horsemen to
ride abreast.
"But still," as Cortes told himself in the secresy of his own heart, and
as some of the more thoughtful of his men also told themselves as
they now looked down upon it for the first time, "wide as that
causeway was, some thousands of determined enemies upon it in
their rear, the thousands of the great city's inhabitants driving them in
front, that long causeway might well become the death-blow of them
and their exalted hopes."
There was a few minutes' pause. Some would not unwillingly have
heard the word of command for a retreat, while there was yet time.
But that word did not come. As Cabrera had once said so Cortes
always thought: "We must all die, and we can die but once."
The word of command was given to advance, and in no long time
after, the army had reached the city of Iztapalapan, where it was
finally determined to call a halt for the night, and make a first
appearance before the Emperor at a more seasonable hour on the
following day.
With the first streak of dawn of the 8th November, 1519, the Spanish
general and his troops were astir. A lovely morning, the brilliant
beams of the sun gradually fading into dimness the innumerable
sacred fires of the assemblages of temples.
The whole city was visible to them. The wide-spreading palace of the
Emperor, like a second palace of the Cæsars, comprising many
homes, gardens of every description for plants and animals, and
aviaries of the most gorgeous description, within the one circle. Then
the great redstone mansions of the nobles, their roofs blooming like
so many exquisite parterres of flowers. The neat dwellings of the
poorer classes, of stone and unbaked bricks, here and there rudely
adorned with crossbar wooden rafters. Everywhere gardens, streets
perfectly kept and perfectly clean, and terraces.
The whole place was waking up now to a new day. All was gay with
business and bustle. Canoes glancing swiftly up and down the
canals, the streets crowded with people in their bright and
picturesque costumes, fountains playing in courts adorned with
porphyry and jasper. Stone footways, revenue offices, and numerous
bridges, over which people were hurrying in all directions; whilst the
enormous market was already becoming thronged with an animated
company of many thousands of buyers and sellers, and commodities
of all kinds, from slaves for work or sacrifice, down to pastry, sweets,
and flowers. Cotton dresses and cloaks, curtains and coverlids, toys
and jewellery of the most delicate and exquisite workmanship.
Pottery stalls, graceful wood-carvings, helmets, quilted doublets,
copperheaded lances and arrows, feather-mail, and the broad
maquahuitl or Mexican sword, with its sharp blades of itztli. Itztli
razors and mirrors, and barbers to use the razors and lend or sell the
mirrors, hides raw and dressed, and live animals. Fish, game,
poultry, and building materials. Flowers everywhere, and also,
almost everywhere, in and out amongst the motley throngs, the royal
officers of justice to keep the peace, collect the duties, and to see to
weights and measures, and good faith and order generally.
This Empire of Mexico, and above all its heart, this fair city of
Tenochtitlan, was decidedly no abode of savage ignorance, but
rather the region of a civilization but very little lower in the scale than
that of its conquerors. The deep astonishment and wonder they felt
at the discovery is but reproduced in us, as we read of all these
marvels. And the wonder in our minds must but be a hundred-fold
increased as we remember that this great and far-advanced nation,
was utterly conquered and overthrown by a handful of rough, half-
taught adventurers!
Meantime, to return to these same adventurers, with no apology
either for having given you Prescott's descriptions of this most
astonishing Mexico almost word for word, as he, in his turn, has
copied it from the letters of one of the very adventurers themselves
who accompanied Cortes, that 8th of November morning over the
south causeway into ancient Mexico.
On the causeway, at the distance of about half a league from the
capital, the small army of conquest encountered a solid wall of stone
twelve feet high stretching right across the dike, and strengthened by
towers at the extremities. In the centre was a battlemented gate
which was opened to admit the white-faced warriors.
"I confess," muttered Alvarado to Velasquez, who rode beside him,
as those gates clanged to behind them, "I confess that I should not
think him quite a craven among my brethren who should indeed, at
this moment, show a real white-face for once."
Velasquez shrugged his shoulders.
"Well, it is true we have walked into the jaws of death. It but remains
to see whether our Captain-General be a wedge strong enough to
split them."
"Or, as our Diego yonder would say," returned the other, "to hold
them open until we walk out again."
"Bah! for the walking out again," was the impatient reply. "Unless,
forsooth, it be to leave but bare walls behind us. As the Lord's
people of old had command to spoil the Egyptians, so I believe are
we now ordained to spoil the heathen savages who imbrue their land
with human sacrifices."
"Well," murmured Pedro de Alvarado thoughtfully, "I know not. But it
is true, these hateful sacrifices have made even Diego himself grow
somewhat cooler, methinks, in his desire to keep our fingers away
from this Mexican pie."
At this point in the short conversation the Spanish expedition was
met by a splendid cortege of several hundred Aztec chiefs, sent
forward by their monarch, who had at length so far overcome his
unwillingness to receive the dreaded strangers as to send these
messengers with words of welcome to them, and to announce his
own approach.
Having spent a somewhat tedious hour in ceremonious greetings,
the route was continued over a drawbridge, accompanied by their
brilliantly attired escort, each member of which evidently had studied
the art of setting himself off to the best advantage, as well as any
dainty Spanish cavalier at the Court of Madrid. At length there came
in sight the glittering retinue of the Emperor, wending its stately
course along the great, wide, central street towards the foreigners.
Amidst a crowd of Indian nobles, preceded by three officers of state
bearing golden wands, was borne the royal palanquin, blazing with
burnished gold, and canopied with brilliant feather work, powdered
with jewels and fringed with silver.
Having advanced to within a few yards of the Spanish General, the
palanquin was lowered, the intervening ground was spread with
cotton carpetings; nobles, bare-footed, and with faces bent to the
earth, lined the way, and the great monarch Montezuma, clothed
with the girdle and ample national cloak of the finest embroidered
cotton, stepped forth.
"Behold them!" softly ejaculated Cabrera, as the Emperor stepped to
the ground, and the Spaniard's eyes were dazzled by the passing
flash of the sandals' golden soles, and the glisten of emeralds and
pearls with which their fastenings were beautified.
Montezuma, this monarch who had taught both friends and foes to
tremble at his frown, was at this time about forty years of age, tall
and slender. His hair, which was black and straight, and of a due
length to become his rank, was crowned with a plume of feathers of
the royal green, which waved above features marked by a
considerable degree of thoughtful intelligence. He moved with
dignity, and his whole bearing, tempered by an expression of
benignity not to have been anticipated, from the reports of him that
had hitherto reached the Spaniards' ears, proclaimed a great and
worthy ruler among men.[11]
Such courtly and dignified compliments were forthwith exchanged
between the Aztec Emperor and the Spanish commander as might
be expected between two such men, and then the Emperor was
once more borne back to his palace, amid the homage of his
prostrate subjects; while the Spaniards, with colours flying and music
playing, were conducted by Montezuma's brother to the quarters
assigned to them in the capital.
With royal hospitality the Emperor had devoted to the use of his
visitors a splendid palace, built some fifty years before by his own
father, and here he was waiting to receive them when they entered,
and he completed the ceremony of welcome by hanging a superb
and massy collar of golden ornaments around the neck of Hernando
Cortes, or 'Malinche,' as with a touch of brotherly affection he now
renamed him.
"This palace," he said, with the superb generosity he had already
several times shown in the magnificence of the gifts to his 'Brother of
Spain'—"This palace, Malinche, henceforth belongs to you and to
your brethren. Rest after your fatigues, and in a little while I will visit
you again."
So saying, with the most true tact and politeness, Montezuma
withdrew, only to evince afresh his thought and kindness by forthwith
sending his stranger guests a bountiful collation, and a tribe of
obsequious and skilful Mexican slaves to serve it.
Having left his visitors ample leisure, both for feastings and for a few
hours' quiet sleep, the Emperor's glittering palanquin once more
made its appearance, amidst the fountains and flowers of the
courtyard of their pleasant new quarters.
He did not depart this time until he had left behind him substantial
proofs of his good-will. Suits of garments for every man of the small
army, even including the hated Tlascalan allies, profusion of gold
chains and other ornaments, and so many gracious expressions of
face and voice, that he left even the most morose or prejudiced
amongst the Spaniards deeply impressed with the munificence and
affability of one whom they had been taught, by his enemies, to
regard as a tyrannical and bloodthirsty monster.
The iron hearts of the rough adventurers were touched for once in
their lives; and when, on the next day, they, in turn, visited
Montezuma in his royal abode, they beguiled their return march with
discourse on his gentle breeding and courtesy, and their new-born
respect for this potentate of a new-found world.
Meantime Cortes was not quite so thoroughly satisfied with this new
aspect of affairs as might, perhaps, be expected, or as were Montoro
de Diego, Father Olmedo, and others of the gentler spirits of the
expedition.
Cortes was bent on conquest, not compliments, and the strong
position of the Indians and their immense numbers, combined with
the growing good-will towards them, and respect of many of his own
followers, inspired him with a sudden hurry, and most unusual
feverish eagerness to bring matters to an issue.
As a first step to demonstrate his power he treated the inhabitants of
the capital to a discharge of the artillery, which the poor terrified
people regarded as powers wielded by the white-faces' very gods
themselves.
But this was not enough for Cortes. He decided by one great theft,
made at once, to gain a bloodless victory. He decided to steal from
them their king.
CHAPTER XXXVII.
ESCALANTE'S FATE DECIDES IT.
"I cannot help it, Diego. It is the force of circumstances. Either we
must be the aggressors or the victims. And how, thinkest thou, I
could then answer it to myself, were I to see these men, who have
with so full a trust followed me, butchered before mine eyes?"
Hernando Cortes was striding up and down the enormous apartment
of the palace appointed him for a residence by Montezuma. His
whole bearing, his face, his voice, betokened excessive agitation. He
had only one companion with him at that hour, Montoro de Diego,
and Montoro also looked very sorely troubled.
"We have received nought at the hands of this heathen monarch," he
murmured, in tones of heartfelt grief; "nought but the noblest
generosity, the most chivalrous respect."
"That is true," was the stern reply. "And we are going to return it with
—with——"
"The basest treachery and black ingratitude."
There was silence in the apartment, but for those tramping feet, and
the somewhat heavy breathing of the men. At last Cortes turned
aside, and came to where his friend sat with clasped hands and
bowed head, pondering over the inscrutable ways of Providence. He
stood before him, looking down upon him with an expression of
impatient sorrow.
"Toro, thou and I have been friends for many a stirring year now. We
have never yet had cause to doubt each other's truth. Whatever I do
in these coming days, believe, or strive to believe, that I act—I
declare it by the holy faith itself—according to what I feel to be the
loudest calls of duty."
Montoro grasped the other's hand for a moment. He did believe the
assurance, although, to his more tender conscience and more
enlightened mind, it seemed extraordinary that a glaring wrong could
assume the garb of duty.
As the friends thus stood together the gold-embroidered, brilliantly-
dyed cotton hangings before the entrance of the room were hastily
thrust aside, and a young Spanish knight entered, and advanced
impetuously towards the Captain-General. He paused in some
confusion when he had approached near enough to see the two
grave faces.
"Well, Velasquez," said his superior, with an accent of friendly
encouragement, "methinks thy countenance betokens a whole
budget of news. What is its nature? Good or evil? Fear not to speak
out. I hold myself ever prepared in spirit to accept either."
Thus encouraged, the young soldier of fortune came a step or two
nearer, as he replied with suppressed eagerness—
"It is not news, to be so called, that I bring you, Captain. I come
rather as a messenger, I would say."
"Ah!" ejaculated Cortes, with some surprise. "A messenger! And
from whom?"
"Well," said Velasquez, more slowly, "I believe that I might almost
say with truth that I bear a message to you from the whole of our
force now gathered in this island city. We would know, Captain, with
your good pleasure, what is the next step that you propose to take
for the furtherance of the objects of this present expedition—the
spread of the most holy Catholic faith, and the glory of the Spanish
kingdom."
"Methinks," said Cortes, with some tone of coldness and hauteur,
—"methinks, friend, that we have already not only taken many steps
in pursuit of those two worthy objects, but that we have likewise, in
some large measure, gained them. What wouldst thou more—thou
and those for whom thou claimest to be the messenger?"
The young Velasquez de Leon changed colour somewhat at this
address. The buoyant hope of success had made Hernando Cortes
even more than usually frank and friendly, the past few days, with his
officers. But none knew better than he how to suddenly surround
himself with a chill, impassable barrier when he chose.
There was an uncomfortable pause. Cortes broke it.
"Well, Leon," he said, with a short laugh, "say on, man. Methinks
thou art but a sorry ambassador. Wilt thou find a readier tongue
when I send thee to Montezuma to invite him hither?"
The young knight sprang forward, his colour still further heightened,
truly, but with delight now instead of uneasiness.
"Order me on that service, my Captain, this very hour, and if my
tongue prove not ready enough, my sword shall make amends."
Cortes turned with a meaning look to Montoro ere he answered,
more cordially—
"I do not doubt you; that is to say, if I did not add my hand to thine on
its hilt. It is just that over-readiness of my followers to use their
swords that ofttimes ties me to inaction. If I took thee with me to yon
red-skinned monarch's palace, couldst thou possibly abide by the
policy of patience?"
"Put him in my charge, Captain," came a laughing shout from the
end of the apartment, and the next moment Don Juan de Cabrera
had joined the trio.
"Your charge indeed!" said Cortes, with a shrug of the shoulders. "A
monkey tied to a cockatoo!"
"Ah," was the calm retort, "my hair is rather rough, for I broke my
comb awhile since on the dog Ciudad's back. But yet, worthy
Captain, thy natural history is somewhat astray, as I have remarked
before, or I am ignorant if cockatoos are ornamented with black
crests."
"I wonder whether thou wouldst still laugh if thou wast beaten black,"
muttered Velasquez, irritably.
"Perhaps," said the careless-hearted cavalier, "if thou wast standing
by, looking solemn enough to tempt me. Dost ever laugh thyself, my
Don Velasquez?"
"Not when life and honour lie trembling in the balance," said the
young knight, indignantly. And, forgetful for the instant of the leader's
presence, he continued—"For you, Don Juan, you seem not to
remember that we are here pent up like a stack of wood, ready for
the burning when our enemies choose to desire light for their
temple's sacrifices."
Cortes bent his face forward swiftly towards the speaker.
"Say then, Leon, do you counsel retreat over yonder bridges while
yet there is time? Is that what thou camest to——"
But the commander could not finish his sentence. The Spaniard's
deference and decorum were neither of them sufficient to restrain
him at such an imputation.
"Retreat!" he exclaimed. "I have never yet been of the number of
those who have counselled that. Ere I would join in retreat I would of
myself yield me into these heathen butchers' hands, to have my
heart plucked out as an offering to their gods."
"But yet, if we stay," was the quiet answer,—"bethink you,
Velasquez, if we stay, that may still possibly be thy fate, and that of
many of us."
"Not if we make a bold fight for it at once," said Cabrera, grown
almost as serious as if Leon's rebuke were weighing on his mind.
But, as a fact, he did feel grave enough at their present insecure
situation, and, brave as he was, he had a shuddering horror at the
thought of becoming one of those dreadful sacrifices.
"Any spark may kindle the fury against us of these savages,"
muttered Velasquez, "and already our easy sloth is nourishing their
contempt."
A return of the former haughty look was quickly visible on the face of
Cortes at these words; but ere he could reply to them a noise and
tumult without startled all four occupants of the room, and they
hastily issued forth to learn the cause.
Montoro was the first to reach the threshold of the palace, and with a
low, terrible cry he fell back upon his comrades.
"What is it?" gasped Cortes; and, pushing to the front, he received a
ghastly answer to his query.
Spiked upon Indian lances, and held aloft by Indian hands, was an
immense human head, crowned with heavy dark locks matted and
stiffened with gore. A crowd of Indians, warriors and women, trooped
along behind it, rending the air with their yells of triumph.
For the space of ten seconds it might be that the bronzed cheek of
Cortes blanched; then he made a dash forward, caught one of the
yelling youths, and dragging him back with him to the doorway,
questioned him rapidly.
"Whose was that head yonder? Was it the head of an enemy of the
Mexicans? a Tlascalan, or whose?"
The Indian boy cringed and trembled in that tightening grip.
"It is not the head of one of the white men here with the great white
chief."
"It is the head of poor Morla, whom we left behind at Vera Cruz as
one of Escalante's garrison," said Montoro sadly. "I should know it
anywhere, and under any circumstances."
"Ay, truly," added Alvarado, in confirmation; "it is doubtless his. I did
but save the poor fellow from hanging to leave him to a fate still
worse. But what of the rest of the garrison? How comes he to have
suffered? What is the meaning of this dismal matter? Was he sent
out by Escalante as a messenger?"
All these questions, asked as they were by the lips of Alvarado, were
indeed asked by the entire party in their thoughts. Montoro, resolved
to know the worst at once, hurriedly obtained permission from
Cortes, and, regardless of personal risk, he made his way, with his
faithful interpreter, to the strangers, who were still bearing on high
their ghastly trophy.
It was with no good news that he returned soon after to his
companions in arms. Their saddest fears were realized. The noble-
hearted, upright young officer, the beloved of all ranks of his
companions, had met an early death with seven or eight of the
garrison of Vera Cruz, in a pitched battle with a Mexican general.
"Is that the boasted discipline of this great empire," exclaimed Cortes
indignantly, "that we should be cherished visitors of its Emperor, and
meanwhile our comrades should be attacked and slain by his
officers? What say you now, Montoro? Do you still place implicit trust
in these base Indians?"
There was a moment's pause ere Montoro answered gravely—
"Base, I cannot call them, in that they fight for their lands and liberty;
but I confess that I do feel now, strongly almost as yourself, that
either we must re——"
"Retreat! never!" exclaimed Velasquez de Leon fiercely, interrupting
the speaker. "What is thy other alternative, Don Diego, for the first is
nought?"
"Ay, the other?" asked Cortes, with some extra touch of anxiety, to
which Montoro's eyes replied with a grave, sad smile, as his lips
answered—
"The other alternative then, I would say, that is forced upon us for the
common safety, is, that some step be taken without delay to make
our present position more secure."
Cortes grasped his friend's fingers tight as he muttered in a voice
hoarse with emotion—
"Toro, I thank thee for those words. Thou hast strengthened my
hands. Thy stern disapprobation of my intent lay too hardly on me.
Now I can go forward."
"But meantime," muttered young Juan de Cabrera, with something of
a gulp,—"meantime, poor old Escalante hath gone forward to that
land whence none return."
Montoro laid his hand for one moment on the younger man's arm, as
he murmured earnestly—
"Only free from care and toil a little sooner, Juan. We shall join him.
Methinks rest must be very grateful after labour."
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
THE DOWNFALL OF AN EMPIRE.
The fate of the young commander of the garrison of Vera Cruz, and
of poor Morla, effected a speedy change in the sentiments of the
whole of the Spaniards towards their Mexican entertainers.
"When the Tlascalans entered upon hostilities with us," said Juan de
Cabrera, with a grim laugh, "they fed us up as men feed fowls, to
make them fatter eating for themselves; but then, like sturdy, blunt
warriors as they are, they told us so, whereas——"
"Ay," interrupted that hot-headed Velasquez, "whereas these
smooth-spoken scoundrels here fill our mouths with one hand, only
that our eyes may be covered while they give us a dose of itztli with
the other."
"Well, well," said Hernan Cortes himself, rather gravely, "it may be
so; and verily I hope it is, for I confess I would fain believe that we
are but about to meet treachery with treachery, and not true-hearted
generosity with cruelty."
The two officers glanced at one another significantly as they moved
away out of hearing, and Velasquez remarked irritably to his
companion—
"Talk of true hearts, indeed! That Diego yonder is making the
General well-nigh as soft-hearted as himself. What is a soldier, i'
faith, if he sets up to have feelings for his foes?"
"I will tell thee," said the calm, clear voice of Montoro unexpectedly.
"I will tell thee, friend Leon. He is then a true knight, such a knight as
our Cid would have called comrades with, and not a rascal. But the
General is calling for us. Father Olmedo waits to say mass, and to
bless us ere we start."
"Finish your sentence, Toro," said Cabrera quietly, and with a smile,
as he passed on with him to the chapel they had fitted up for their
own services.
Montoro looked round at his companion with some slight surprise.
"What finish wouldst have to my sentence, Juan? I understand thee
not."
The other laughed as he answered in low tones—
"Mind me not, my dear friend Long-face; but thou knowest well that
thy tongue ached to say—'ere we start on our kidnapping
expedition.' Ah!" with another low, merry laugh, "said I not truly? Thy
face betrays thee."
It was indeed true that Montoro de Diego regarded the present
intentions of his companions in anything but a favourable light,
although, unless they would retreat, he knew well enough that some
strong measure was needful under present circumstances.
All he could do now he did. Whilst Fathers Olmedo and Juan Diaz
were engaged in the celebration of mass, he offered up the most
fervent, heartfelt prayers that the Father of all would have pity upon
all His children, that the Almighty Lord of the universe would so order
all things that they should further His kingdom upon earth, and His
glory.
The mass ended, Cortes at once set out for the palace of
Montezuma, accompanied by a trusty band of his officers—the
inflexible, sunny-haired Alvarado, the fiery Velasquez de Leon, the
intrepid and upright Sandoval, the wary Lugo, Davila, ready-handed,
careless and fearless Juan de Cabrera, and the calm, keen-eyed,
dependable, noble Montoro de Diego.
Montoro did not, could not, approve of the new, stern step about to
be attempted for the conquest of Mexico. Nevertheless, when he
unobtrusively placed himself by the General's side, Cortes knew well
enough that, should the matter on hand come to bloodshed, Montoro
de Diego would die before his General suffered hurt.
Arrived at the palace, the unsuspecting monarch gave his usual
gracious and ready assent to his guests' demand for an audience.
His oracles of old had foretold the coming of white-faces as gods, or
the messengers of the gods, and so he ever treated them with a
singular reverential courtesy, even when he had learnt to recognize
them as scourges of evil, rather than the bright angels of mercy,
teaching and blessing, he had been led to look for and to await with
eager hopefulness.
Stationed cautiously, at various intervals between their barracks and
the royal residence, were companies of the Spanish soldiers, armed
to the teeth, ready to support their General and their officers in case
of need. The guns were loaded, and pointed at the palace. Every
preparation and precaution was attended to that prudence or
foresight could dictate, and with that consciousness Cortes
advanced to the undertaking with his usual air of bold, calm
confidence.
The poor Emperor was in a specially bright, gay humour. He entered
into a cheerful conversation, through the interpreters, with the young
Spanish knights, and to prove his brotherly attachment to 'Malinche,'
offered him one of his daughters for a wife. He pleased his own
generous love of giving, and his guests' love of receiving, by
lavishing costly and elegant little gifts upon them after his usual
fashion.
Cabrera caught sight suddenly of Montoro de Diego's scornful,
curling lip, and eyes flashing with indignation, as Velasquez de Leon
bent his head to have a gold chain hung about his neck.
"What is it now, good Long-face?" he muttered, in some slight
surprise. "Methought that thou wouldst be well satisfied with this
interval of amity."
Montoro turned upon his friend with the fierceness of his
ungovernable boyhood.
"I would that yon poor monarch's gifts could burn ye all!" he
exclaimed passionately. "The base love of gold hath turned

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Fundamentals of Wastewater Treatment

and Engineering 2nd Edition Rumana

Wastewater Treatment: Molecular Tools, Techniques, and

Phycology-Based Approaches for Wastewater Treatment and

Wastewater Treatment Using Green Synthesis 1st Edition

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering 2nd Edition

Water and Wastewater Engineering Technology 1st Edition

Membrane and Membrane-Based Processes for Wastewater

Wastewater Treatment: Recycling, Management, and

Removal of Refractory Pollutants from Wastewater

I dedicate this book

• to the memories of Mubarak Hussain and Kazi Abdus Salam

1 Sustainable wastewater treatment and engineering 1

2 Reaction kinetics and chemical reactors 13

2.9 Continuous-flow stirred tank reactor 25

4 Natural purification processes 55

5 Wastewater treatment fundamentals 79

6.2.1 Trash racks 99

7 Primary treatment 117

8 Secondary treatment – suspended growth process 141

8.4 Modeling suspended growth processes 154

9 Secondary treatment – Attached growth and combined

9.9 Combined processes 211

10 Secondary clarification and disinfection 217

11 Anaerobic wastewater treatment 245

11.9 Anaerobic attached growth processes 267

12 Solids processing and disposal 275

12.8.2 Land disposal methods 314

13 Advanced treatment processes 325

14 Resource recovery and sustainability 359

14.4 Energy recovery 362

15 Design examples 373

anaerobic treatment, which is becoming more and more important due to

α Oxygen transfer correction factor

GAC Granular activated carbon

TSS Total suspended solids

Dr. Rumana Riffat is Professor of the Civil and Environmental Engineering

M.Eng. in Transportation Engineering from the Asian Institute of

1.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY

The science and engineering of wastewater treatment has evolved signifi-

In the United States (US), in seventeenth-century Colonial America, house-

wastewater of acceptable standards. With industrialization and scientific

The primary treatment in most municipal wastewater treatment plants con-

Preliminary and primary treatment Secondary treatment Disinfectant

Effluent recycled Anaerobic

Figure 1.1 Flow diagram of a conventional wastewater treatment plant.

parts of the US, as well as in Europe and Asia. Eutrophication caused by

• Rising energy costs for the operation of treatment plants.

Based on the emerging issues, wastewater engineering and research should

• Energy generation – Typically, wastewater treatment plants have

This resulted in an annual reduction in energy costs from $4.6 mil-

development and availability of process models for design and con-

Regulatory requirements have played a significant role in the development

1.5.1 United States regulations

Protection Agency (EPA) to establish the National Pollutant Discharge

Table 1.2 Secondary treatment standards as defined by US EPA (2012)

1.5.2 European Union regulations

• The Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive (91/271/EEC) of 1991

1.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY

1.5.1 United States regulations

1.5.2 European Union regulations

1.5.3 United Kingdom regulations

2.2 HOW TO FIND THE ORDER OF A REACTION

log e (rA ) log e k log e A (2.5)

2.3 ZERO ORDER REACTION