IET Power Electronics

IET Power Electronics
Special Issue: Enabling Technologies in Electric and More Electric

Transportation
Grid-interfaced solar PV powered electric ISSN 1755-4535

Received on 4th January 2019
Revised 29th July 2019
vehicle battery system with novel adaptive Accepted on 29th August 2019
E-First on 2nd October 2019
digital control algorithm doi: 10.1049/iet-pel.2019.0025
www.ietdl.org
Shubhra Chauhan1 , Bhim Singh1

1Department of Electrical Engineering, IIT Delhi, New Delhi 110016, India
E-mail: shubhra72@gmail.com
Abstract: This study deals with the control of a three-phase grid-tied solar photovoltaic (PV) powered electric vehicle battery
(EVB) system. The perturb and observe technique is used to obtain the peak power of a solar PV array. The EVB is connected
through a DC–DC buck–boost converter at the DC link of voltage source converter (VSC), which is charged in base load periods
and discharged at high load periods. This converter also maintains the DC link voltage to its maximum power point tracking and
the EVB capacity is reduced in comparison to a system, where it is directly assimilated at the DC link. An adaptive recursive
digital filter is used in an economical and efficient single-stage grid-connected solar PV-EVB system for the evaluation of the
fundamental current constituent of non-linear load current, subsequently the grid current is sinusoidal and has unity power
factor. The system with recursive filter control is adaptable at solar insolation variation and load change. VSC works as an active
power filter under no solar power generation and compensates the load reactive power. The operation of scheme is validated
with test results on a prototype developed in steady-state and dynamic conditions.
1 Introduction various working states and improves the reliability and stability of
system as given in [12]. The standards and rules of grid-integrated
The grid integration of a solar photovoltaic (PV) array with an solar PV systems for the reliable and safe interconnection are
electric vehicle battery (EVB) charging system is in demand due to detailed in [13]. Various control algorithms like synchronous
higher fuel prices and cheaper PV modules, which has paved way reference frame phase-locked loop (SRF-PLL), dual second-order
for the fast development in the electric vehicle (EV), as the future generalised integrator (DSOGIFLL) and stationary reference frame
mode of transport. The growth in electrical energy generation in based control with proportional and resonant controller are utilised
the form of distributed generation with renewable energy sources in grid feeding converter. The SRF technique performs well
like solar, wind and so on reduces greenhouse gas emission and underbalanced grid voltages but its performance deteriorates under
carbon footprints. Solar power is pollution free and clean source of unbalanced and distorted grid voltages. The grid frequency is
electric energy and is easy to maintain. The grid-interfaced EV locked in PLL-based conventional controllers by utilising PLL.
concept is illustrated in [1]. The intermittency problem of solar PV The DSOGIFLL control produces transition delay, which results in
power due to change in temperature and solar insolation causes the phase shift between the input and output of controller. Numerous
demand for maximum power point tracking (MPPT) techniques, as forms of power converters incorporated with control methods and
depicted in [2, 3]. In this work, the perturb and observe (P&O) various functioning modes are explained in [14]. The control
method is used to obtain maximum solar PV power, which has low approaches used for grid incorporated solar PV structure are
cost, simple implementation and efficient tracking ability. The elaborated in [15–17]. The battery storage is required to overcome
penetration of non-conventional sources inflicts extra stress on the the issues emerging due to the variability imposed by renewable
utility grid and power quality is a main concern because large resources. In this work, at the DC link of three-phase voltage
number of non-linear loads are connected in the system. The source converter (VSC), the EVB is incorporated with a
numerous power quality issues like harmonics injection due to bidirectional converter. Therefore, a battery of low-voltage rating is
power converters, frequency and voltage variabilities raised by grid chosen, which stores the surplus power/provides the power during
integrated renewable energy sources are detailed in [4]. The reduction in load demand/peak load periods, correspondingly. The
improved P&O method, which increases the complexity of system, control schemes and energy management of grid incorporated with
is depicted in [5]. An inexpensive and efficient single-stage PV battery system are described in [18–21]. A recursive digital
configuration is utilised for the novel converter in the utility grid adaptive filter based control method is utilised for utility grid
incorporated solar PV system under various conversions, i.e. DC to intertied solar PV powered EVB system. The main contributions of
DC and DC to AC, is depicted in [6]. The battery incorporated this work are described as follows.
plug-in EVs and vehicle-to-grid concept for the grid, to ease the
solar PV array impacts, such as increase in voltage or under peak • The recursive digital adaptive filter is easy to implement and its
load demand, are described in [7]. The performance of PV-EV response is reasonable fast. The filter is utilised to obtain
interfaced to the utility grid, with sinusoidal grid currents and low harmonic free fundamental active current constituent from the
total harmonic distortion (THD) in different working modes, i.e. polluted load current and no phase shift is observed between
EV to grid, utility grid to EV, solar PV power to utility grid and these two waveforms.
solar power to charge EVB, are given in [8]. The solar PV battery
• The single-stage topology does not necessitate extra DC–DC
integrated buildings in collaboration to the grid in urban regions, to
boost converter, therefore, the efficiency of system is increased
manage the peak load demand, are given in [9]. The stability
and it is cost-effective.
analysis and elimination in variation in solar PV array power of a
DC distribution network, which incorporates EV with the grid and • A simple and easy P&O technique is utilised for the maximum
DC–DC buck–boost converter as a battery charger, are reported in power extraction from the solar PV array.
[10, 11]. The battery energy storage provides the power backup in a • The EVB is connected with the DC–DC buck–boost converter at
renewable energy sources and battery-based microgrid under the DC link, which removes the second harmonic current
constituent from the EV's battery current and enriching the
IET Power Electron., 2019, Vol. 12 Iss. 13, pp. 3470-3478 3470
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battery life of EV in contrast to a system, where EVB is 3.2 Recursive digital filter control
connected directly across the DC link in which the oscillations
at the DC link are replicated directly on the EVB and it reduces The control strategy for VSC is illustrated in Fig. 1b. A recursive
the life of EVB. digital filter adaptive control is used to calculate harmonic free
fundamental constituent (ifla) from non-linear load current of phase
• The recursive digital filter based controller has reduced
calculations for each step and less computational burden due to ‘a’. The FFSPV plays very important role in improving the
simple addition/subtraction, and multiplication blocks without system's dynamic performance owing to changes in atmospheric
utilising coordinate transformation, amplitude evaluation and scenario. The power quality of three-phase system is improved
phase estimation block. The proper filter coefficients are with this control technique. The estimation of phase voltages for
selected for the non-linear load compensation and under varying the three phases from the line voltages of PCC (vsab, vsbc) are
atmospheric scenarios. The grid frequency is locked by the described as [23]
controller itself.
• The charging and discharging of the EVB are as per the load 2vsab + vsbc −vsab + vsbc −vsab − 2vsbc
vsa = , vsb = , vsc = (1)
change. The charging or discharging operation of EVB is also 3 3 3
regulated by the current controller at low unit price of electric
energy/uttermost load condition or high unit price of electric These phase voltages are used to calculate amplitude of terminal
energy, correspondingly. voltage as
• VSC performs like an active power filter with EV's battery, on
non-availability of solar power and compensates the reactive 2 2 2 2
V tm = ∗ vsa + vsb + vsc (2)
power. 3
• The system shares an active power to the grid. Furthermore, if
the load is suddenly increased or reduced then the grid currents The in-phase unit templates (upa, upb, upc) are evaluated as
are smoothly decreased or increased.
• The dynamic response of the system is improved under vsa vsb vsc
upa = , upb = , upc = (3)
adaptable atmospheric states by utilising feed-forward V tm V tm V tm
component of solar PV power (FFSPV) and it reduces the
dependence on proportional and integral (PI) controller. The The quadrature unit templates are calculated as
control of developed system is validated with test results for
change in solar insolation and load variation. upb upc 3upa (upb − upc)
• This system provides improvement in power quality at utility uqa = − + , uqb = + ,
3 3 2 2 3
grid for power factor correction and mitigations of harmonics. (4)
The THD for grid currents is observed in accordance to the 3upa (upb − upc)
uqc = − +
IEEE-519 standard [22]. 2 2 3
2 System configuration The input to digital filter is the load current of a phase (iLa). The
first-order all-pass filter transfer function (U1(z)) is evaluated by
Fig. 1a presents the utility grid-tied solar PV-EVB charging
system. The solar PV array is integrated at DC link of VSC, which utilising U2(z) and is described as
consists of three insulated gate bipolar transistor legs to transform
power from DC to AC. As for the single-stage system, additional i4 (U2(z)) − τ1
U1(z) = = (5)
DC-to-DC boost converter is not required for taking out the highest iLa 1 − τ1(U2(z))
solar power, consequently the losses and cost are reduced. A
bidirectional DC–DC converter for the EVB is incorporated at where
common DC link. The EVB is used for the management of load.
The interfacing inductors (Lf) are utilised to connect the VSC i3 τ z−1 − τ3z−2
U2(z) = = 2 (6)
output terminals to point of common coupling (PCC). At PCC, a i2 1 − τ2z−1
ripple filter is coupled to mitigate the switching harmonics
generated by VSC, wherein the non-linear load is also integrated. The filter transfer function (U(z)) is computed as
3 Control schemes i f La (U2(z)) − τ1

U(z) = = τ4 ∗ [1 + U1(z)] = τ4 ∗ 1 + (7)
iLa 1 − τ1(U2(z))
The control structure of this system comprises of three
constituents: MPPT technique, VSC control by recursive digital
filter and control of EVB through a DC–DC buck–boost converter. τ2z−1 − τ3z−2
− τ1
i f La 1 − τ2z−1
U(z) = = τ4 ∗ 1 + (8)
3.1 MPPT controller iLa τ z−1 − τ3z−2
1 − τ1 2
1 − τ2z−1
The MPPT technique utilised to obtain the utmost solar PV array
power is a P&O algorithm. The inputs provided to MPPT
controller are solar PV current (Ipv) and voltage (Vpv). At MPPT, (τ2z−1 − τ3z−2) − τ1(1 − τ2z−1)
U(z) = τ4 ∗ 1 + (9)
the derivative of power (Ppv) with Vpv is zero, dVpv, which is a (1 − τ2z−1) − τ1(τ2z−1 − τ3z−2)
slight variation in voltage at some point on Ppv–Vpv characteristics,
(1 − τ2z−1) − τ1(τ2z−1 − τ3z−2)
is such that a small variation in power (dPpv) is negative, in that
case, the operating point of PV transfers far from point of maxima, +(τ2z−1 − τ3z−2) − τ1(1 − τ2z−1)
U(z) = τ4 ∗ (10)
so the change is to be in opposite direction. If dVpv at any point on (1 − τ2z−1) − τ1(τ2z−1 − τ3z−2)
Ppv–Vpv curve is such that the dPpv is positive, then operating point
of PV transfers to a different point of maxima. However, the
∗
direction of variation is not effected. V dc , which is the MPPT (1 − τ2z−1)(1 − τ1) + (τ2z−1 − τ3z−2)(1 − τ1)
control output, is taken as the DC link reference voltage. U(z) = τ4 ∗ (11)
1 − (τ2 + τ1τ2)z−1 + τ1τ3z−2
(1 − τ1)(1 − τ2z−1 + τ2z−1 − τ3z−2) (1 − τ1)(1 − τ3z−2)
U(z) = τ4 ∗ (12) i f La = τ4 ∗ iLa (14)
1 − (τ2 + τ1τ2)z−1 + τ1τ3z−2 τ3 − (τ2 + τ1τ2)z−1 + τ1τ3z−2
i f La (1 − τ1)(1 − τ3z−2) where τ1, τ2, τ3 and τ4 are constants of the filter.
U(z) = = τ4 ∗ (13)
iLa 1 − (τ2 + τ1τ2)z−1 + τ1τ3z−2 The coefficient τ2 locks the frequency of utility grid. The ifla is
fed to the sample and hold (S&H) logic. uqa and zero crossing
detector are utilised for the initiation of S&H logic, therefore,
Fig. 1 System configuration and controllers schemes

(a) Solar PV-EVB grid intertied structure,
(b) Control algorithm for VSC,
(c) Bidirectional converter control
3472 IET Power Electron., 2019, Vol. 12 Iss. 13, pp. 3470-3478
∗
active constituent of load current (IpLa) is obtained. The phases ‘b’ The Ievbte is provided to PI regulator for evaluation of Ier as
and ‘c’ active current constituents of load currents (IpLb and IpLc)
∗ ∗
are evaluated in the same way. The average active load current Ier (n + 1) = Ier (n) + kpbtIevbte(n + 1) + kibt{Ievbte(n + 1)
constituent (IpLavg) is computed by utilising IpLa, IpLb and IpLc (24)
− Ievbte(n)}
I pLa + I pLb + I pLc where kibt and kpbt are the integral and proportional gains of PI
I pLavg = (15)
3 controller to control Ievbte, respectively. The switching pulses for
∗
DC–DC buck–boost converter are produced from Ier , which is the
The active current component of Ppv is estimated as
duty cycle fed to the pulse width modulator.
2Ppv
Iwpv = (16) 4 Results and discussion
3V tm
A prototype for a 2.62 kW of solar power is developed in the
The active current component of battery power (Pevbt) is estimated laboratory, to authenticate the practicality of the system. The
as developed prototype in the laboratory is shown in Fig. 2a. The
solar PV power is generated from solar PV simulator. In order to
2Pevbt sense the signals vsab, vsbc, Vdc, isa, isb, iLa, iLb, Ievbt and Ipv, current
Iwevbt = (17) sensors (LA-55P) and voltage sensors (LV-25) based on Hall effect
3V tm
are utilised. The control of proposed system is implemented by
where Iwevbt is positive while discharging and negative while the loading the algorithm into a real-time controller OPAL-RT
charging of the battery. (OP4510) having 20 μs sampling time. The opto-couplers are used
The charging or discharging of EVB is also regulated by the to give optical isolation between output pulses of OPAL-RT and
current controller, when the electrical energy unit cost is low or the power circuit. A digital storage oscilloscope and power
high, correspondingly. analyser are utilised for recording the test results. The estimated
The evaluation of amplitude of grid reference current is as parameters for experimental prototype of PV-EVB system are
indicated in Appendix. The control technique's dynamic response
ILp = I pLavg − Iwpv − Iwevbt is analysed under variation in solar insolation and load.
(18)
The reference currents of grid are evaluated as 4.1 Steady-state behaviour of system
∗ ∗ ∗
Figs. 2b–d and 3–6 depict the system's performance under steady-
isa = ILp ∗ upa, isb = ILp ∗ upb, isc = ILp ∗ upc (19) state scenario. Figs. 2b–d illustrate vsab with phase ‘c’ load current,
load power and THD of iLc having value 26.9%. The shape of load
The subtraction of sensed currents of the grid (isa, isb, isc) from current is quasi-square. Figs. 3a–c represent vsab with isc, grid
∗ ∗ ∗
these isa, isb, isc generates current errors as power and sinusoidal waveform of isc, which has THD of 3.1%.
Fig. 3d shows solar PV voltage and current. Figs. 4a and b show
∗ ∗ ∗
iersa = isa − isa, iersb = isb − isb, iersc = isc − isc (20) vsab with VSC current of phase ‘c’ (ivscc) and VSC power (Pvsc).
Vevbt, Ievbt and Pevbt are depicted in Figs. 4c and d. Ievbt is positive,
These iersa, iersb and iersc are given to the hysteresis current which shows the discharging mode of EVB. Pvsc is transferred to
controller to generate switching pulses of VSC. the utility grid and the load network. The vsab, vsa, Vtm, upa, uqa,
∗
iLa, i1, i2, i3, i4, ifLa, IpLa, IpLavg, Iwpv, ILp and isa are control
3.3 EVB charging with bidirectional converter control algorithm's intermediate signals for the phase ‘a’ shown in
The bidirectional DC–DC converter as a battery charger manages Figs. 5a–d. Fig. 6a presents isa, ivsca, iLb and iLc. Fig. 6b shows
control for DC link voltage (Vdc) and control for EVB current extraction of ifLa from iLa, where the fundamental current
(Ievbt). Fig. 1c depicts the bidirectional converter control, which constituent of iLa is in-phase with the non-linear load current.
has bidirectional power transfer competency, with two IGBT Therefore, the adaptive recursive digital filter technique generates
switches S7 and S8. In the discharging mode, switch S8 of converter no phase delay between the signals of input and output.
operates under boost mode. The EV's battery current flows in the
inductor (Lb) towards the capacitor Cdc. However, in the battery 4.2 Dynamic response of system at solar insolation variation
charging mode, the converter switch S7 works in buck mode and
Figs. 7a and b depict the behaviour of the system when solar
Ievbt flows in the reverse direction to charge the EVB. The insolation is decreased to zero. The power flow direction is
∗
comparison of V dc with the sensed voltage (Vdc) provides voltage reversed, therefore isa changes its phase and VSC behaves as an
error (Vdce), which is fed to the PI controller active power filter. Therefore, the grid gives power to the load, as
the load demand is constant. The corresponding changes in ivsca,
∗
V dce(n) = V dc(n) − V dc(n) (21) Iwpv are observed in Fig. 7a. The discharging current of EVB is
decreased due to reduction in power transfer and Ipv has reduced to
∗
The output of PI regulator is the battery reference current (Ievbt ) zero as illustrated in Fig. 7b. There are no changes in the
magnitudes of iLa and vsab. Vdc is maintained to its nominal value.
∗ ∗
Ievbt (n + 1) = Ievbt (n) + kpdcV dce(n + 1) + kidc{V dce(n + 1) The performance of MPPT technique is presented in Figs. 7c and d.
(22)
− V dce(n)} The MPPT is observed near to 100% at 600 and 1000 W/m2.
Figs. 8 and 9 present the system behaviour during solar insolation
where kpdc and kidc are proportional and integral gains of PI perturbation. Fig. 8a shows as the solar irradiance rises, the
controller, correspondingly to regulate Vdc. magnitudes of isa and ivsca are increased. Hence, there is rise in the
∗
Ievbt, which is the sensed EVB current is compared with Ievbt , power transferred to the grid as the solar insolation rises. The grid
current remains sinusoidal. Fig. 8b shows the decrease in solar PV
and EVB current error (Ievbte) is estimated as
power. The magnitudes of ivsca and isa are reduced. No variations
∗ are observed in vsab and iLa during these changeovers. Figs. 8c and
Ievbte = Ievbt − Ievbt (23)
d depict the increase and a decrease impact on internal signals (ILp,
∗
Iwpv, isa) with the corresponding perturbation in solar insolation, variations. Figs. 9a and b depict Ipv rise/decrease, when solar
while the load currents do not change. There is rise and fall in the insolation is increased/reduced, correspondingly.
magnitude of ILp due to increase and decrease in the active current The corresponding effect is observed in Vevbt and Ievbt. The Vpv
part of Ppv, which is the feed-forward constituent under variation in is maintained to its MPP value
solar insolation. Vdc is maintained to its MPPT voltage in these
Fig. 2 Developed prototype and response of system

(a) Developed prototype in laboratory,
(b)–(d) vsab with iLc, load power and harmonic spectrum of iLc
Fig. 3 Response of system

(a)–(c) vsab with isc, grid power and harmonic spectrum of isc,
(d) Vpv with Ipv
Fig. 4 Response of system

(a)–(b) vsab with ivscc and VSC power,
(c)–(d) Vevbt with current and Pevbt
Fig. 5 Steady-state behaviour of system
(a) vsab, vsa, Vtm and upa,
(b) uqa, iLa, i1 and i2,
(c) i3, i4, ifLa and IpLa,
∗
(d) IpLavg, Iwpv, ILp and isa
Fig. 6 Steady-state response of system

(a) isa, ivsca, iLb and iLc,
(b) Extraction of ifLa from ILa
4.3 Dynamic behaviour of proposed system at load variation perturbation in the load. There is no significant effect in Vpv and
Ipv. The battery current is reduced with the decrease in the load,
The response of system during load perturbation is presented in
Figs. 10 and 11. Figs. 10a and b show that isa is decreased and therefore, the EV's battery is stored with the additional power.
increased under rise and reduction in iLa, correspondingly. The
magnitudes of vsab are unaffected. There is no change in solar PV 5 Conclusion
power on change in load, therefore, no variation is observed in The performance of the adaptive recursive digital filter control of
∗
ivsca. Figs. 11a and b show change in internal signals (ILp, Iwpv, isa ). solar PV powered EVB grid intertied system has been
Fig. 11a presents that magnitudes of ILp is decreased because load demonstrated. This system provides active power to the grid,
active power component is increased, when the load is increased. ensures power quality improvement at PCC. The EVB stores
Hence, there is increase in the magnitude of isa∗
. Fig. 11b illustrates additional power, when the load demand is less, whereas it
dissipates when the demand of the load is high. The EVB
the load reduction, which leads to increase the magnitudes of ILp
∗
integrated through bidirectional DC–DC converter has attained
and isa . The reference grid current is sinusoidal during change in MPPT voltage at DC link. The buck–boost converter has been used
load. No change is observed in Iwpv because there is no to maintain charging and discharging operation for the battery of
perturbation in solar insolation and Vdc is maintained to the MPPT vehicle. The recursive filter technique has produced no phase delay
voltage of the solar PV array, when the load is decreased. Fig. 11c between the fundamental current constituent and the load current.
illustrates the waveforms of Vevbt, Ievbt, Vpv and Ipv under Experimental results have validated unity power factor operation,
elimination of harmonics of grid currents, thus maintaining the grid solar PV array. VSC has performed similar to an active power filter
current THD as stipulated in the IEEE-519 standard, i.e. below 5% with EVB under no solar power generation and has compensated
under non-linear load. The implementation of the system has the reactive power of the load. The control method has been
demonstrated the steady-state response and dynamic behaviour authenticated by the test results.
under load change, solar insolation variation and interruption of
Fig. 7 System behaviour during solar insolation perturbation

(a) isa, ivsca, iLa and Iwpv,
(b) vsab, Vdc, Ipv and Ievbt,
(c)–(d) Response of MPPT control at 600 and 1000 W/m2
Fig. 8 System behaviour under variation in solar insolation

(a)–(b) vsab, ivsca, isa and iLa,
∗
(c)–(d) Vdc, ILp, Iwpv and isa
Fig. 9 System behaviour under change in solar insolation
(a)–(b) Vevbt, Ievbt, Vpv and Ipv
Fig. 10 System response under change in load

(a)–(b) vsab, ivsca, isa and iLa
Fig. 11 System behaviour under change in load

∗
(a)–(b) Vdc, ILp, Iwpv and isa ,
(c) Vevbt, Ievbt, Vpv and Ipv
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photovoltaic generation systems: a review and comparison’, IEEE Trans Ind. 220 V, Lf = 5 mH, Vdc = 360 V, Cdc = 3 mF. Filter parameters; τ1 =
Appl., 2017, 53, (4), pp. 3205–3216 0.997, τ2 = 0.9998, τ3 = 1, τ4 = 0.5, fs = 10 kHz, EVB data; Vevbt =
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4749 0.03, kpbt = 0.4, kibt = 0.01 and Lb = 5 mH.
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Special Issue: Enabling Technologies in Electric and More Electric

Grid-interfaced solar PV powered electric ISSN 1755-4535

Shubhra Chauhan1 , Bhim Singh1

3 Control schemes i f La (U2(z)) − τ1

Fig. 1 System configuration and controllers schemes

Fig. 2 Developed prototype and response of system

Fig. 3 Response of system

Fig. 4 Response of system

Fig. 6 Steady-state response of system

Fig. 7 System behaviour during solar insolation perturbation

Fig. 8 System behaviour under variation in solar insolation

Fig. 10 System response under change in load

Fig. 11 System behaviour under change in load

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