Received 10 November 2023, accepted 30 November 2023, date of publication 4 December 2023,

date of current version 13 December 2023.

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3339249

A Novel Intelligent Controller-Based Power

Management System With Instantaneous
Reference Current in Hybrid Energy-Fed
Electric Vehicle
G. MATHESH AND R. SARAVANAKUMAR , (Senior Member, IEEE)
School of Electrical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu 632014, India
Corresponding author: R. Saravanakumar (rsaravanakumar@vit.ac.in)
This work was supported in part by the Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore.

ABSTRACT Nowadays, more than one power source is needed to fulfil the power demand for electric
vehicles. The multiple sources enhance reliability regarding the cruising range and decrease the charging
cost. However, the inclusion of multi-sources generally gives rise to issues in the controller unit, such as
slow response due to the immediate changes in load and power conversion complexity while switching
the sources. This paper presents a novel intelligent control scheme based on fuzzy logic to mitigate this
issue. The proposed controller includes a solar panel, a fuel cell, and a battery as input source. In this
work, to examine the instantaneous reference currents from the sources and to manage power for the electric
vehicle motor, a permanent magnet synchronous machine (PMSM) is considered. The proposed controller
performs real-time power management, Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) for the PV system, and
load calculations based on vehicle dynamics. The proposed work explores power management techniques
for efficient control by utilizing real-time irradiance data from the Solcast website and drive cycle data
collected at a university campus. Finally, the proposed controller was developed using MATLAB/Simulink
and implemented as a hardware investigation with the LabVIEW tool and FPGA controller for a 1 kW PMSM
to validate that the controller enables consistent power split operation in different load conditions.

INDEX TERMS Battery, DC-DC converter, fuel cell, intelligent controller, MPPT, solar photovoltaics.

I. INTRODUCTION combustion engine vehicles are the prime reason for polluting
The world population exhibits tremendous vehicle growth, nature and threatening the living organisms on the earth.
leading to heavy pollution, an insufficiency of fossil fuels, Switching transportation to electric vehicles (EVs) is the
fuel price hikes and drastically affecting the environment. prominent solution to save the planet and make the globe
national oceanic and atmospheric administration (NOAA) healthy [3]. The EV market contributes to economic growth
releases global warming statistics every year, which show and many government schemes in the country and subsidies
2022 to be the sixth hottest year since 1880, as per help move users towards the EV side. China, the most
the universal climate data [1]. The biggest problem for populous country, comes first for plug-in light-duty EV sales,
every government is controlling air pollution, which causes which are encouraged. India, the second-most populated
respiratory diseases, cardiac problems and lung cancer. 99% nation, is developing EV technologies and establishing many
of humans breathe contaminated air above the recommended start-up companies [4]. Every government tries to increase
range by the world health organisation (WHO) [2]. Internal the charging infrastructure to meet the charging requirement
and to make more EV users.
The associate editor coordinating the review of this manuscript and Even though electric vehicle transportation was started
approving it for publication was Jiann-Jong Chen . in 1827, it has yet to be successful due to the unavailability
2023 The Authors. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License.
VOLUME 11, 2023 For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ 137849
 G. Mathesh, R. Saravanakumar: Novel Intelligent Controller-Based Power Management System
of battery technologies. From the 20th century onwards,
researchers made many innovations in electric automobiles,
with some energy storage devices and the upgradation of
power electronic converters [5]. These technological include
rise to battery electric vehicles (BEV) which is mostly
practiced in the transportation industry for the past two
decades. It has account of battery-stacks as an energy source
to the vehicle similar to traditional Internal Combustion
(IC) engine-based vehicle. These BEVs are equipped with
battery management module (BaMM) which maintains state-
of-charge of battery-stacks. Additionally, the advantages
of BaMM gives efficacy, no fire accident and safety of
passengers. But BEVs inevitably depend on charging stations
or public on-board charger for charging [6]. This continuous
dependence on charging system can be solved by solar-based
BEVs. Moreover, the power transformation set-up specific to
solar-panel to BaMM has marked the new phase of BEVs [7].
These are some of the basic hardware parameters supposed
to be looked on regarding implementation of solar-based
BEVs:
(a) Sizing of solar panel: It mainly belongs to the area
of the vehicle, which has more chance to get sunlight
during the daytime.
(b) MPPT Module: It quantifies the solar-powered energy
from the diffused solar irradiance for the panel.
Solar panel size, solar energy availability and battery-charging
cycle are critical to decide charging time of the battery, which
then gives data to the user to decide drive-mode of the vehicle.
So BaMM and MPPT modules are vital in the solar-fed
BEVs. In addition to BEVs, fuel cell source-fed EVs gives
added advantages to the controller proposed for the vehicle
in this work.
Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) are increasing rapidly
due to some advantages over BEVs, such as hydrogen
filling time period much shorter than charging the battery,
the ability to run without any grid dependency and almost
zero pollution [8]. Hence, the combination of BEVs and
FCEVs enables efficient EVs because of their features and
reliability [9]. The solar, battery and fuel cell-fed EVs are
most suitable for school or university campuses, which need
one hydrogen station to fill the gas and the utility of solar
energy is possible because of school working time during
the day. The incorporation of these sources is ready to give
power. However, the respective quantity of power needs
to reach the load through a power management scheme.
The power management strategy (PMS) integrates these
three sources with a proper controller and power electronic
converters and it adjusts the power from available input
sources to load. The benefits of the PMS include increasing
system efficiency, increasing the utility of present power from
sources, energy conservation and reliability improvement.
The control technique activates the PMS function throughout
the EV operation, which can be set by the user as any code
or program and needs some predetermined knowledge about
the power production range from various sources and the load
demand. The PMS technique implemented in EVs involves
137850
some favourable and unfavourable factors for researchers as
far as the control methodology is concerned.
Battery-fed energy distribution is carried out through direct
torque control using a lookup table and gets better efficiency
from two standard driving cycles. Vehicle propulsion is
achieved by two sets of batteries and motors for the front
and back wheels. Control methodology creates complexity
due to two inverters controlling the induction motor load
and this EV system depends on the grid for charging the
battery [10]. The energy management process is executed
using a robust optimisation method, where the authors
considered uncertainty in the cost function and compared
the work with other optimisation methods. Input sources for
this methodology are battery, ultracapacitor and fuel cell,
but it does not involve the practical drive cycle and there is
no hardware implementation [11], [12]. Vector-based power
management control is processed using a single stage of
hybrid battery and supercapacitor sources. During testing,
the 110 kW motor for power is split up in the testing
laboratory by the two inverters as a power modulator for a
traditional DC-DC converter, where vehicle dynamics and
drive cycles are not involved [13]. The principle behind
power management control is simultaneous perturbation
approximation. The operation of an EV is simulated for two
dissimilar scenarios with battery and fuel-cell-fed EVs for
heavy vehicles, but simulation results describe the load power
as around 6.8 kW [14]. The emerging control methodology
of PMS in EVs is known as the multi-objective algorithm
(MOA), which controls the firing angle of the power
modulator connected between the source and EV motor.
The reinforcement learning and model predictive control
methodologies are employed in MOA to control the 75 kW
motor load with multiple drive cycles [15], [16]. Equivalent
consumption of the dynamic factor control scheme controls
the battery and two motor-generator pairs for PMS operation
and this work has been tested with four different drive cycles
in simulation but no hardware implementation [17].
A different kind of power source has been introduced for
managing the power to the EV, such as a hydraulic pump
or motor, and hydraulic to mechanical energies using the
pump or motor. Some mechanical gear and accumulator
arrangements are needed to receive functions for this proxi-
mal optimization method and/or rule-based system [18], [19].
The authors obtained a reduction of 5.7% of the fuel in
the fuel-cell source along with the battery source in power
control operation by a model-based learning algorithm,
where the obtained results are compared with other research
articles [20]. The online energy split is achieved using the
pontryagin principle and makes up 95% of the fuel economy
in the MATLAB simulation platform through various drive
cycles with battery and fuel cell [21]. If an EV system
has good power and energy density, it can move for longer
periods of time with quick acceleration. Out of the three
control methodologies of PMS, the reinforcement algorithm
is better than the rule-based and dynamic programming-
based algorithms in this work, which gives extended life to
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G. Mathesh, R. Saravanakumar: Novel Intelligent Controller-Based Power Management System

the battery packs [22]. Because of fuel cell and battery, the
system needs to control the temperature and PMS operation
is possible with the aid of a thermal management system,
as the authors proved using an equivalent consumption
methodology for the controller [23].
From the substantial review of power management tech-
niques, some control techniques lag the EV system, like no
quick response from the switches at all times, difficulties
while optimization codes, complication to implement, inte-
gration issues with multiple sources and large undershoot
or overshoot problems. The proposed intelligent controller
rectifies these problems and gives efficient management
of power at every second of the time in an ingenious
FIGURE 1. Real-time drive cycle taken from the university campus at
way. The innovation of the proposed work is instantaneous noon time.
current variant-based power management from real-time
drive cycles taken at the college campus at different times.
The instantaneous current reference model is utilized which
periodically measures the changes in load and provides
suitable decision to control the switches. While deciding
the threshold value for the initial state of parameters, the
instantaneous reference current data observed during one
drive cycle of a vehicle is included to set the time period for
the switches. The contribution of this article is as follows:
• Implementation of instantaneous reference current-based
power management for EV using intelligent controller.
• Development of MPPT for solar PV system with
real-time irradiance data.
• A detailed vehicle dynamics model has been described
for the selection of EV motor. FIGURE 2. Real-time drive cycle taken from the university campus at
• Hardware investigation of PMSM power management evening time.
operation using solar PV, battery and fuel cell through
the LabVIEW/FPGA-based controller.
The following describes the paper structure: Section II
states the proposed methodology; Section III explains the
characteristics of the solar panel with MPPT, battery, fuel
cell and PMSM. Section IV briefly explains the vehicle
dynamics modeling. Section V shows the intelligent con-
troller. Section VI describes the results and discussion.
Sections VII and VIII discuss the experimental procedure and
conclusion.

II. PROPOSED METHODOLOGY

The proposed EV includes three significant energies: solar,
hydrogen and chemical, to produce mechanical energy to
propel the entire EV system. More power density, less
noise, better speed regulation, and steady output torque
are the reasons for PMSM in EV applications [24]. The
power modulator is needed for smooth operation. Therefore,
the power sources are connected with DC-DC converters
and the inverter is linked to PMSM. Two unidirectional
DC-DC converters are for solar PV panel and fuel cell
and one bidirectional DC-DC converter is for battery. All
four converters have connected their respective switches: a
solar switch (SS ), fuel cell switch (SF ), battery charging or
discharging switch (SBC /SBD ) and load switch (SL ), to a
common DC bus. An MPPT controller is included to fetch
FIGURE 3. The vehicle travelled and data captured road map.
maximum power through the solar panel and an intelligent
controller controls the solar-fed DC-DC converter for MPPT
operation. This intelligent controller controls all converters
and maintains the same voltage at the DC-DC converters
output.
The proposed bus model is well suited for school buses.
Hence, a real-time drive cycle has been taken from the
university campus at sunny noon and sunset time every
1-second up to 5 km and around 900 data points, depicted
in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2, respectively. The area travelled and data

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 G. Mathesh, R. Saravanakumar: Novel Intelligent Controller-Based Power Management System

FIGURE 4. Power management of hybrid sources fed EV.

collected inside the university campus are captured as Google

images in Fig. 3. The power management technique using the
three different sources for the real-time school bus through an
intelligent control method is shown in Fig. 4.

III. MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF SOLAR CELL, FUEL CELL,

BATTERY, AND PMSM
A. SOLAR PANEL WITH MPPT
Solar energy is a more abundant, easily accessible and
freely available renewable energy source than other sources;
however, it is unpredictable. Irradiance and temperature FIGURE 5. Solar cell model.
values depend on nature. Hence, the solar panel cannot
provide constant voltage and current. The current-voltage
characteristics of solar PV are not linear because of changes Eq. (1) describes the current produced by the solar PV,
in irradiance and temperature. The photon current of a where G denotes the insolation from solar energy (W/m2 ).
solar cell depends on the irradiance level and the open Series and parallel resistance with respect to the diode D
circuit voltage depends on the temperature. An optimal point namely Rs and Rp . Iph is the photon current due to irradiance
exists in the current-voltage or current-power characteristics G as shown in Eq. (2). The diode current is ID , Nse indicates
of the solar PV that exhibits more power, called the the number of cells connected in series, K implies the
maximum power point. Solar-fed EVs already have emerging Boltzmann constant (1.3806 J/K), T means temperature, the
technology as a part of the source, which increases the ideality factor for semiconductors is A and Vpv and Ipv are
reliability of the vehicle. The monocrystalline solar panel the voltage and current of the solar photovoltaic.
provides more efficient power than other commercial panels  
and it is always suitable for EVs. Monocrystalline panels   G
Iph = ISC_STC +Ks (T − TSTC ) − (2)
are preferable for automobile applications because they have GSTC
better efficiency than other types. A model of solar PV cell is
shown in Fig. 5 [25]. Short circuit current under standard test conditions is
abbreviated as ISC_STC . Short circuit current coefficient
( "
! # denoted as KS . GSTC and TSTC are the irradiance and
q Vpv +Rs Ipv temperature values of 25◦ C and 1000W/m2 respectively at
Ipv = Iph −Io ex −1 the standard test conditions.
Nse TAK

) ( )
Vpv +Rs Ipv ISC_STC +Ks (T − TSTC )
− (1) IO =   (3)
Nse Rp ex VVOCV_STC +KV (T − TSC )/AVthe

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G. Mathesh, R. Saravanakumar: Novel Intelligent Controller-Based Power Management System
where VVOCV_STC indicates the open circuit voltage (OCV)
in volts at STC, Kv means the coefficient of OCV and Vthe is
the thermal voltage of the PV cell. Power production by the
solar cell is denoted in Eq. (4).
qVpv
    
Vpv
Ppv = Vpv ×Npl Iph −IO ex − (4)
Nse TAK Nse
The solar panel specifications used in the simulation are
555 watts of power. The current and voltage at maximum
power are 13.33 A and 41.64 V, while the short circuit
current and open circuit voltage are 14.07 A and 50.34 V,
respectively [26]. The real-time solar insolation data has been
recorded every 5 minutes for 24 hours (i.e., 288 data points
on July 11, 2023) in Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India, as shown in
Fig. 6 and fed as input to the solar panel [27].
FIGURE 6. Irradiance data taken in Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India.
The solar PV system operates at maximum power
point and the effectiveness of the system increases. The
maximum power point position cannot be maintained for
long, but it is possible through equation models or some
incisive algorithms. MPPT methodology has many methods;
still, variable step-size incremental resistance (VSS-INR) is
preferable due to its rapid response, precision and aptness for
implementation in practical conditions [28]. The VSS-INR is
described using the equations below.
dP
d(m) = d(m − 1) ± s
dV
P (m) −P (m − 1)
d(m) = d(m − 1) ± s
V (m) −V(m − 1)
In Eq. (5) and Eq. (6), the boost converter duty ratio is
called d(m) and S indicates the scaling factor for keeping step
size in a sampling period. Based on the value of S, MPPT
accuracy is determined. For good MPPT operation by the
VSS-INR method, the below rule should meet up with the
below equations.
dP
S ≤ 1dmax
dV
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In Eq. (7), 1dmax is the large step size and it has to be high
level for step size and take the scaling factor using Eq. (8).
dP
S ≤ 1dmax / (8)
dV
Eq. (8) determines the scaling factor value (S). Here, the
scaling factor range is fixed as 3.1 and this MPPT method
can be switched to some ranges in the threshold values.
In Eq. (9), the product (B) between the absolute range of the
PV cell power derivative [dP/dI] and the exponential values
of the PV output power (Pex ). The slope between power and
current is known to be the [dP/dI], which is expressed in the
Eq. (10).
dP
B = Pex × (9)
dV
dP
= |tan8| (10)
dI
The range of the 8 is between the −90◦ to 90◦ .
In this MPPT system, the boost converter is always under
the control of the duty cycle to fetch the maximum power
point using a variable step size methodology by adjusting
the duty cycle. Here, the solar panel’s reference current is
known as Iref when solar PV is operated. While maximum
power occurs, the Iref equals the IMPP, and (1Iref )maximum is
the default set in the variable step size mode. The upper limit
is shown in Eq. (11) for the VSS-INR tracking technique.
VSk = (1Iref )maximum ∗ sin8k (11)
√
sin 8 = tan 8/ 1 + tan 8 (12)
In Eq. (11) VSk implies the variable step size at period
k, where kth values starts from 0, 1. . . The step size VSk is
smaller than the sin8k the oscillation of the Maximum power
duty cycle is reduced in a minor manner and the working
point situated long to the maximum power point, VSS-INR,
increase the particular size of the duty ratio. The flow chart
of the proposed MPPT is shown in Fig. 7. Fig. 8 indicates
the power from the MPPT controller with solar panel, where
simulated power with and without MPPT is shown in the
daytime (up to 160 seconds).
B. BATTERY
(5) One of the primary sources of power in this EV system is the
battery, which can provide power to the PMSM load when
(6) there is no power from solar and fuel cell. Therefore, choosing
the right battery is essential in EVs in terms of mileage,
battery cells, modules, C-rates, SoC, DoD, terminal voltage,
open circuit voltage, internal resistance, battery capacity,
total cycles, specific power and energy, charge voltage and
current, and thermal control [29]. A single-cell battery model
is in Fig. 9 [30]. To understand the battery model concept,
a voltage source is connected to a series resistor, namely
open circuit voltage (VOCV ) and internal resistance (RO ).
(7) The voltage drop across the RO increases and decreases
with the battery charging and discharging. A parallel resistor
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 G. Mathesh, R. Saravanakumar: Novel Intelligent Controller-Based Power Management System
FIGURE 7. Flow chart of the proposed MPPT.
FIGURE 8. Comparison of output power with and without MPPT
controller.
and capacitor connection series with VOCV and RO is called
Thevenin model of a battery. The VTER provides the overall
voltage output from the single cell in Eq. (13) and the change
in voltage V1 with respect to time in Eq. (14). This R1 and
C1 combination gives the dynamic behaviour of this battery
model and VOCV belongs to the SoC of the battery cell as
137854
FIGURE 9. Battery cell model.
given in Eq. (15).
VTER = VOCV −IBAT RO −V1 (13)
dV1 V1 IBAT
=− − (14)
dt R1 C1 C1
VTER (t) = VOCV (SOC (t)) −RO IBAT (t) −V1 (t) (15)
where R1 and C1 are the parallel resistance and capacitance,
VTER and IBAT are the terminal voltage and current delivered
by the battery and V1 is the voltage drop across the
R1 C1 combination of the battery cell. The battery power
used in this simulation is 81 kWh with a nominal voltage
of 540 V. A single battery has 12 V and 150 Ah capacity and
45 batteries connected in series provide 540 V and 150 Ah
capacity. For better performance and the health of the battery,
the SoC range has to be maintained between 20% and 80%.
A bidirectional power modulator charges and discharges
the battery with respect to the SoC level and an intelligent
controller controls the charge and discharge like boost and
buck mode through the battery charge or discharge switch.
The output of the bidirectional converter maintains 465 V
as the constant voltage using frequent variations of the duty
cycle by the controller.
C. FUEL CELL
A fuel cell is the prime power source in the FCEVs. The
hydrogen input determines the fuel cell output power and
this hydrogen is a liquefied as well as highly compressed.
At 50 atmospheric pressure, liquid hydrogen produces
2.36 kW-hr per liter. The storage of hydrogen must be safe
because of its highly inflammable, but nowadays, hydrogen-
based EVs are growing rapidly with full safety precautions
for the passengers as well as the vehicle. The proposed EV
has an 80 kW of fuel cell with 280V and 288A. A fuel cell
model is in Fig. 10. A voltage source is connected in series to
the internal resistor and this structure is again in series with
the parallel resistor capacitor connection [31].
Fuel cell voltage (V_FC ) range and the voltage drop across
the passive elements represented in Eq. (16).
V_FC = E_OCV −V − R_ohm I_FC (16)
dV 1 1
= I_FC − V (17)
dt C τ
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FIGURE 10. Fuel cell model.

FIGURE 11. Flux linkage system of PMSM.

where C represents an equivalent capacitance in farad, the

voltage drop across the C is V, E_OCV is the voltage in an open
circuit, R_ohm denotes the ohmic resistance, I_FC represents λqr = Lqr iqr (23)
the fuel cell current and τ denotes time constant of the fuel Stator inductance from the d-q axis are Ldi and Lqr (H),
cell, which is in Eq. (18). λro is the flux linkage of the rotor at the normal time (Wb).
τ = (RA +RB ) C (18) Electromagnetic torque output can be mentioned as:
3
npol λdi iqr −λqr idi


The open circuit voltage is given in Eq. (19). Tel =
2
3


E_OCV = NCS ET −V_act (19) = npol λro + Ldi −Lqr idi iqr


2
In equation (19), NCS is the series connection of the fuel 3
cell stack, ET is the potential of thermodynamic and V_act = npol λext iqr (24)
2
indicates the activation potential.
The fuel cell connection with the boost converter is where Tel is the electromagnetic torque (Nm), npol is the
necessary to produce output voltage of 465 V in the DC total number of pole pairs and λext indicates the active main
bus. An intelligent controller controls the boost converter by flux (Wb). The speed of the PMSM concerning the rotating
changing the duty ratio with respect to any voltage changes reference frame is shown in Eq. (25).
from the fuel cell. When there is no energy from the solar PV dωre npol
and battery, this fuel cell power is sufficient to drive the EV. = (Tel −Tl −VωM ) (25)
dt J
where ωM is the mechanical angular velocity (rad/s), V is the
D. PERMANENT MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
viscous coefficient, J is the moment of inertia (kg.m2 ), Tl is
The flux linkage system explains the operation of PMSM the load torque (Nm).
shown in Fig. 11. The voltages associated with the d-q axis
from the stator are mentioned below: IV. VEHICLE DYNAMICS MODELING
dλdi The dynamic equations governing the vehicle motion are
Vdi = Rst idi + −ωre λqr (20)
dt discussed in the chapter and a school bus has been considered
dλqr as an electric vehicle for the proposed work [32]. Table 1 and
Vqr = Rst iqr + −ωre λdi (21)
dt Table 2 mention the specifications and prerequisite data for
As per Eq. (20) and Eq. (21), Vdi and Vqr represents the the IC-based vehicle to be an EV in vehicle dynamics design.
direct and quadrature axis voltage (V), idi and iqr indicates the Forces acted on the vehicle as illustrated in Fig. 12. The main
direct and quadrature axis current (A), λdi and λqr are the flux three forces are given below.
linkage in the stator of the direct and quadrature axis (Wb), • Rolling opposition force
ωre is the angular velocity of the rotor (rad/s) and Rst shows • Aerodynamic pull force
the stator resistance. • Incline resistance force
The flux linkage of the stator is shown in Eq. (22) and A rolling opposition force is exerted due to the total mass
Eq. (23) respectively. of the bus, gravity and the tyre.
λdi = Ldi idi +λro (22) Rr = mkd (26)

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 G. Mathesh, R. Saravanakumar: Novel Intelligent Controller-Based Power Management System

TABLE 1. Vehicle specifications [33]. Rr = 490.5 N

Using Eq. (27),


1000
Frolling = 490.5 × 90 = 12262 W
3600
Frolling = 12.5 kW
While the dynamic motion of the vehicle is underway,
wind force affects its forward movement and acceleration.
Aerodynamic pull force is expressed in Eq. (28).
 
TABLE 2. Weight calculations for proposed vehicle. 1
Fareo = ρAfrontal Cp S2 ×S
2
ρ = air density(1.23kg/m2 )
Afrontal = frontal area of bus(6m2 )
Cp = pull coefficient(0.5) (28)
Using Eq. (28),
 
1
Fareo = × 1.23 × 6 × 0.5 × 252 ×25 = 28828 W
2
Fareo = 29kW
Vehicle is on any sloped road where the weight of the
vehicle produces some force that makes the vehicle slide
downward and takes the inclination angle as 45◦ . The incline
resistance force equation is shown in Eq. (29).
Fincline = m k sin(δ)
k = angle of the road
Fincline = 5000 × 9.81 × sin(45◦ )
Fincline = 34678 W
Fincline = 34 kW (29)
The combination of all the forces acting on a vehicle is called
the total force show in Eq. (30).
Ftotal = Frolling + Fincline + Faero
Ftotal = 12 kW + 29 kW + 35 kW
Ftotal = 76.5 kW (30)
FIGURE 12. Vehicle dynamics for school bus.
The basic principle behind accelerating the vehicle is the
second law of Newton, which states that any movement of
Frolling = Rr × S (27) the body depends on the total force influenced by the body.
To move the vehicle forward, some positive forces need
Rr = rolling opposition force in Newton to overmatch the negative forces like wind, gravity, road
M = mass of the bus in kg obstacles and wheel resistance. Vehicle movement starts only
K = acceleration gravity in m/s2 if it overcomes the following resistive force acting on the
D = tyre deformation in m bus. The selection of PMSM is calculated as 75.6 kW when
S = speed of the bus in m/s converting an IC-based bus to an EV bus.
SM = Maximum speed of the bus in (90 km/hr)
Frolling = power of rolling opposition in watts V. INTELLIGENT CONTROLLER
m = 5000 kg The intelligent controller performs the two significant
k = 9.81 m/s2 functions in the proposed EV, such as the constant voltage
d = 0.01 in all DC-DC converters and power flow split up based on
Using Eq. (26), the current control from available input sources to the load.
Rr = 5000 × 90 x 0.01 A block diagram for a fuzzy controller for EV is in Fig. 13.

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G. Mathesh, R. Saravanakumar: Novel Intelligent Controller-Based Power Management System
FIGURE 13. Block diagram of intelligent controller.
A. REGULATION OF THE DC BUS VOLTAGE
The DC-DC converter connects every source in parallel to the
DC bus and the DC-DC converters output should be 465 V,
even if there are changes in the input voltages of the sources
and load. The input resistance or impedance of the sources
connected with converters is different and the output of the
DC-DC converters voltages is different when connected to
the load. Hence, a fuzzy controller is designed to keep the
constant voltage at the output of all DC-DC converters by
regulating the duty cycle of the converters. When turning on
the DC-DC converters, the initial duty ratio ‘D’ is arranged
to give 465 V (Vref = 465 V) in the DC bus. The starting
duty cycles of solar, fuel cell and battery-fed converters are
in Eqs. (31)-(33).
Vref −VIN_s
Ds _ref (VDCBUS = 465V) = (31)
Vref
Vref −VIN_F
DF _ref = (32)
Vref
Vref −VIN_B
DB _ref = (33)
Vref
In Eqs. (31)–(33), DDC−BUS is the duty ratio of the boost
converter to keep 465 V at the DC bus. The input voltages
of three DC-DC converters are VIN_s , VIN_F and VIN_B . The
membership functions for voltages and control signals are
shown in Fig. 14 and Fig. 15. In a fuzzy controller, input
variables (VIN _SFB ) are taken from three different power
sources and the output of the fuzzy controller gives control
signals (CSFB ) to DC-DC converters. Hence, the controller
regulates the duty cycle to maintain 465 V in the DC bus. For
any variation in DC bus voltage due to changes in the input
side of the DC-DC converters or load changes, an intelligent
controller adjusts the DC-DC converters to keep DC bus
voltage constant. To understand this, solar and battery give
power to the load. If there is some voltage deviation in the
fuel cell output-fed DC-DC converter, despite the fact that
the duty ratio of the fuel cell-linked converter is regulated
for 465 Voltage in the DC bus as per the Eq. (34).
DF(k+1) = 2∗ DF_ref −DFk (34)
VOLUME 11, 2023
FIGURE 14. Membership functions for input voltage.
FIGURE 15. Membership functions for control signals.
DF(k+1) indicates the fuel cell fed DC-DC converter duty
cycle at k+1th time and DFk is the duty cycle of the fuel
cell-linked DC-DC converter at k th time.
B. POWER SPLIT CONTROL
The designed fuzzy logic controller has rules related to the
creator command with respect to input source features, acces-
sibility of power sources and load requirements. The fuzzy
controller synthesis rule base by the following preference
order:
• The priority of the source starts with solar power because
this is freely available from other sources.
• Solar and battery power should be the second-priority
sources because solar and battery power are easier to
access than hydrogen-based fuel cell.
• If the load demand is greater than solar and battery
power, then the fuel cell must provide the power to
satisfy the load.
• The battery power is mandatory; if extra power
is present in DC bus, the battery can absorb the
power.
The membership functions are formed by linguistic
variables like power and voltage levels of sources, maximum
load current, and ranges of SoC. For example, the triangular
membership function for the SoC is formed as low, medium,
and high. It indicates the SoC range between 0 to 50, 25 to 75,
and 50 to 100 for SoC low, medium, and high, respectively.
The input membership functions include voltages of input
sources, powers of three sources, load current and SoC. The
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 G. Mathesh, R. Saravanakumar: Novel Intelligent Controller-Based Power Management System

FIGURE 16. Fuzzy logic control strategy.

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G. Mathesh, R. Saravanakumar: Novel Intelligent Controller-Based Power Management System
TABLE 3. Fuzzy rule table.
FIGURE 17. Membership functions for load current.
FIGURE 18. Membership functions for SoC.
output membership functions include switch pulses for on or
off operation and control signals for duty cycles. The switch
pulses consist of a solar pulse, a fuel cell pulse and a battery
charge and discharge pulse from the input side and a load
pulse from the output side. Fig. 16 shows the entire fuzzy
logic control operation for both the regulation of constant
voltage on the DC bus and the power management of the EV
bus. The membership functions for load current, SoC, on/off
pulse and power are shown in Figs. (17 – 20). Table 3 shows
VOLUME 11, 2023
FIGURE 19. Membership functions for on/off pulse.
FIGURE 20. Membership functions for input source power.
the fuzzy rule table, which indicates the control pulse (on/off)
from the controller. It controls the solar pulse, fuel cell pulse,
battery charge, and discharge pulse based on load and input
powers. For example, if an EV is parked under the sunlight,
the solar pulse is high (SPH) due to the solar availability, the
fuel cell pulse is low (FPL) and battery discharge pulse is also
low (BDCH PL), but the battery charge pulse (BCH) is on.
Therefore, solar power charges the battery at no load.
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 G. Mathesh, R. Saravanakumar: Novel Intelligent Controller-Based Power Management System

VI. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The power modulators used in this power management
operation of the EV are the boost converter, bidirectional con-
verter and voltage source inverter. The intelligent controller
receives the solar, battery and fuel cell input voltages and
exhibits the duty cycle to each and every DC-DC converter
to set the 465 V exactly at the output terminal of the DC-DC
converter. As per the solar data, the total solar panel delivers
a minimum of 40 V to a maximum of 400 V. Variations in
current and voltage from the solar panel are sensed by the
controller. The bidirectional converter is in buck mode (540 V
to 465 V) when the DC bus is powered by the battery and
boost mode (465 V to 540 V) battery absorbs power from
the DC bus. The fuel cell voltage is 280 V, which gives
input to the boost converter to make 465 V as the output of
the boost converter. The controller senses the power (current
and voltage) variation in each and every instant and it is FIGURE 21. Control pulse for different modes.
capable of setting 465 V in the DC-DC converters output
instantaneously due to the adjustment of duty cycles. The DC
bus is 465 V because all converters are commonly connected
to the DC bus using three switches.
The power management technique is implemented in this
proposed work based on the availability and priority of
the sources. The intelligent controller is responsible for
turning on or off the SS , SBD, SBC, SF and SL to connect or
disconnects the sources and load. A PMSM is connected to
an inverter through a DC bus. Variations in the passenger
weight, luggage, and inclination of the vehicle exhibit the
intermittent load power and intelligent controller connects
the input source power to load power through the switches.
Intelligent controller work on instantaneous reference current
principle, which monitors the load current and matches the
load current with the currently available source current. For
example, if EV runs with 45 A of load current, at the same
FIGURE 22. Management of power using intelligent controller.
instant the controller senses the input source current and if
battery and fuel cell source currents are readily available to
satisfy the load, the controller connects the battery and fuel Table 4 explains the overall power management operation
cell to the load and shares the load currents as 25 A from the of the intelligent controller, where Mode 1 states the vehicle is
battery and 20 A from the fuel cell. Table 4 mentions the on not working and is parking under the sunlight. The controller
and off status of all the switches in 12 different modes of EV enables the solar and battery charge switches and useful solar
operations. power is charged to the battery in this mode. In mode 9, fuel
cell and battery power are fulfilled by PMSM power. Fig. 21
shows the control pulses for on and off for all switches.
TABLE 4. Control pulses of the switches. The power management of an intelligent controller by
solar, battery and fuel cell power is shown in Fig. 22. Here,
the solar panel delivers about 4 kW, which is depicted in
zoomed view, and the remaining sources deliver power to
satisfy the PMSM power. From 0 seconds to 450 seconds,
the battery SoC level is higher, so the battery delivers more
power than the fuel cell and between 450 and 900 seconds,
the fuel cell provides more power than the battery due to
the battery lower SoC. In Fig. 23, fuel cell exhibit high
power when there is less availability of power from battery
and solar, where from 200 to 700 seconds, both battery
and fuel cell power are added with solar power to meet the
load demand. The intelligent controller meets PMSM power

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G. Mathesh, R. Saravanakumar: Novel Intelligent Controller-Based Power Management System

FIGURE 23. Equal distribution of power from battery and fuel cell for FIGURE 26. Power management without solar and battery power using
PMS. 6:30 PM drive cycle.

FIGURE 27. Power management without solar and fuel cell power using
FIGURE 24. Management of power using intelligent controller. 6:30 PM drive cycle.

FIGURE 28. Hardware implementation of power management for PMSM.

FIGURE 25. Fuel cell dominated power management and battery charging.

the load. In this zoomed view, it clearly indicates the battery

demand dependent on the input source power availability. delivers more power than solar power when fuel cell power is
Fig. 24 mentions the battery-dominated power management zero.
throughout the EV operation. If there is no hydrogen energy, In Fig. 25, the fuel cell delivers more power, and the solar
this kind of battery and solar power can combine to satisfy panel provides power of around 4 kW for up to 450 seconds of

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 G. Mathesh, R. Saravanakumar: Novel Intelligent Controller-Based Power Management System
TABLE 5. Specifications of solarpanel, battery and fuel cell.
the simulation time. At the 450th second, the EV has stopped
and parked under the solar light, which gives solar power to
the DC bus and battery charge from the DC bus using solar
energy. If solar energy is not available after evening time, the
solar panel does not deliver power, and only the battery-fuel
cell combination is responsible for the EV.
In Figs. 26 and 27, power management is carried out using
the 6:30 PM campus drive cycle, where PMSM exhibits a
good speed range due to less traffic inside the university
campus. In order to fulfil the load, fuel cell power is used
when there is no power from solar and battery, as shown in
Fig. 26. The battery delivers the power to PMSM for EV
acceleration like BEV, where there is no power from the fuel
cell and solar PV, as given in Fig. 27.
VII. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The power management control is executed by an intelli-
gent controller through LabVIEW based FPGA controller.
LabVIEW platform is easy to control the FPGA, which
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TABLE 6. Tabulation of power flow management.
reduces the execution time of the controller [34]. The power
management for PMSM is implemented as an experimental
setup in Fig. 28 using the three input sources.
The five sets of 200 W polycrystalline solar panels
are connected in series and placed on the roof of the
laboratory [35]. A total of 1 kW of solar panels output
is directly connected to two 12 V, 150 Ah Solar Powered
Batteries (SPB) [36], which have 24 V, 150 Ah due to a series
connection of batteries. The solar panel charges the battery
according to irradiance and temperature, and then the 24 V
SPB output is connected to the boost converter. A Battery
Stack Module (BSM) has nine 12V, 26Ah batteries connected
in series [37], which provides 108 V, 26Ah as an output
of the BSM. This BSM is connected to a boost converter.
A 28.8 V, 35 A PEM fuel cell also acts as another source
connected by a boost converter. Different input voltages from
various sources are used for the three boost converters: SPB,
BSM, and fuel cell. The FPGA controller controls the duty
cycle of every boost converter through codes. The LabVIEW
platform is used for programming and gives control signals
to the FPGA controller, which controls the duty cycle of
the boost converters and maintains 48 V in the DC bus.
Each boost converter is connected to respective relay switches
like the SPB switch, BSM switch, and fuel cell switch,
respectively, and connected as a common point to the DC
bus. A three-phase inverter is connected to the DC bus
through a load switch, and a 1kW, 48V PMSM is used
as an EV motor, and its stator gets excitation from the
inverter. Three DC-DC boost converters, relay switches, and
a DC-AC inverter are placed in a converter box. A 1 HP DC
shunt motor is coupled with a PMSM to make mechanical
load variations by adjusting the rheostat connected in series
with the armature of the DC machine. To ensure the DC
bus voltage is 48 V, a digital storage oscilloscope (DSO)
is used, and measurements of the voltage and current to
sources and loads are taken every time by the multimeter
and clamp meter. Table 5 shows the three sources used
in the hardware implementation and the specifications of
the solar panel, battery, and fuel cell used in the hardware
setup.
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G. Mathesh, R. Saravanakumar: Novel Intelligent Controller-Based Power Management System
FIGURE 29. Voltage at DC bus.
TABLE 7. Comparative analysis with existing works.
STEPS:
• The power management code is developed based on the
availability of input sources and the power demand of
PMSM. In LabVIEW software, initially set the carrier
frequency to 10000 Hz, the duty cycle to 0.5, and the
clock frequency to 40 MHz.
• The FPGA controller receives signals and starts to
deliver the duty cycle to boost converters and the PWM
pulse to the inverter.
• Based on the duty cycle of the boost converter, the DC
bus voltage is maintained at 48 V, and the controller
VOLUME 11, 2023
enables the relay switches based on the program
(available power from sources).
• PMSM gets power through the inverter and starts to
rotate. Keeping the 48 V in the DC bus is measured
through the DSO device and the DC bus voltage
measured through the DSO is given in Fig. 29.
• The FPGA controller always monitors the required and
load power of PMSM, and it controls the ON/OFF
function of relay switches as per the availability priority.
• The adjustment of the rheostat provides the load
variation in the PMSM through the DC motor. The
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 G. Mathesh, R. Saravanakumar: Novel Intelligent Controller-Based Power Management System
controller senses the load power and matches the load
power with the input source power.
• Based on the power changes in the PMSM (load)
sources, input sources give the power to the load using
relay switches as per the command from LabVIEW.
• Table 6 provides the power management data taken from
the multi-meter and clamp meter to measure voltage and
current of PMSM and it evidences that the proposed
controller operates effectively.
The proposed work compares the different sources used,
control methods, implementation of different drive cycles,
vehicle dynamics design, type of motor, MPPT controller,
experimental validation of the system, comparative study
and self-charging aspects. Hence, an intelligent-based power
management with instantaneous reference current methodol-
ogy comes across the maximum sources used, including solar
energy, real-time campus drive cycles, execution through an
MPPT controller, detailed vehicle dynamics design for power
calculation, no error, easy implementation, quick responses
and reliable operation of the control technique in EV over the
other works listed in Table 7.
VIII. CONCLUSION
The proposed controller is fast in response, accurate in oper-
ation and less complex in structure. The intelligent control
topology resolved the issues while employing instantaneous
reference current-based power management. The controller
algorithm effectively operated for multiple input powers
to the PMSM motor as per the priority effective control
mechanism during different load conditions. The intelligent
control-based management of power for EVs is commended
brilliantly in all possible modes, from available input power
to required load power. The control strategy maintained
the SoC level in the safe operating region (20%–80%),
and it can also improve battery health. A detailed vehicle
dynamic model design and real-time data-based MATLAB
simulation results are presented. The proposed control
technique is implemented on the LabVIEW platform-based
FPGA controller. Finally, the hardware implementation of
solar PV, batteries, and fuel cells as input sources to PMSM
through the controller is presented, and the corresponding
results are validated. The proposed method can be extended
for future work with the thermal management of EVs using
artificial intelligence (AI).
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G. MATHESH received the B.E. degree in elec-
trical and electronics engineering from the Sona
College of Technology, Salem, India, in 2010,
and the M.E. degree in power electronics and
drives from the Kongu Engineering College,
Erode, India, in 2013. He is currently pursuing
the Ph.D. degree with the School of Electrical
Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vel-
lore. From 2013 to 2020, he was an Assistant
Professor with the Mahendra Institute of Technol-
ogy, Namakkal. His research interests include power management, dc–dc
converters, renewable energy sources, and the applications of machine
control to electric vehicles.
R. SARAVANAKUMAR (Senior Member, IEEE)
received the B.E. degree in electrical and electron-
ics engineering from the Thyagarajar College of
Engineering, Madurai, in 1996, the M.E. degree
in power electronics and drives from the College
of Engineering Guindy, Anna University, in 1998,
and the Ph.D. degree from the Vellore Institute of
Technology, Vellore, in 2010. He has completed
industrial consultancy on power quality issues.
He is currently a Professor with the School of
Electrical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology. His research interests
include power electronics applications in drives and renewable energy
systems.
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