OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

 An operational amplifier is an integrated circuit that can amplify weak electric signals.
An operational amplifier has two input pins and one output pin. Its basic role is to
amplify and output the voltage difference between the two input pins.
 An Operational Amplifier is basically a three-terminal device which consists of two high
impedance inputs. One of the inputs is called the Inverting Input, marked with a
negative or “minus” sign, ( – ). The other input is called the Non-inverting Input,
marked with a positive or “plus” sign ( + ).

 if we apply two signals one at the inverting and another at the non-inverting terminal, an
ideal op-amp will amplify the difference between the two applied input signals. We call
this difference between two input signals the differential input voltage. The equation
below gives the output of an operational amplifier. Where, VOUT is the voltage at the
output terminal of the op-amp. AOL is the open-loop gain for the given op-amp and is
constant (ideally).

The Internal block diagram of the operational amplifier

Ideal Voltage Transfer Curve of Op Amp:

 The ideal op-amp produces the output proportional to the difference between the
two input voltages. The graphical representation of this statement gives the
voltage transfer curve. It is the graph of output voltage Vo plotted against the
difference input Voltage Vd, assuming gain constant. This graph is
called transfer characteristics of the op-amp.
IDEAL OP-AMP CHARACTERISTICS:

An ideal op-amp should have the following characteristics:

 Infinite voltage gain (So that maximum output is obtained)
 Infinite input resistance (Due to this almost any source can drive it)
 Zero output resistance (So that there is no change in output due to change in load current)
 Infinite bandwidth
 Zero noise
 Zero power supply rejection ratio (PSSR = 0)
 Infinite common mode rejection ratio (CMMR = ∞)
OPEN LOOP OPERATION OF AN OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
 if we apply small differential input voltage, the operational amplifier amplifies it to
a considerable value but this significant value at the output cannot go beyond the supply
voltage of the op-amp.

CLOSED LOOP OPERATION

 The above-explained operation of the op-amp was for open-loop i.e. without feedback. We
introduce feedback in the closed loop configuration. This feedback path feeds the output
signal to the input. Hence, at the inputs, two signals are simultaneously present. One of them
is the original applied signal, and the other is the feedback signal. The equation below shows
the output of a closed loop op-amp.
  Where VOUT is the voltage at the output terminal of the op-amp. ACL is the closed loop gain.
The feedback circuit connected to the op-amp determines the closed loop gain ACL. VD =
(V1 – V2) is the differential input voltage.

Effects of Feedback on Amplifier Performance:

 Feedback plays a crucial role in stabilizing the gain of an amplifier across various operating
conditions. It achieves this by reducing sensitivity to component variations and temperature
changes, which ensures that the amplifier’s gain remains consistent.
Types of Feedback Amplifiers:

Feedback amplifiers can be categorized into two main types based on the type of feedback they use :
 Positive feedback Amplifiers
 Negative feedback Amplifiers

 We say the feedback as positive if the feedback path feeds the signal from the output terminal
back to the non-inverting (+) terminal. Positive feedback is used in oscillators.

 The feedback is negative if the feedback path feeds the part of the signal from the output
terminal back to the inverting (-) terminal. We use negative feedback to the op-amps used
as amplifiers, Differentiator, Voltage comparators.
Advantages of Negative Feedback:

 Negative feedback counteracts variations, disturbances, and changes in operating conditions,

making the system more reliable.
 The negative feedback mechanism helps minimize nonlinearities and distortions in the
amplified signal. This results in a cleaner and more faithful reproduction of the original input.
 This feedback allows the system to handle a broader range of frequencies without sacrificing
performance.
 Negative feedback improves the accuracy of signal reproduction.