CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID DYNAMICS

1.1 FLUID MECHANICS

Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics concerned with the mechanics of fluids (liquids,
gasses and plasmas) and the forces on them. It has applications in a wide range of disciplines,
including mechanical, aerospace, civil, chemical and biomedical engineering, as well as
geophysics, oceanography, meteorology, astrophysics and biology.

Fluid mechanics deals with the study of all fluids under static and dynamic situations.
Fluid mechanics is a branch of continuous mechanics which deals with a relationship between
forces, motions, and statical conditions in a continuous material.

Fluid mechanics deals with many and diversified problems such as surface tension, fluid
statics, flow in enclose bodies, or flow round bodies (solid or otherwise), flow stability, etc. In
fact, almost any action a person is doing involves some kind of a fluid mechanics problem.

Fluid mechanic is divided into two:

• Fluid statics
• Fluid dynamics

Fluid statics, is the study of fluid at rest; and Fluid dynamics is the study of the effect of
forces on fluid motion.

One of the fundamental concepts in fluid mechanics is Bernoulli’s principle, which states
that as the velocity of a fluid increases, its pressure decreasses, vice versa. This principle explains
phenomena such as the lift generated by an airplane wing and the flow of blood through our
arteries.

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 Fluid mechanics, especially fluid dynamics is an active field of research, typically
mathematical complex. Many problems are partially or wholly unsolved and are best addressed
by numerical methods, typically using computers. A modem discipline called computational fluid
dynamics (CFD), is devoted to this approach.

1.2 FLUID DYNAMICS

Fluid dynamics offer a systematic structure to the practical disciplines that depend on the
flow measurement. Furthermore, it helps in the derivation of empirical and semi-empirical law.
As such, fluid dynamics facilitate the solving of practical problems.

The fluid dynamics applications include understanding nebulae in interstellar space,

predicting weather patterns, calculating force and moments on aircraft, determining the mass
flow rate of petroleum through pipelines, and modelling fission weapon detonation.

The solution to a fluid dynamics hidden typically involves the calculation of various
properties of the fluid, such as flow velocity, pressure, density and temperature, as functions of
space and time.

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 Before the twentieth century, hydrodynamics was synonymous with fluid dynamics. This
is still reflected in names of some fluid dynamics topics, like magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) and
hydrodynamic stability, both of which can also be applied to gases.

1.2.1 COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is a branch of fluid mechanics that uses numerical
analysis and algorithms to solve and analyse problems that involve fluid flows. High speed super
computers are used to perform the calculations required to simulate the interaction of liquids and
gases.

1.2.2 APPLICATIONS OF FLUID DYNAMICS

Fluid Dynamics can be applied in the following ways:

• Fluid dynamics is used to calculate the forces acting upon the aeroplane.

• It is used to find the flow rates of material such as petroleum from pipelines.

• It can also be used in traffic engineering (traffic treated as continuous liquid flow).

1.3 HISTORY OF FLUID DYNAMICS

In 1759 Leonhard Euler published equations of motion for a fluid, applying Newton’s
second law of motion, which states that the product of mass and acceleration of a body equals the

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external forces acting on it , F = ma . Euler’s idea to express knowledge about fluid dynamics in
the form of differential equations was a major breakthrough. A practical shortcoming of his flow
model, however, was that it did not consider friction forces.

George Stokes came up with a more advanced equations in 1845. These equations where
already introduced in 1822 by Claude Navier, but only for incompressible fluids. With the freshly
introduced equations, today called Navier Stokes equations, understanding and controlling a
large class of fluid flows seemed close at hand. The problem was reduced to the mathematical
solution of these basic differential equations.

Although the Navier-Stokes equations meant a considerable theoretical advance, the

analytic mathematical solution of the full equations proved one bridge too far. This led to a
fragmentation into a large number of simplified equations, derived from Navier-Stokes for
special cases, equations which could be tackled analytically.

i.e., with pen and paper. However, these different models all described the motion of the
same fluid a theoretically most undesirable situation.

The Invention of the digital computer led to many changes. Jhon von Neumann, one of
the founding fathers of CFD, predicted already in 1946 that ‘automatic computing machines’
would replace the analytic solution of simplified flow equation by a ‘numerical’ solution of the
full nonlinear flow equations for arbitrary geometries. Von Neumann suggested that his
numerical approach would even make experimental fluid dynamics obsolete.

Von Neumann’s prediction did not fully come true, in the sense that both analytic
theoretical and experimental research still coexist with CFD. Crucial properties of CFD methods
such as consistency, stability and convergence need mathematical study.

1.4 HEAT TRANSFER

According to thermodynamics systems heat transfer is defined as, “The movement of heat
occurs at the border of the system due to a difference in temperature between the system and its
surroundings.” Interestingly, the difference in temperature is said to be a ‘potential’ that causes
the transfer of heat from one point to another.
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 Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of differing chemical species (mass transfer
in the form of advection), either cold or hot, to achieve heat transfer. While these mechanisms
have distinct characteristics, they often occur simultaneously in the same system.

1.5 DIFFERENT MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

Heat can travel from one place to another in several ways. The different modes of heat
transfer Include:

• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation

The above example effectively demonstrates the 3 methods of heat transfer.

1.5.1 CONDUCTION

Conduction is the method of transfer of heat within a body or from one body to the other
due to the transfer of heat by molecules vibrating at their mean positions. The bodies through
which the heat transfer must be in contact with each other. There is no actual movement of matter
while transferring heat from one location to the other.
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 Conduction occurs usually in solids where molecules in the structure are held together
strongly by intermolecular forces of attraction amongst them and so they only vibrate about their
mean positions as they receive heat energy and thus pass it to the surrounding molecules by
vibrations.

CONDUCTION EQUATION:

Q = [K. A (T hot-T cold)] / d Q - is the

transfer of heat per unit time K - is the

thermal conductivity of the body.

A - is the area of heat transfer.

T hot - is the temperature of the hot region.

T cold - is the temperature of the cold region.

D - is the thickness of the body.

1.5.2 CONVECTION

Convection is defined as “The movement of fluid molecules from higher temperature

region to lower temperature regions” (or) “Transfer of heat from one plane to another due to the
molecular movement of fluid such as air or liquid is known as convective heat transfer”

Newton’s law of cooling:

Convective heat transfer calculation:

According to Newton’s law of cooling, the rate of convective heat transfer is directly
proportional to heat transfer surface area, convective heat transfer co-efficient, and temperature
difference.
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Here the valve of convective heat transfer co- efficient depends on the flow type.

EQUATION

⃗𝑸⃗⃗ = h A ∆T

⃗𝑸⃗ - Convective heat transfer per unit time in watt.

A - Heat transfer area in a square meter.

h - Convective heat transfer co-efficient (W/m2/K)

∆t - Temperature difference.

TYPES OF CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER:

According to the flow type we classify convective heat transfer into the following types.

1. Free or Natural convection

2. Forced convection

FREE OR NATURAL CONVECTION:

Natural convection is the heat transfer due to the movement of liquid or air molecules.
Molecular movement occurs due to density difference, which is a function of temperature.

Force generated due to the liquid or air molecules density difference is known as
buoyancy force. Natural convection occurs without external sources.

It is caused by a change in density in fluids (gas er liquid) caused by temperature

differences (for example, "hot air rises and cold air sinks"). Convective heat transfer is caused by
global atmospheric temperature and local meteorological phenomena (including wind).

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When fluid motion is caused by buoyancy forces that result from the density variables due to
variation of thermal temperature in the fluid. In the absence of an internal source when the fluid
is in contact with a hot surface, its molecules separate and scatter causing the fluid to be less
dense.

As a consequence, the fluid is displaced while the cooler fluid gets denser and the fluid sinks.
Thus, the hotter Volume heat towards the cooler volume of that fluid. Familiar examples are the
upward flow of air due to fire or hot object and the circulation of water in a pot that is heated
from below

EXAMPLES OF NATURAL CONVECTION

• Cyclone
• Underwater currents
• Movements of clouds
• Space heating using radiators
• Water heating
• Cooling in refrigerator
• Convection heat transfer in the microwave
• Cooling of electronic units and applications

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FORCED CONVECTION

Forced convection is a mechanism, or type of transport, in which fluid motion is

generated by an external source (like a pump, fan, suction device, etc.). Alongside natural
convection, thermal radiation, and thermal conduction it is one of the methods of heat transfer
and allows significant amounts of heat energy to be transported very efficiently.

When a fluid is forced to flow over the surface by an internal source such as fans, by
Stirring, and pumps, creating an induced convection current. In many reallife applications (eg.
heat losses at solar central receivers or cooling of photovoltaic planes) natural and forced
convection occur at the same time (mixed convection) Internal and external flow can also classify
convection. Internal flow occurs when a fluid is enclosed by a solid boundary such as when
flowing through a pipe.

An external flow occurs when a fluid extends indefinitely without encountering a solid
surface. Both of these types of convection either natural or forced can be internal or external
because they are independent of each other. The bulk temperature or the average fluid
temperature is a convenient reference point for evaluating properties related to convective heat
transfer particularly related to flow in pipes and ducts.

Further classification can be made depending on the smoothness and undulation of the
solid surface. Not all surfaces are smooth and through a bulk of available information deals with
smooth surface. Wavy irregular surface are commonly encountered in heat transfer devices
which include solar collectors, regenerative heat exchangers, and underground energy storage
systems. They have a significant role to play in the heat transfer process in this applications.
Since they bring in an added complexity due to the undulation in the surfaces, they need to be
tackled with mathematical finesse through elegant simplification techniques. Also, they do affect
the flow and heat transfer characteristics, there by behaving differently from straight smooth
surface.

For a visual experience of natural convection, a glass filled with hot water and some red
food dye may be placed inside a fish tank with cold, clean application related to flow in pipes and
ducts.

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EXAMPLES OF FORCED CONVECTION

• The flow of in a car engine

• Cooling of laptop or processor using a fan
• Heat exchanges
• Air conditioning units
• Hair dryer
• Car radiator
• Cooling of electronic devices

MIXED CONVECTION

Mixed (combined) convection is a combination of forced and free convections which is

the general case of convection when a flow is determined simultaneously by both an outer
forcing system (i.e., outer energy supply to the fluid-streamlined body system) and inner
volumetric (mass) forces, by the nonuniform density distribution of a fluid medium in a gravity
field.

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HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

Liquids, forced - (100-15,000 w/𝑚2𝑘 )

Boiling water - (2,500-25,000 w/𝑚2 𝑘)

1.5.3 RADIATION

Heat radiation is the flow of heat between objects that are not in contact with each other
Radiation heat transfer occurs via electromagnetic waves. Unlike conduction and convection,
radiation does not need a medium for transmission. The heat and light from the sun in our solar
system reach our planet using radiation only. Solar radiation energy traverses a 93-million-mile
vacuum to warm the earth. Radiation also transfers thermal energy between bodies separated by a
colder medium.

In fact, radiation is the most potent method of heat transfer. In winters when we sit near a
fire we feel warm without actually touching the burning wood. This is possible by radiation only.

A microwave also uses radiation to heat our food. Radiation is the transfer of energy due
to electromagnetic waves when thermal energy is converted by the movement of the charge of
electrons and protons in the materials.

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EQUATION

P = e ∙ 𝝈 ∙ 𝑨 ∙ (𝑻𝒓 − 𝑻𝒆)𝟒

P - is the net power of radiation.

A - the area of radiation.

Tr - is the radiator temperature. Tc

- is the surrounding temperature.

e - is emissivity and is stefan's constant (𝜎 = 5.67×10−8 W∙ 𝑚−2 ∙ 𝐾−4

EXAMPLE

• Microwave radiation emitted in the oven.

• UV rays coming from the sun.
• The release of alpha particles during the decaying of Uranium-238 into
Thorium234.

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