Ebook Geometric Transformations 1St Edition Razvan Gelcaionut Onisorcarlos Yuzo Shine Online PDF All Chapter

Geometric Transformations 1st Edition
R■zvan Gelcaionu■ Oni■orcarlos Yuzo

Shine
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmeta.com/product/geometric-transformations-1st-edition-razvan-gelcaion
ut-onisorcarlos-yuzo-shine/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
Chess Explained The c3 Sicilian 1st Edition Sam Collins
https://ebookmeta.com/product/chess-explained-
the-c3-sicilian-1st-edition-sam-collins/
Starting Out The c3 Sicilian 1st Edition John Emms
https://ebookmeta.com/product/starting-out-the-c3-sicilian-1st-
edition-john-emms/
Harmony of Colour 85 Big Cats 1st Edition Various
https://ebookmeta.com/product/harmony-of-colour-85-big-cats-1st-
edition-various/
Studies in Law, Politics, and Society (Volume 85) 1st

Edition Austin Sarat (Editor)
https://ebookmeta.com/product/studies-in-law-politics-and-
society-volume-85-1st-edition-austin-sarat-editor/
85 Years IFLA A History and Chronology of Sessions 1927
2012 1st Edition Jeffrey M Wilhite
https://ebookmeta.com/product/85-years-ifla-a-history-and-
chronology-of-sessions-1927-2012-1st-edition-jeffrey-m-wilhite/
85 Years of the Oscar The Official History of the

Academy Awards 6th Edition Robert Osborne
https://ebookmeta.com/product/85-years-of-the-oscar-the-official-
history-of-the-academy-awards-6th-edition-robert-osborne/
Ao Oni Kenji Kuroda
https://ebookmeta.com/product/ao-oni-kenji-kuroda/
Thirty Years Hundred Stories Engineering

Accomplishments in Singapore as Told by the NTI Pioneer
Engineering Class of 85 1st Edition Liu Fook Thim
https://ebookmeta.com/product/thirty-years-hundred-stories-
engineering-accomplishments-in-singapore-as-told-by-the-nti-
pioneer-engineering-class-of-85-1st-edition-liu-fook-thim/
The Unofficial Sims Cookbook : From Baked Alaska to

Silly Gummy Bear Pancakes, 85+ Recipes to Satisfy the
Hunger Need 1st Edition Taylor O’Halloran
https://ebookmeta.com/product/the-unofficial-sims-cookbook-from-
baked-alaska-to-silly-gummy-bear-pancakes-85-recipes-to-satisfy-
the-hunger-need-1st-edition-taylor-ohalloran/
Problem Books in Mathematics
Răzvan Gelca
Ionuţ Onişor
Carlos Yuzo Shine
Geometric
Transformations
Series Editor
Peter Winkler
Department of Mathematics
Dartmouth College
Hanover, NH
USA
Books in this series are devoted exclusively to problems - challenging, difficult, but
accessible problems. They are intended to help at all levels - in college, in graduate
school, and in the profession. Arthur Engels "Problem-Solving Strategies" is good
for elementary students and Richard Guys "Unsolved Problems in Number Theory"
is the classical advanced prototype. The series also features a number of successful
titles that prepare students for problem-solving competitions.
More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/714

Răzvan Gelca • Ionuţ Onişor • Carlos Yuzo Shine
Geometric Transformations
Răzvan Gelca Ionuţ Onişor
Mathematics and Statistics Colegiul National de Informatica Tudor
Texas Tech University Vianu
Lubbock Bucharest, Romania
TX, USA
Carlos Yuzo Shine

Colégio Etapa
São Paulo
São Paulo, Brazil
ISSN 0941-3502 ISSN 2197-8506 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-030-89116-9 ISBN 978-3-030-89117-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89117-6
Mathematics Subject Classification: 97G50, 97U40, 54H15, 51M04
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland
AG 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse
of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
In memory of Rodica Gelca
Preface
There is a true geometry which is not [. . . ] intended to be merely an illustrative form of

more abstract investigation. Its problem is to grasp the full reality of the figures of space,
and to interpret—and this is the mathematical side of the question—the relations holding
for them as evident results of the axioms of space-perception.
This thought was penned by Felix Klein in his notes on the Erlangen Program.
The Erlangen Program proposed a view of geometry that shifts the focus from
geometric objects to groups of transformations that act upon them. The accent
is placed on understanding the transformations and the properties of space they
preserve. Our book does embrace this perspective, but is more of a hybrid between
the old Euclidean geometry and Klein’s ideas. We let transformations act on the
entire configuration or just part of it, then exercise our intuition on the result, or we
recognize a geometric transformation hidden inside the configuration itself.
We have selected mostly Olympiad problems, because in mathematical
Olympiads the geometry of lines and circles is still alive. Elementary geometry
is a valuable instrument for building space-perception and offers probably the best
introduction to the concept of a group: a set of transformations that contains the
compositions and inverses of all of its elements. And familiarity with groups of
geometric transformations is nowadays a must, since they play a central role in
physics, both classical and quantum, and with it in geometry. With this book, we
want to shape the reader’s mind into thinking about geometry in motion as opposed
to the static view of Euclid’s Elements.
As for the method of proof, we use both the synthetic and the analytic, where
appropriate, though we put the accent on the first. To motivate this, we refer to
another quote from the Erlangen Program:
The distinction between modern synthesis and modern analytical geometry must no longer
be regarded as essential, inasmuch as both subject-matter and methods of reasoning have
gradually taken a similar form in both. [. . . ] Although the synthetic method has more to
do with space-perception and thereby imparts a rare charm to its first simple developments,
the realm of space-perception is nevertheless not closed to the analytic method, and the
formulae of analytic geometry can be looked upon as a precise and perspicuous statement
of geometrical relations.
vii
viii Preface
It is the “rare charm” of the synthetic method that we aim to reveal with most of
the problems; it is also unimaginable to practice geometry without a good spatial
intuition, and that is why we favor the synthetic method. However, the coordinate-
based approach is easier to generalize to other realms of geometry and to relate to
other areas of mathematics. Thus, in many problems we have included analytic and
synthetic solutions side by side, so that the reader can see how numbers and figures
interact. And many a time we integrate the analytic and the synthetic in the same
argument.
Besides building good geometric intuition, this text opens a window towards
other parts of mathematics, giving thus a mild introduction to groups of trans-
formations and illustrating how symmetry groups appear in combinatorics and
number theory. There is a description of circular transformations; they are useful
at elementary level in inversive geometry, and are an essential tool in contemporary
research on hyperbolic geometry in two and three dimensions. It is important to
point out that some groups of transformations present in the book, and their three-
dimensional counterparts, are the simplest examples of Lie groups, and have proved
essential in modeling classical and quantum physics.
There is a vast body of mathematics related to geometric transformations, too
voluminous to be enclosed in the confines of a single book. We had to be selective, so
we have decided to reduce our scope to just the Euclidean plane, and there, to those
transformations that can be modeled with complex coordinates. All transformations
appearing in this book can be placed within the framework of complex affine
transformations and complex linear fractional transformations, and their conjugates.
There is no discussion of two-dimensional real projective geometry (such as conics)
or of two-dimensional real affine geometry.
To teach the tools and tricks of geometric transformations, we apply the following
structure to each of the first three chapters (“Isometries,” “Homotheties and Spiral
Similarities,” and “Inversions”). We begin with a discussion of theoretical results,
followed by a few theoretical questions. Next, several applications of the methods
are explained in detail, including some classical theorems in Euclidean geometry.
This is followed by what you, the reader, await with excitement: problems to
solve. The problems are listed in some increasing order of difficulty, but to keep
the element of surprise and to stimulate ingenuity, there is no grouping based on
common ideas. If the challenge is too big, hints for all problems can be found
in the middle of the book. Additionally, to help with the learning, all problems
have detailed solutions at the end of the book, often multiple solutions, some
of which have been discovered by experienced problem solvers. Even if you are
successful in solving a problem, and it would be good if you could explore and find
more approaches, you should always read the solutions from the end of the book.
Not only because they might teach you new tricks, but also because they contain
commentaries about the method, and for problems whose authors and sources are
known, these are mentioned there. The last chapter, “A Synthesis,” shorter but more
challenging than the others, puts all transformations from this book on common
ground, and contains problems that can be tackled with diverse techniques.
Preface ix
Geometric Transformations was carefully crafted by three experienced mathe-

matical Olympiad coaches on three continents. Răzvan Gelca has trained the United
States International Mathematical Olympiad Team for many years, and has also
served as deputy leader of this team, as well as leader of the team that represented
the United States at the Romanian Master of Mathematics. He has helped organize
the USA Mathematical Olympiad. Ionuţ Onişor has coached Romanian students
for the International Mathematical Olympiad and has taken Romanian teams to
international mathematics competitions. Carlos Yuzo Shine has been the head
coach of the Brazilian International Mathematical Olympiad Team as well as the
academic chair of the Brazilian Mathematical Olympiad, and has taken several times
the Brazilian team to the International Mathematical Olympiad. The authors have
benefited from the support, encouragement, and advice of their parents and of their
colleagues, as well as of Georgiana Onişor and Titu Andreescu, for which they are
deeply grateful. They have authored books on mathematical Olympiads in the past,
and they have now come together to write a book on geometry. As for the need of
such a book, Johannes Kepler once said: At ubi materia, ibi Geometria.1
Lubbock, TX, USA Răzvan Gelca
Bucharest, Romania Ionuţ Onişor
São Paulo, Brazil Carlos Yuzo Shine
1 Where there is matter, there is geometry.

Contents
Part I Problems
1 Isometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 Theoretical Results About Isometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Definition and Basic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.2 Translations, Rotations, Reflections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.3 Isometries as Composition of Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.1.4 Compositions of Isometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.1.5 Discrete Groups of Isometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.1.6 Theoretical Questions About Isometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.2 Isometries in Euclidean Geometry Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.2.1 Some Constructions and Classical Results in
Euclidean Geometry That Use Isometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.2.2 Examples of Problems Solved Using Isometries . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.2.3 Problems in Euclidean Geometry to be Solved
Using Isometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.3 Isometries Throughout Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.3.1 Geometry with Combinatorial Flavor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.3.2 Combinatorics of Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1.3.3 Number Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1.3.4 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2 Homotheties and Spiral Similarities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.1 A Theoretical Introduction to Homotheties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.1.1 Definition and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.1.2 Groups Generated by Homotheties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.1.3 Problems About Properties of Homotheties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.2 Problems in Euclidean Geometry That Use Homothety . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.2.1 Theorems in Euclidean Geometry Proved Using
Homothety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
xi
xii Contents
2.2.2 Examples of Problems Solved Using Homothety . . . . . . . . . . 88

Using Homothety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.3 Homothety in Combinatorial Geometry; Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.4 A Theoretical Study of Spiral Similarities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
2.4.1 The Definition and Properties of Spiral Similarities . . . . . . . 100
2.4.2 The Center of a Spiral Similarity: The Generic Case . . . . . . 102
2.4.3 The Center of a Spiral Similarity: The Case
A = B, Symmedians Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
2.4.4 Spiral Similarities and Miquel’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
2.4.5 Compositions of Spiral Similarities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2.4.6 Groups Generated by Spiral Similarities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.4.7 Theoretical Questions About Spiral Similarities . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2.5 Spiral Similarity in Euclidean Geometry Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2.5.1 Similar Figures and the Circle of Similitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2.5.2 Examples of Problems Solved Using Spiral Similarities. . . 120
Using Spiral Similarities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3 Inversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.1 Theoretical Results About Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.1.1 The Definition of Inversion and Some of Its Properties . . . . 129
3.1.2 Inverses of Lines and Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.1.3 Möbius Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3.1.4 Möbius Transformations Versus Isometries,
Spiral Similarities, and Inversions; Inversion and
Circular Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3.1.5 Linear Fractional Transformations of the Real Line . . . . . . . 145
3.1.6 The Invariance of Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3.1.7 Inversion with Negative Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.1.8 Circles Orthogonal to the Circle of Inversion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.1.9 The Limiting Points of Two Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.1.10 Problems with Theoretical Flavor About
Properties of Inversion and Möbius Transformations . . . . . . 158
3.2 Inversion in Euclidean Geometry Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.2.1 Applications of Inversion to Proving Classical Results . . . . 159
3.2.2 Examples of Problems Solved Using Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
with Inversion (or with Möbius Transformations). . . . . . . . . . 198
4 A Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
4.1 Bringing Together All Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
4.1.1 Some Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
4.1.2 Some Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Contents xiii
4.2 A Story of Complete Quadrilaterals

√ .................................. 234
4.2.1 Miquel’s Theorem and bc Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
4.2.2 Some Classical Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.2.3 Problems About Complete Quadrilaterals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Part II Hints
5 Isometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
7 Inversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
8 A Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Part III Solutions

9 Isometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
11 Inversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
12 A Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Part I
Problems
Chapter 1
Isometries
1.1 Theoretical Results About Isometries
Our discussion begins with those transformations that lie at the heart of the notion of
equality in geometry. We tend to identify two geometric figures and call them equal
(or congruent when we are very rigorous) if we can place one on top of the other to
coincide exactly. This means that we take one figure and move it across the plane
without breaking or deforming it until it overlaps the other figure. The motions that
we perform, to which we add the reflection into a mirror, are called isometries (from
the Greek words isos meaning “equal” and metron meaning “measure”). Figure 1.1
illustrates several instances of planar figures being mapped into one another by
isometries.
We have promised in the introduction to draw a parallel between the synthetic
and the analytic method. Because we work in the plane, we have two options
for coordinates: real or complex. There is logic in opting for the latter. Complex
numbers have been introduced for solving polynomial equations, as such they
come endowed with a multiplication, and this multiplication is somehow related
to the richness of Euclidean geometry. For us, the plane is identified with the set
C of complex numbers, and we convene to pass from synthetic to analytic by
replacing uppercase letters by lowercase letters: the point P in the Euclidean plane
becomes complex number p ∈ C (said differently p is the complex coordinate
of P ). Figure 1.2 shows an instance of how points in the plane acquire complex
coordinates. We will use the notation z and z for the real and the imaginary parts
of z and |z| and arg z for the absolute value and argument of z.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 3

R. Gelca et al., Geometric Transformations, Problem Books in Mathematics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89117-6_1
4 1 Isometries
Fig. 1.1 How figures are transformed under isometries
A a = 3 + 5i
B b = 5+i
Fig. 1.2 Passing from synthetic to analytic geometry
1.1.1 Definition and Basic Properties
It is desirable to reach a good level of understanding of the isometries before starting

to solve problems. For that reason we begin with a theoretical discussion.
Definition An isometry of the plane is a transformation that preserves distances
between points, meaning that if A maps to A and B maps to B , then the segments
AB and A B have equal lengths.
In complex coordinates, the distance between the points A and B is |a − b|. So,
by switching to analytic geometry, we have the following definition.
Definition An isometry in C is a function f : C → C such that
|f (z) − f (w)| = |z − w| for all z, w ∈ C.

1.1 Theoretical Results About Isometries 5
As we will see below, isometries preserve not just distances, but every property
that can be phrased in the language of Euclidean geometry. They lie behind the
notion of congruence, being the most natural transformations of Euclidean geom-
etry. We now embark on the task of understanding their structure and properties.
The first steps are easier in coordinates, as the functional equation |f (z) − f (w)| =
|z − w| can be solved explicitly, though with some effort, and yields a surprisingly
simple solution.
Theorem 1.1 The function f is an isometry of C if and only if f (z) = rz + s or
f (z) = rz + s, where r, s are complex constants with |r| = 1.
Proof If f (z) = rz + s then
|f (z) − f (w)| = |r(z − w)| = |r||z − w| = |z − w|;
while if f (z) = rz + a, then
|f (z) − f (w)| = |r(z − w)| = |r||z − w| = |z − w|,
so in each case f is an isometry.

Now suppose that f is an isometry. Let f (0) = s. Since 1 = |1 − 0| = |f (1) −
f (0)| = 0, if we set r = f (1) − f (0), then r = 0. We can define thus g such that
f (z) = r · g(z) + s, namely, g(z) = f (z)−s
r . Notice that

f (z) − f (w) |f (z) − f (w)|
|g(z) − g(w)| = =
= |z − w|,
r |r|
so g is an isometry, too. We have g(0) = 0 and g(1) = 1.

The equality |g(z) − g(0)| = |z − 0| is equivalent to |g(z)| = |z|, while |g(z) −
g(1)| = |z − 1| is equivalent to |g(z) − 1| = |z − 1|. Using the fact that |z|2 = z · z,
we can transform these two conditions into
g(z) · g(z) = z · z and (g(z) − 1) · (g(z) − 1) = (z − 1)(z − 1).
Subtracting the first relation from the second, we can transform this into
g(z) · g(z) = z · z and g(z) + g(z) = z + z.
We now deduce that {z, z} and {g(z), g(z)} are the solution sets to the same
quadratic equation (recall Viète’s relations for a quadratic equation), so the two
pairs must be equal. Hence {z, z} = {g(z), g(z)}, that is, for every z ∈ C, either
g(z) = z or g(z) = z.
It remains to prove that there do not exist nonreal numbers z, w such that g(z) =
z and g(w) = w simultaneously (we exclude z or w real because r = r for every
real r). Were this to happen, then
6 1 Isometries
|z − w| = |g(z) − g(w)| = |z − w|,
which means that z is at the same distance from w and w; alas, z lies on the
perpendicular bisector of w and w. But this perpendicular bisector is the real axis, so
z must be a real number, which is ruled out by our assumption. So either g(z) = z for
all z or g(z) = z for all z. From here we deduce that f (z) = rz+s or f (z) = rz+s,
and the theorem is proved.
A simple functional equation with an elegant algebraic solution. But in order
to decrypt the geometric meaning of the solution, we need more work. In the
next section, we will understand geometrically the multiplication by a number of
absolute value 1, the addition of a complex number, and the taking of the conjugate,
and this will shed light on the geometric interpretation of Theorem 1.1. This will
be a recurring theme: to discover the geometric meaning hidden inside algebraic
manipulations.
For the moment let us notice that, as an immediate consequence, we obtain the
following result.
Theorem 1.2 An isometry maps a segment to a segment equal to it, a line to a line,
a circle to a circle of the same radius, and a triangle to a triangle congruent to it.
An isometry also preserves angles.
Proof We only discuss the case f (z) = rz + s for some r, s ∈ C with |r| = 1; the
case f (z) = rz + s is left to the reader. In this case, for every a, b ∈ C and t ∈ R,
the image of ta + (1 − t)b is
rta + r(1 − t)b + s = t (ra + s) + (1 − t)(rb + s).
For t ∈ [0, 1], this means that the segment with endpoints a, b is mapped to the
segment with endpoints ra + s, rb + s, and note that |ra + s − rb − s| = |r||a − b| =
|a − b|. By allowing t to roam freely in R, we deduce that the line passing through
a and b is mapped to the line passing through ra + s and rb + s.
A complex number z satisfies the equation |z − a| = R if and only if it satisfies
the equation |(rz + s) − (ra + s)| = R (here we use the fact that |r| = 1). So z
belongs to the circle of center a and radius R if and only if f (z) = rz + s belongs to
the circle whose center is f (a) = ra + s and radius is R. In other words, the image
through an isometry of a circle is a circle of the same radius, and whose center is
the image of the center of the circle.
Finally, let ABC be a triangle, and let A , B , C be the images of ABC through
the isometry. Because the isometry maps AB to A B , BC to B C , and AC to
A C , the triangle A B C is the image of the triangle ABC and is congruent to it.
Therefore the angles of ABC and the angles of A B C are equal. Since every angle
can be placed in a triangle, isometries preserve angles.
By decomposing polygons into triangles, we obtain that an isometry maps a
polygon to a polygon congruent to it. It is not hard to see that all special points,
segments, lines, or circles (e.g., orthocenter, centroid, circumcenter, medians, angle
bisectors, altitudes, incircle) of a triangle are mapped to the same special points,
segments, lines, or circles of the image.
As a by-product of Theorem 1.1, we obtain that isometries are bijections from
the plane to itself. Indeed, the inverse of f (z) = rz + s is
1 s
f −1 (w) = w− ,
r r
and the inverse of f (z) = rz + s is
1 s
f −1 (w) = w− .
r r
We conclude that every isometry has an inverse, and the inverse is an isometry
as well; it is also immediate to see that the composition of two isometries is an
isometry, as distances are preserved (see Fig. 1.3). These properties characterize
one of the most fundamental concepts in mathematics, which we will now introduce
because it will allow us to formulate certain results from this book in a more concise
language and because a new concept always gives rise to new ideas.
Definition A group of transformations of a given set is a set G of bijective maps
from that set to itself with the property that the composition of any two elements of
G is in G and the inverse of every element of G is in G.
Isometries form a group of transformations of the plane.
f −1
g
f
g f
Fig. 1.3 Inverses and compositions of isometries

8 1 Isometries
1.1.2 Translations, Rotations, Reflections
In this section we introduce some particular classes of isometries.

Definition Given a vector − →v , the translation τ by the vector − →v is the transforma-
−−→ →
tion of the plane that maps a point A to the point A = τ (A) such that AA = −
v.
A translation is depicted in Fig. 1.4. If we write the translation vector −
→v = (a, b)
in complex coordinates as v = a + bi, then the translation is given by the equation
τ (z) = z + v.
This clarifies the geometric meaning of the transformation defined by adding a

complex number to the variable: it is the translation by the vector described by
that number. Translations are therefore particular cases of isometries.
You can immediately check that
• all line segments of the form XX are parallel and congruent;
−−→
• a single point A and its image A = τ (A) uniquely determine τ , since − →v = AA
is the only parameter of the translation;
• the line segments AB and A B are parallel and of equal lengths, consequently
translation maps a line to a line parallel to it;
• if AB is not parallel to −
→v and if −
→v = 0, then AA B B is a parallelogram.
Definition Given a point O and an angle α (measured counterclockwise), the
rotation about O by angle α is the transformation ρ of the plane that maps O to
itself and any other point A to a point A = ρ(A) such that AOA = α and A and
A are at the same distance from O.
Figure 1.5 shows an example of a rotation. You can check that
• the angle between AB and A B is α;
• the triangles OAB and OA B are congruent;
Fig. 1.4 A translation τ A = τ (A)

v
A
B = τ (B)
v
B
Fig. 1.5 A rotation ρ. The A = (A ) B

center is O and the angle is
α = 130◦
B = (B )
O
• the triangles OXX are all similar to an isosceles triangle with angles α, 90◦ −
α/2 and 90◦ − α/2;
• knowing the center of rotation O, a single point X, and its image X is enough to
determine the rotation; in fact, α = XOX ;
• when O is not given, two points A and B and their images A and B are
required in order to find the rotation; the center O lies on both the perpendicular
bisectors of AA and BB (since OA = OA and OB = OB ), so it lies at
their intersection, and if the two perpendicular bisectors coincide, then O is the
intersection of AB and A B ;
• if the rotation is not trivial, the center of rotation is its only fixed point.
Because the triangles OAB and OA B are congruent, the segments AB and
A B are equal. Consequently, rotations preserve distances; they are isometries.
When writing rotations in coordinates, we see the reason for using complex
numbers. To understand rotations, it is better to work with complex numbers in
trigonometric form
z = k(cos θ + i sin θ ).
This is because of the identity
arg(zw) = arg(z) + arg(w),
which follows from trigonometry
k1 (cos α + i sin α)k2 (cos β + i sin β)

= k1 k2 [(cos α cos β − sin α sin β) + i(cos α sin β + sin α cos β)]
= k1 k2 [cos(α + β) + i sin(α + β)].
Theorem 1.3 The rotation by α about z0 is then given by the formula
ρ(z) = r(z − z0 ) + z0 , where r = cos α + i sin α.

10 1 Isometries
Proof There is nothing to prove if α = 0. If α = 0, then the point z0 is the unique

fixed point of this transformation. The length of the segment joining z0 and z is
|z − z0 |, and the length of the segment joining z0 and ρ(z) is |r(z − z0 )| = |z − z0 |.
Also the segment joining z0 and z forms with the x-axis, an angle whose argument
is arg(z − z0 ), while the segment joining z0 and z forms with the x-axis, the angle
arg r(z − z0 ) = arg r + arg(z − z0 ) = α + arg(z − z0 ).
Thus the angle between the two segments is α, and the theorem is proved.
The formula for rotation can also be written as ρ(z) = rz + z0 (1 − r). On
the other hand, if f : C → C, f (z) = rz + s with |r| = 1 and r = 1, then
f defines a rotation; we can find the angle of rotation α = arg(r) and the center
z0 = s/(1 − r). The imaginary number i, which has been introduced for solving the
equation x 2 + 1 = 0, stands for the 90◦ rotation, and so it is related to the concept
of orthogonality in geometry.
There is an elegant way of looking at rotations which uses some elements of real
analysis. It is based on Euler’s number
1 1 1 1
e =1+ + + + + · · · = 2.71828 . . .
1! 2! 3! 4!
and the associated power series
x x2 x3 x4
ex = 1 + + + + + ··· .
1! 2! 3! 4!
This series converges to (i.e., approximates) a real number for all real numbers x.
But more is true. This definition can be extended to imaginary numbers, and we
have
α α2 α3 α4 α5
eαi = 1 + i− − i+ + i − ···
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
Comparing this with two other series expansions
α2 α4 α6
cos α = 1 − + − + ··· ,
2! 4! 6!
α α3 α5 α7
sin α = − + − + ··· ,
1! 3! 5! 7!
where α is necessarily measured in radians, we deduce Euler’s formula
eαi = cos α + i sin α.

The reader uncomfortable with series expansions can take this as the definition of
eαi . The trigonometric identities
cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β, sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β
correspond to the multiplicative properties of the exponential function

n
e(α+β)i = eαi eβi , eαi = enαi .
A complex number is written in trigonometric form as
z = reiα , where r = |z| and α = arg z.
With this notation, we can write the counterclockwise rotation about the origin by
the angle α (measured in radians) as
z → z = eαi z.
Then the counterclockwise rotation about a point w by angle α is defined by the

equation
z − w
= eαi ,
z−w
which gives z = eαi z − eαi w + w.

To summarize, eiα can be used as a short-hand writing for cos α + i sin α, and
trigonometry dictates that it has the good multiplicative properties that powers have.
But you have to be careful and use radians, so the 60◦ rotation about the origin is
z → eπ i/3 z.
In the context of rotations, it is appropriate to open a parenthesis and discuss
directed angles modulo π (or modulo 180◦ if we use the old-fashioned Babylonian
measurements). Given two lines and , the angle of the rotation that maps into
is ambiguous; it can take two different values even in the interval [0, 2π ). There are
two ways of resolving this ambiguity. The first is to orient the lines, for example, by
choosing two points on each. As such, the angle (AB, CD) ∈ [0, 2π ) is the angle
−→
of the rotation that maps AB to CD such that the image of AB points in the same
−→
direction as CD. This is the convention that we adopt when we do not say anything
explicitly.
The second approach is to notice that two angles of rotation differ by multiples
of π , so the ambiguity disappears when working modulo π (see Fig. 1.6). Now the
angle (, ) is defined unambiguously. Note that ( , ) = − (, ).
Whenever we declare to be working with directed angles modulo π , when we
write ABC, we mean the angle (AB, BC) between the lines AB and BC, which
is the angle of the rotation that takes AB to BC, reduced modulo π .
12 1 Isometries
α α = β = γ(mod π)
Fig. 1.6 Definition of directed angles
If a, b, c are the complex coordinates of A, B, C, then the directed angle ABC

modulo π is
c−b
arg (mod π ).
a−b
The points A, B, C are collinear if and only if for some other point D we have
DAB = DAC, or in complex numbers, if and only if
b−a c−a
arg = arg (mod π ).
d −a d −a
In a triangle ABC,
BAC + CBA + ACB = (AB, AC) + (BC, AB) + (AC, BC) = 0.
Also, if A, B, C are not collinear, then a point D is on the circumcircle of ABC

if and only if, as directed angles modulo π , DAC = DBC. In complex numbers,
the condition that four points lie on a circle is

c−a c−b c−a c−b
arg − arg = arg : =0 (mod π ),
d −a d −b d −a d −b
that is,
c−a c−b
: ∈ R.
d −a d −b
And if A, B, C are on a line, then this is also the condition for D to lie on the same
line. The quantity
c−a c−b a−c b−c

: = : ,
d −a d −b a−d b−d
which we denote by (a, b, c, d) and call cross-ratio, seems to be important, if

only for checking that points are concyclic or collinear. Note that (a, b, c, d) =
(c, d, a, b) = (d, c, b, a) = (a, b, d, c)−1 . The cross-ratio depends only on the

distances between the points and the angles they form, so it does not depend on the
system of coordinates. We can therefore talk about the cross-ratio of four points in
the plane.
Before moving on, let us state what was explained above as a theorem.
Theorem 1.4 (Condition for Concyclicity) Four points A, B, C, D lie on a circle
or on a line if and only if the cross-ratio of their complex coordinates is a real
number.
Now let us return to our discussion of isometries.
Definition Given a point O in the plane, the reflection over the point O is the
transformation σ of the plane that maps O to itself and any other point A to a point
A such that O is the midpoint of AA .
A reflection over a point z0 in the complex plane is therefore a function σ :
C → C, such that σ (z)+z
2 = z0 . This clearly implies that σ (z) = −z + 2z0 . This
transformation does not bring anything new as it is the rotation about the point z0
by 180◦ .
Definition Given a line in the plane, the reflection σ over the line is the
transformation of the plane that maps a point A on to itself, and a point A that
does not belong to to a point A = σ (A) such that AA is perpendicular to , A
and A are in opposite half-plane determined by , and the distances from A and A
to are equal.
The reader can visually notice (on Fig. 1.7) that
• all segments XX have as perpendicular bisector;
• a single point X that does not lie on and its image X determine a reflection
over a line ; is the perpendicular bisector of XX ;
• the lines AB and A B are either parallel to or meet at a point on ;
• every reflection σ is an involution, that is, σ ◦ σ is the identity. This implies that
lines AB and A B are either parallel to or meet at a point on .
It is somewhat complicated to write reflections over lines in complex coordinates,
because one can write the equation of a line in many ways. We nevertheless have
the following result:
Theorem 1.5 Let f be an isometry. Then f is a reflection over a line if and only if
s
f (z) = rz or f (z) = − z + s
s
where r, s ∈ C, |r| = 1 and s = 0.

Proof The simplest reflection is over the real axis, σ (z) = z.
Next, let σ be the reflection over some line given by the parametric equation
z = z0 + vt, t ∈ R being the parameter and z0 and v being constants with |v| = 1.
14 1 Isometries
A = σ(A)
B = σ(B)
Fig. 1.7 A reflection σ over a line
We transform into the real axis by means of translations and rotations: first we
translate by −z0 , so z and σ (z) become z − z0 and σ (z) − z0 , respectively; the line
becomes given by z = t · v, t ∈ R. Then we rotate by − arg(v): becomes the
real axis, z − z0 becomes z−z v , and σ (z) − z0 becomes
0 σ (z)−z0
v . In other words, the
z−z0 σ (z)−z0
reflection over the real axis maps v to v . Therefore

σ (z) − z0 z − z0
=
v v
which yields, using the fact that v/v = v 2 , the following formula for the reflection:
σ (z) = v 2 z + z0 − v 2 z0 . (1.1)
So σ (z) must be of the form σ (z) = rz+s, |r| = 1. If we identify the coefficients
of σ (z), we find r = v 2 and z0 − v 2 z0 = s, that is, s = z0 − rz0 . Since z0 can be any
point of , the line must have the equation z−rz = s. Conjugation gives z−z/r = s
which is equivalent to z − rz = −rs, so s = −rs. This happens if either s = 0 or
r = −s/s. The case s = 0 gives σ (z) = v 2 z = rz, and the other case gives
σ (z) = − ss z + s.
Notice that we can recover the equation of the line from the formula for σ : it is
z − rz = s, which is equivalent to sz + sz = |s|2 , if s = 0, and z = rz if s = 0.
Notice also that passes through s/2 and that v is any square root of − ss , that is,
v = ±iω, ω = cos arg(s) + i sin arg(s).
As a consequence of the proof, we obtain the formula for the reflection over a
line determined by two points.
Proposition 1.6 Let a, b be two distinct complex numbers. Then the reflection of a
point z over the line determined by a and b is
a−b ab − ab
σ (z) = z+ .
a−b a−b
Proof The parametric equation of the line is z = a + (b − a)t. We have seen in the
proof of the previous result that

σ (z) − a z−a
= .
b−a b−a
Hence the formula.

Once reflections have been introduced, it is appropriate to talk about the
orientation of polygons, a concept that plays a major role in this book. A (nonskew)
polygon is oriented counterclockwise if, when reading the names of its vertices in
order, the interior is on the left, and it is oriented clockwise if, when reading the
names of its vertices in order, the interior is on the right. In Fig. 1.8, the triangle
ABC is oriented counterclockwise, and the triangle A B C is oriented clockwise. It
is not hard to see that rotations and translations preserve orientation, while reflection
changes orientation (e.g., in Fig. 1.8, the two triangles are images of each other
through the reflection over the vertical dotted line).
A A
B C C B
Fig. 1.8 Orientation of triangles

16 1 Isometries
1.1.3 Isometries as Composition of Reflections
It looks like the aforementioned transformations are only particular cases of

isometries of the plane and that there might exist more general types of isometries.
But Theorem 1.1 can now be read in the dialect of synthetic geometry, and it tells
that every isometry is either a rotation centered at the origin, a translation, the
reflection over the x-axis, a composition of a translation and a rotation centered
at the origin, or the composition of the reflection over the x-axis with a translation
and/or a rotation centered at the origin. We can do better than that, for example, we
can write all isometries of the plane in terms of reflections alone, as the next result
shows.
Theorem 1.7 Every isometry of the plane is the composition of two or three
reflections over lines.
Proof Let f be an isometry of the plane. Then f transforms any ray into a ray, by
preserving the order of the points, and every half-plane into a half-plane.
Let A and B be two points and let h be a half-plane bounded by the line AB. With
the standard notation, let A = f (A), B = f (B), and h = f (h). We distinguish
the following cases:
Case 1. The rays |AB and |A B coincide. Then A = A and B = B, so the entire
line AB is fixed by f . Then either the entire plane is fixed by f , in which case
we can write f as the square of any reflection, or f is the reflection over AB, in
which case f is the cube of this reflection, as well.
Case 2. The rays |AB and |A B are mapped into each other by a reflection σ over
a line. Compose f with this reflection to reduce the problem to Case 1. In this
situation f ◦ σ is either a reflection in which case f is the composition of this
reflection and σ or the identity map in which case f = σ = σ ◦ σ ◦ σ .
Case 3. The rays |AB and |A B do not coincide, nor do they map one to the other
by a reflection. Let σ1 be the reflection over a line that takes A to f (A) = A ,
and let B1 = σ1 (B). Let also σ2 be the reflection, over some line , that takes B1
to B . The two reflection lines are drawn as dotted in Fig. 1.9. Notice that is the
perpendicular bisector of B1 B , and since A B1 = AB = A B , A lies on , so
σ2 (A ) = A . It follows that σ2 ◦ σ1 (A) = A and σ2 ◦ σ1 (B) = σ2 (B1 ) = B .
Then σ2 ◦ σ1 takes A to A and B to B , so either f = σ2 ◦ σ1 (two reflections)
or f is the composition of σ2 ◦ σ1 and a reflection over A B (three reflections).
The theorem shows that reflections generate the group of isometries. Let us
observe that the composition of an even number of reflections preserves the orien-
tation of polygons, while the composition of an odd number of reflections changes
orientation meaning that what was originally counterclockwise, is now clockwise.
The isometries obtained as compositions of an even number of reflections form
therefore a group, the group of orientation preserving isometries. As a corollary of
Theorem 1.7 we obtain:
A
B1
A
B
Fig. 1.9 Case 3
Theorem 1.8 Every orientation-preserving isometry is the composition of two

reflections over lines.
But we have a better result:
Theorem 1.9 Every orientation-preserving isometry is either a translation or a
rotation.
Proof 1 Let f be an orientation-preserving isometry of the plane. First notice that
we only need to find a translation or a rotation that takes two points A and B to
A = f (A) and B = f (B), respectively. Indeed, if P is a point not belonging to
the line AB, then f (P ) is determined by A , B and the orientation of ABP . If P
is on the line AB, then the image P = f (P ) of a point P on line AB is uniquely
determined by the conditions P ∈ A B , P A = P A , and P B = P B .
Having in mind the technique of finding the center of a rotation, consider the
perpendicular bisectors a of AA and b of BB . We distinguish the following cases:
Case 1. (Fig. 1.10). The lines a and b have a non-empty intersection. Let O be
the intersection point of a and b. Then OA = OA , OB = OB , and, since
AB = A B , the triangles OAB and OA B are congruent. If these two triangles
have the same orientation, we have the following equalities of angles between
lines:
(OA, OA ) = (OA, OB) + (OB, OA )

= (OA , OB ) + (OB, OA ) = (OB, OB ).
From here we deduce that f is a rotation about O by the angle α = (OA, OA ).
If the two triangles have inverse orientations, then there is a reflection that takes
AB to A B , and so we must have a = b. If AB and A B are both parallel to
18 1 Isometries
a
a=b a=b
O A A O
A
B
A A
A
b B B
B B B
Fig. 1.10 Case 1
A A
B B
B
A A
B
Fig. 1.11 Case 2
a = b, there is a translation that takes A to A and B to B’; otherwise, AA B B

is an isosceles trapezoid with non-parallel sides AB and A B and a rotation with
center on the intersection of lines AB and A B does the job.
Case 2. (Fig. 1.11) The lines a and b do not intersect. Then a and b are parallel and
distinct. In this case AA and BB are also parallel. If A, A , B, B lie on the same
−−→ −−→ →
line and A and B are in the same order as A and B , then AA = BB = − v and
f is a translation by −→v ; if A and B are in reversed order as compared to A and
B , then the midpoints of AA and BB coincide, but then a ∩ b = ∅, which is
ruled out by the hypothesis.
On the other hand, if A, A , B, and B do not lie on the same line, they determine
a trapezoid. If the trapezoid is not a parallelogram, then AB and A B are either
its diagonals or the non-parallel sides. Either way, since AB = A B , the trapezoid
is isosceles and then a = b, a contradiction. So the trapezoid is a parallelogram,
−−→ −−→ → −−→ −−→
meaning that either AA = BB = − v and f is a translation by −
→v , or AA = −BB ,
and f is a reflection over the midpoint of AA and BB , which is a rotation by 180◦ .
Proof 2 There is a slick proof of the theorem using complex coordinates that the
reader might have noticed. Since conjugation reverses orientation, an orientation-
preserving isometry in C can only be of the form f (z) = rz + s, |r| = 1. If r = 1
we have a translation by s; if r = 1, we have a rotation by arg(z) about s/(1 − r).
Unfortunately, we cannot describe an orientation-reversing isometry as a single

reflection, but we still have the following result:
Theorem 1.10 Every orientation-reversing isometry is the composition of a unique
reflection over a line and a unique translation parallel to the line of reflection.
Proof 1 Let f be an orientation-reversing isometry, and let A = f (A) and B =
f (B) be the images of two distinct points A and B under f .
First we find a reflection σ over a line and a translation τ by a vector − →
v

parallel to such that f = τ ◦ σ . Again, it suffices to show that τ ◦ σ (A) = A and
τ ◦ σ (B) = B . Let M and N be the midpoints of AA and BB , respectively (if A
coincides with A, we take A = A as the midpoint).
If M = N (see Fig. 1.12), then is the line through M and N . Notice that
d(A, ) = d(A , ) and d(B, ) = d(B , ), so the reflection σ over takes
A to A1 and B to B1 such that A A1 and B B1 are both parallel to . Also, A
and A are on opposite sides of , and the same is true about B and B . Hence
(AB, ) = (, A B ), and thus, because of the reflection, lines A1 B1 and A B
are parallel. Since A1 B1 = A B , we find that A1 B1 B A is a parallelogram, and
−−→
thus there is a translation τ by the vector − →v = A1 A which is parallel to . We
conclude that f = τ ◦ σ .
If M = N (see Fig. 1.13), then ABA B is a parallelogram. In this case, we
take to be the line perpendicular to both AB and A B and passing through M.
Then σ takes A to A1 ∈ AB and B to B1 ∈ AB, and d(A1 , ) = d(A , ) and
d(B1 , ) = d(B , ), with A1 and A on the same side of , and B1 and B on the
Fig. 1.12 The case M = N B
M N
A
A1
B
B1
20 1 Isometries
Fig. 1.13 The case M = N

A B1 B A1
M =N
B A
same side of . Therefore, A1 A and B1 B are both parallel to , and we can define
−−→
τ to be the translation by A1 A .
Now we prove that the composition is unique. Let f = τ ◦ σ be a composition
of a reflection σ over a line and a translation τ parallel to . We have d(A , ) =
d(A, ) and d(B, ) = d(B , ), which means that both midpoints M of AA and
N of BB lie on . If M = N, we have = , that is, σ = σ . Now τ = f ◦σ −1 =
τ , and we are done. If M = N, then again ABA B is a parallelogram. Since τ is
a translation, the line through A1 = σ (A) and B1 = σ (B) is parallel to A B , so
A1 B1 is parallel to AB. However, a reflection maps a line to another parallel line if
and only if the lines are perpendicular or parallel to the line of reflection. The latter
case makes σ map AB to A B , but with the points A and B in reversed order, as
A1 and B1 , so we cannot translate A1 to A and B1 to B simultaneously; the former
case leads to σ = σ and, as before, τ = τ .
Proof 2 The complex number proof is again shorter, but it obscures completely
the geometric intuition. An orientation-reversing isometry f in C is of the form
f (z) = rz + s. Our goal is to find a complex t and a real number u such that f is a
composition of g(z) = −(t/t)z + t and h(z) = z + iωu, where ω = cos arg(t) +
i sin arg(t). We compute
h(g(z)) = −(t/t)z + t + iωu = −ω2 z + |t|ω + iωu.
Identifying the coefficients, we obtain r = −ω2 and s = |t|ω + iωu. From here
u and t can be uniquely determined in terms of r and s: pick ω as the square root
of −r that makes |t| = (sω−1 ) ≥ 0; then |t| is defined that way, and thus t is
uniquely determined; also, u = (sω−1 ) is uniquely determined.
We conclude this section with the following result:
Theorem 1.11 Let f be an isometry. Suppose that the points P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn on a
line are mapped to the points P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn on a line . Then the midpoints of
P1 P1 , P2 P2 , . . . , Pn Pn are collinear.
Proof 1 First, suppose that f reverses orientation. Since the midpoint of P and
f (P ) lies on the reflection line, then all midpoints of Pi Pi lie on the reflection line.
If f preserves orientation, compose f with the reflection σ over , that is,

consider f ◦ σ . Since σ () = , f ◦ σ maps Pi to Pi and reverses orientation,
and we apply the previous result to f ◦ σ instead.
Proof 2 This can also be seen with complex numbers: If f (z) = rz + s reverses
orientation, the midpoint of zi and f (zi ) is zi +f2 (zi ) = zi +rz
2
i +s
. Let ω be a square
root of r; then
zi + f (zi ) zi + ω 2 zi + s ωzi + ωzi s s

= =ω + = + ω(ωzi ),
2 2 2 2 2
and hence all midpoints lie on the line z = 2s + ωt, t ∈ R.

If f (z) = rz + s preserves orientation, then g(z) = z+f2 (z) is an affine function1
of z that takes to the set of midpoints of points from . Every affine function g
maps a line to another line. So the midpoints are on a line.
−−→ −−→
Remark This result is also true if we consider points Qi such that Pi Qi = t Pi Pi ,
t being a fixed real number. But this is a job for another transformation: homothety
(stay tuned!).
At this moment we understand well enough the structure of isometries them-
selves. The next section is devoted to understanding the outcome of composing
isometries.
1.1.4 Compositions of Isometries
It is clear that a composition of several isometries is an isometry itself, since it

preserves distances. In the previous section, we have learned that an isometry is
a rotation or a translation (when it preserves orientation) or the composition of
a unique reflection and a unique translation by a vector parallel to the line of
reflection (when it reverses orientation). We have also seen that if we interpret
points as complex numbers, the isometries are the functions defined by the formulas
f (z) = rz + s or f (z) = rz + s, |r| = 1.
Our next goal is to specify the outcome of all possible compositions of two
isometries of the plane. Let us first deal with the composition of two orientation-
preserving isometries. We already know that this composition preserves orientation,
and therefore it is either a translation or a rotation. Let us be more specific. We begin
with a result that was mentioned before.
Theorem 1.12 The composition of two translations τ1 and τ2 by − →u and − →
v is a
−
→
translation by u + v . −
→
1 Meaning a function of the form z → az + b.

22 1 Isometries
Proof Let A be any point in the plane, A1 = τ1 (A) and A = τ2 ◦ τ1 (A) = τ2 (A1 ).
−−→ −−→ −−→ → −
Thus AA = AA1 + A1 A = − u +→ v . Notice that this also proves that translations
commute, that is, τ2 ◦ τ1 = τ1 ◦ τ2 .
To summarize, translations form a commutative group: the compositions of the
−−−→
translations by vectors −
→v and −
→
w are the translation of vector v + w, and the inverse
−
→ −
→
of the translation of vector v is the translation of vector − v . The elements of this
group are parametrized by the complex numbers.
Theorem 1.13 Let ρ be the rotation about point O by angle α, and let τ be the
translation by −
→
v . Then
(i) the composition ρ ◦ τ is a rotation by α about the unique point O1 such that
O1 O = O1 O and O O1 O = α, where O = τ −1 (O). The point O1 lies
at the intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of OO and OO , where
O = ρ ◦ τ (O);
(ii) the composition τ ◦ ρ is a rotation by α about the unique point O2 such that
O2 O = O2 O3 and OO2 O3 = α, where O3 = τ (O). The point O2 is the
intersection of the perpendicular bisector of OO3 and the line O3 O ;
−−−→ →
(iii) if O1 and O2 are defined as above, then O1 O2 = − v.
Proof 1 The argument can be followed on Fig. 1.14. First we prove that both
compositions are rotations. To this end, let A = B be points in the plane, and
let A and B be the images of A and B, respectively, under either composition.
Because the angle between a segment and its translation is zero, and because
(AB, A B ) = α, neither of the two compositions can be a translation, both having
to be rotations by the angle α.
The rest is straightforward. We have
ρ ◦ τ (O ) = ρ ◦ τ ◦ τ −1 (O) = σ (O) = O,
Fig. 1.14 Composition of a O2 O

rotation and a translation and O3
vice versa
v v
α
O1 O
O
because every rotation fixes its center. It follows that O1 must be such that
O O1 O = α and O1 O = O1 O . In particular, O1 must lie on the perpendicular
bisector of OO . Because O = ρ ◦ τ (O), O1 must also lie on the perpendicular
bisector of OO , so (i) is proved.
The proof of (ii) is similar: τ ◦ ρ(O) = τ (O) = O3 , so O2 O = O2 O3 and
OO2 O3 = α. Also, O O3 O = 90◦ − α/2 = O2 O3 O, so the points O2 , O3 ,
and O are collinear.
For (iii), τ (O1 ) = τ (ρ ◦ τ (O1 )) = τ ◦ σ (τ (O1 )), so τ (O1 ) is a fixed point of
ρ ◦τ . However, the only fixed point of a rotation is its center, therefore τ (O1 ) = O2 .
−−−→ →
And this is equivalent to O1 O2 = − v.
Proof 2 In complex numbers, let ρ(z) = rz + s and τ (z) = z + v be a rotation and
a translation, respectively. Then ρ ◦ τ (z) = r(z + v) + s = rz + rv + s is a rotation
with center (rv + s)/(1 − r) = rv/(1 − r) + s/(1 − r), and τ ◦ ρ(z) = rz + s + v
is a rotation with center (s + v)/(1 − r) = s/(1 − r) + v/(1 − r). One can decrypt
from these numbers the geometric properties listed in the statement.
The composition of two rotations about the same center O is a rotation by the
sum of their angles (or the identity if this sum is zero). What if the centers are
different?
Theorem 1.14 Let O1 = O2 be points in the plane. The composition ρ2 ◦ ρ1 of two
rotations ρ1 about O1 by α and ρ2 about O2 by β is
(i) A rotation by α + β about the point O that is the intersection of the
perpendicular bisectors of O1 O1 , O1 = ρ2 (O1 ), and O2 O2 , O2 = ρ1−1 (O2 ), if
α + β is not a multiple of 360◦ ;
−−−→
(ii) A translation by −
→
v = O1 O1 , O1 = σ2 (O1 ) if α + β is a multiple of 360◦ .
Proof 1 By Theorem 1.9, the resulting composition is either a rotation or a
translation. Let A and B be distinct points in the plane, and define A1 = ρ1 (A),
B1 = ρ1 (B), A = ρ2 ◦ ρ1 (A) = ρ2 (A1 ) and B = ρ2 ◦ ρ1 (B) = ρ2 (B1 ). Then
(AB, A B ) = (AB, A1 B1 ) + (A1 B1 , A B ) = α + β. So if α + β is not a
multiple of 360◦ , we have a rotation by α+β (as all figures are rotated by this angle),
−→ −−→
and if α + β is a multiple of 360◦ , then AB = A B , and we have a translation. Now
we only need to find the parameters of the composition map.
If α + β is not a multiple of 360◦ , then we take advantage of the fact that
the rotation fixes its center, and compute ρ2 ◦ ρ1 (O1 ) = ρ2 (O1 ) = O1 and
ρ2 ◦ ρ1 (O2 ) = ρ2 ◦ ρ1 (ρ1−1 (O2 )) = ρ2 (O2 ) = O2 . So the center of rotation O lies
on the perpendicular bisectors of O1 O1 and O2 O2 . Notice also that since O1 = O2 ,
O1 = ρ2 (O1 ) = O1 and O2 = ρ −1 (O2 ) = O2 , the perpendicular bisectors are well
defined.
If α + β is a multiple of 360◦ , and we are in the presence of a translation, then
we only need to find the image of one point. We choose O1 , and then σ2 ◦ σ1 (O1 ) =
−−−→
σ (O ) = O . So the translation vector is −
2 1 1
→v = O O .
1 1
24 1 Isometries
Proof 2 For the analytical proof, if ρ1 (z) = r1 z + s1 and ρ2 (z) = r2 z + s2 are

rotations, ρ2 ◦ ρ1 (z) = r1 r2 z + r2 s1 + s2 is a translation by r2 s1 + s2 = ρ2 (s1 ) if
r1 r2 = 1 and a rotation by arg(r1 r2 ) about (r2 s1 + s2 )/(1 − r1 r2 ) otherwise.
We conclude that rotations do not form a group. The rotations about a fixed point
O do form a group (here you have to include the rotation of angle zero, which is the
identity map). This is the famous (multiplicative) group U (1) = {eαi | α ∈ R} that
plays an important role in electromagnetism (because eiα is written in terms of sine
and cosine, which are used for representing waves).
Now we turn to orientation-reversing isometries. Let us study first the composi-
tion of two reflections.
Theorem 1.15 The composition σ2 ◦ σ1 of two reflections σ1 , over line 1 , and σ2 ,
over line 2 , is
(i) the identity if 1 = 2 ;
(ii) a translation by a vector orthogonal to both 1 and 2 , directed from 1 to 2 ,
and length 2d(1 , 2 ) if 1 and 2 are parallel and distinct;
(iii) a rotation with center the intersection of 1 and 2 and angle 2 (1 , 2 ) if 1
and 2 are not parallel.
Proof 1 Part (i) is immediate. For (ii), arguing on Fig. 1.15, we introduce a signed
distance from a point P to 1 as being positive if P and 2 are in different half-
planes with respect to 1 and negative otherwise. Then we let d = d(1 , 2 ) be the
signed distance from any point of 2 to 1 . We have d(P , σ1 (P )) = 2d(P , 1 ) and
P
Q1
1
Q
P1
d( 1 , 2)
Fig. 1.15 Composition of two reflections over parallel lines

Fig. 1.16 Composition of 1

two reflections over P
non-parallel lines
α
O α P1
β 2
β
P
d(σ1 (P ), σ2 ◦σ1 (P )) = 2(d −d(P , 1 )). Therefore d(P , σ2 ◦σ1 (P )) = 2d(P , 1 )+

−−→
2(d −d(P , 1 )) = 2d, so if we let P = σ2 ◦σ1 (P ) then the vector P P is a constant.
If 1 and 2 are not parallel, they meet a unique point O (Fig. 1.16). Let P be any
point in the plane, P1 = σ1 (P ) and P = σ2 ◦ σ1 (P ) = σ2 (P1 ). We know that 1 is
the perpendicular bisector of P P1 , so OP = OP1 . Also, 2 is the perpendicular
bisector of P1 P , so OP1 = OP . Therefore, OP = OP , and moreover,
P OP = (OP , OP1 ) + (OP1 , OP ) = 2 (1 , OP1 ) + 2 (OP1 , 2 ) =
2 (1 , 2 ), which proves (iii).
Proof 2 For the complex number proof, if 1 and 2 are two lines that meet at z0 , we
can express their equations as z = z0 + tv1 and z = z0 + tv2 . So the reflections over
1 and 2 are, respectively, σ1 (z) = v12 z + z0 − v12 z0 and σ2 (z) = v22 z + z0 − v22 z0 .
Then
σ1 ◦ σ2 (z) = v12 σ2 (z) + z0 − v12 z0 = v12 (v2 2 z + z0 − v2 2 z0 ) + z0 − v12 z0

= v12 v2 2 z − v12 v2 2 z0 + z0 = z0 + v12 v2 2 (z − z0 ),
which is a rotation of angle arg(v12 v2 2 ) = 2 (1 , 2 ) about z0 .

If 1 and 2 are parallel, then we can suppose that 1 and 2 have equations
(z) = k and (z) = −k. For z = a + bi, we have σ1 (z) = a + (2k − b)i and
σ2 ◦ f1 (z) = a + (−2k − 2k + b)i = z − 4ki, which is a translation by −4ki.
Theorem 1.16 Two reflections σ1 and σ2 commute (i.e., σ1 ◦ σ2 = σ2 ◦ σ1 ) if and
only if σ1 = σ2 or the lines of reflection are perpendicular.
Proof 1 If σ1 ◦ σ2 = σ2 ◦ σ1 , then
(σ1 ◦ σ2 ) ◦ (σ1 ◦ σ2 ) = σ1 ◦ σ2 ◦ σ2 ◦ σ1 = σ1 ◦ 1 ◦ σ1 = σ1 ◦ σ1 = 1,
so applying σ1 ◦ σ2 twice yields the identity transformation. However, σ1 ◦ σ2

is a rotation, a translation, or the identity map (by Theorem 1.9). It cannot be a
translation because a translation by − →v applied twice is a translation by 2−
→
v . If
it is a rotation by α, then applying it twice yields a rotation by 2α. This is the
identity only if α = 180◦ , which means that the angle between the reflection lines
is 180◦ /2 = 90◦ . And if it is the identity map, then σ2 = σ1−1 = σ1 .
26 1 Isometries
Proof 2 The complex number proof is more involved. By Theorem 1.5, a reflection
is either of the form σ (z) = rz, |r| = 1 or σ (z) = − ss z + s for some s ∈ C, s = 0.
We look only at the situation where the reflections are of the latter form, which can
always be made the case by placing the origin off the lines. The composition of
reflections σ1 (z) = − ss11 z + s1 and σ2 (z) = − ss22 z + s2 is
s1 s1 s2 s1 s2
σ1 ◦ σ2 (z) = − σ2 (z) + s1 = z− + s1 .
s1 s1 s2 s1
The composition σ2 ◦ σ1 is obtained by interchanging the indices, so σ1 and σ2

commute if and only if
s2 s1 s1 s2 s2 s1 s1 s2
= and − + s2 = − + s1
s2 s1 s1 s2 s2 s1
and this is equivalent to
s2 s1 s2 s1 s1 s2
= ± and − + s2 = − + s1 .
s2 s1 s2 s1
If s2 /s2 = s1 /s1 , then
s1 s1 s2 s2
− + s2 = − + s1
s1 s2
is equivalent to −s1 + s2 = −s2 + s1 , and this of course is equivalent to s1 = s2 .

The latter is equivalent to σ1 = σ2 .
If s2 /s2 = −s1 /s1 , the second equation is an identity:
s1 s1 s2 s2
+ s2 = + s1 .
s1 s2
So s2 /s2 = −s1 /s1 is equivalent to 2 arg(s2 ) = ±π + 2 arg(s1 ), that is, arg(s2 ) =

±π/2 + arg(s1 ). This last relation means the lines of reflection are orthogonal.
Let us study what happens when we compose a reflection with a rotation and
then with a translation.
Theorem 1.17 Let ρ be the rotation about the point O by the angle α, and let σ be
the reflection over the line . Then
(i) ρ ◦ σ is the composition of a reflection and a translation. The reflection line
r passes through the midpoint O1 of the segment determined by O and O =
−−−→
σ (O) such that (, r) = α/2, and the translation vector is −
→
v = O1 O2 , O2
being the intersection of r and ρ();
(ii) σ ◦ ρ is the composition of a reflection and a translation. The reflection line
s passes through the midpoint O1 of the segment determined by O and O =
Fig. 1.17 Composition of a reflection and a rotation
−−−→
σ (O) such that (, s) = −α/2, and the translation vector is −
→
v = O3 O1 , O3
−1
being the intersection of s and ρ ().
Proof Because both ρ ◦ σ and σ ◦ ρ reverse orientation, both are compositions of a
reflection and a translation (Theorem 1.10). We need to find the reflection line and
the translation vector in each case. The reasoning can be followed on Fig. 1.17.
For ρ ◦ σ , let O = σ (O). Then
ρ ◦ σ (O ) = ρ ◦ σ ◦ σ (O) = ρ(O) = O,
because O is fixed by ρ. So, because in Theorem 1.10 the translation vector is

parallel to the reflection line, the reflection line passes through the midpoint O1 of
OO . Since O1 belongs to both and the reflection line r, the translation vector is
−−−→
O1 O2 , where O2 = ρ ◦ σ (O1 ) = ρ(O1 ). We want to better understand O2 . Because
O1 lies on , ρ(O1 ) lies on ρ(), and thus O2 = ρ(O1 ) is the intersection point of r
−−−→
and ρ() and − →v = O1 O2 . Finally, if A is any other point of , then the ray |O1 A is
rotated by α, so the reflection line is the angle bisector of (|O1 A, ρ(|O1 A)), and it
makes an angle of α/2 with . Since (, r) = α/2 = α = (, σ ()), r and ρ()
meet at a single point, so O2 is unique.
Now we examine σ ◦ρ. Notice that σ ◦ρ(O) = σ (O) = O , so again O1 belongs
to the reflection line s. Instead of looking for σ ◦ ρ(O1 ), we determine
(σ ◦ ρ)−1 (O1 ) = ρ −1 ◦ σ −1 (O1 ) = ρ −1 ◦ σ (O1 ) = ρ −1 (O1 ),
to be able to take advantage of the fact that σ (O1 ) = O1 . But O1 ∈ , so ρ −1 (O1 ) ∈

ρ −1 (), and O3 is the intersection point of s and ρ −1 (). By a similar argument as
for the proof of (i), we show that (, s) = −α/2.
With Theorem 1.10 in mind, let us find out what happens if we compose a
reflection with a translation that is not parallel to the reflection line.
28 1 Isometries
A1 B1 τ −1 ( )
v v⊥
A B
v⊥ v A v B
v A B τ( )
Fig. 1.18 Composition of a reflection and a translation
Theorem 1.18 Let τ be the translation by vector − →v , and let σ be the reflection
over the line , with and v not parallel. Let v = −
−
→ −
→ →
v + −v→ −
→
⊥ , with v parallel to
−
→
and v⊥ orthogonal to .
(i) The composition τ ◦ σ is a composition of a reflection over line 1 obtained by
translating by 12 −
v→ −
→
⊥ and a translation by v .
(ii) The composition σ ◦ τ is a composition of a reflection over line 2 obtained by
translating by − 12 −
v→ −
→
⊥ and a translation by v .
Proof Because both transformations τ ◦ σ and σ ◦ τ reverse orientation, both are

compositions of a reflection and a translation (Theorem 1.10). We need to determine
the reflection line and the translation vector for each case. Let A and B be two points
on (see Fig. 1.18).
We have τ ◦ σ (|AB) = τ (|AB), so the line is mapped to a line parallel to it.
The reflection line of τ ◦ σ is then the line that is halfway between and τ (), which
is obtained by translating by 12 − v→
⊥ . The translation vector is then the projection of
−−→
AA , where A = τ ◦ σ (A), onto . However, since A lies on , τ ◦ σ (A) = τ (A),
−−→ →
and AA = − v , so the translation vector is −
→
v .
For (ii), consider τ −1 (|AB), so σ ◦ τ (τ −1 (|AB)) = σ (|AB) = |AB. Thus the
reflection line of σ ◦τ is halfway between and τ −1 () and is obtained by translating
−−−→
by − 12 −
v→⊥ . The translation vector is again the projection of A1 A2 onto , where
−−−→ →
A1 = τ −1 (A) and A2 = σ ◦ τ (τ −1 (A)) = σ (A) = A. This means that A1 A2 = − v,
and so the translation vector is − →
v .

Notice that this theorem also proves that a translation and a reflection commute if
and only if the translation vector is parallel to the reflection line. With this at hand,
it becomes easier to compose an orientation-reversing isometry with some other
isometry. For instance, the composition of a rotation and an orientation-reversing
isometry is another orientation-reversing isometry equivalent to composing a rota-
tion, translation, and reflection, in order. This is the same as composing a rotation
(obtained by composing the rotation and the translation) and a reflection. We leave
the remaining cases to the reader.
In complex numbers, it is often easier to work directly with orientation-reversing
isometries as functions of the form z → rz + s and compose them with other
isometries. For instance, if f (z) = r1 z + s1 and g(z) = r2 z + s2 are two orientation-

reversing isometries, then f ◦ g(z) = r1 g(z) + s1 = r1 r2 z + r1 s2 + s1 , which is a
translation by v = r1 s2 + s1 if r1 r2 = 1 (which means r1 = r2 ), and a rotation by
arg(r1 r2 ) about (r1 s2 + s1 )/(1 − r1 r2 ) otherwise.
1.1.5 Discrete Groups of Isometries
There are some groups of geometric transformations of importance in combinatorial

geometry. We will examine those that come in handy when solving the combinato-
rial problems listed later in this chapter.
First, there are the groups of translations that keep invariant the tilings of the
plane by equilateral triangles, squares, or hexagons that are shown in Fig. 1.19. We
prove now that each of these groups is isomorphic to the group Z × Z endowed with
the composition law (m, n) + (m , n ) = (m + m , n + n ).
Theorem 1.19 Assume that the plane is tiled with equilateral triangles such that
πi
one of these triangles has vertices of complex coordinates 0, 1, e 3 . Then the group
of translations that maps this tiling to itself is isomorphic to Z × Z with the
isomorphism defined by τ1 → (1, 0) and τ2 → (0, 1) where τ1 is the translation by
the vector −
→
v1 defined by the complex number 1 and − →
v2 is the vector defined by the
πi
complex number e 3 .
Proof An arbitrary translation τ that maps the tiling to itself is determined by τ (T ),
πi
where T is the triangle with vertices 0, 1, e 3 mentioned in the statement. We want
to write
τ = τ1m τ2n .
The integer number n is uniquely determined by counting how many rows we go

up or down from the level of T to that of τ (T ). The integer number m is uniquely
determined by counting how many steps we go left or right from τ2n (T ) to τ (T ).
The isomorphism is τ1m τ2n → (m, n), and the theorem is proved.
Similarly one can prove the following two results:
Fig. 1.19 The tessellations of the plane by regular polygons

30 1 Isometries
Theorem 1.20 The group of translations that keeps invariant the tiling of the plane
by squares whose vertices are at the points of integer coordinates is isomorphic to
Z × Z with the isomorphism defined by τ1 → (1, 0) and τ2 → (0, 1) where the
translation vectors of τ1 and τ2 are −
→
v1 = (1, 0) and −
→
v2 = (0, 1).
Theorem 1.21 Assume that the plane is tiled with regular hexagons such that one of
πi πi
these hexagons has three consecutive vertices of complex coordinates e− 3 , 0, e 3 .
Then the group of translations that maps this tiling to itself is isomorphic to Z × Z
with the isomorphism defined by τ1 → (1, 0) and τ2 → (0, 1) where τ1 is the
√ πi
translation by the vector −
→
v1 defined by the complex number 3e 6 and − →
v2 is the
√ − πi
vector defined by the complex number 3e 6 .
A finite group that is omnipresent in applications is the one comprising the
rotations that map a regular polygon with n vertices into itself. It is not hard to
see (to boost your intuition use Fig. 1.20) that this group is
G = {1, ρ, ρ 2 , . . . , ρ n−1 },
where ρ is the rotation by 2π

n about the center of the polygon. This group is cyclic,
meaning that is has an element with the property that any other element is some
power of this element.
The last group that we will need is the group of symmetries of a nonsquare
rectangle (Fig. 1.21). This is a four-element group known as the Klein 4-group,
defined by
K = {a, b, c, e | a 2 = b2 = c2 = e, ab = ba = c, bc = cb = a, ac = ca = b}.
Here of course e is the identity element, namely, the identity transformation of the
rectangle, a is the reflection over a vertical axis, b is the reflection over a horizontal
axis, and c is the reflection over the center of the rectangle.
Fig. 1.20 The group of

rotations of a regular polygon ρ
Fig. 1.21 The Klein 4-group a
1.1.6 Theoretical Questions About Isometries
Our narrative continues with a number of questions of theoretical nature. Their aim
is to test and deepen your understanding of the structure of the group of isometries,
and to endow you with some useful lemmas. They will be followed in the next
section by more inviting problems about applications of isometries to Euclidean
geometry.
1 The triangles ABC and A B C are mapped into each other by the reflections
over two distinct lines. Prove that both triangles are equilateral.
2 Does there exist a set of points in the plane that has exactly two centers of
symmetry, meaning that it is mapped into itself by the reflections over exactly two
points?
3 Show that if f is an isometry such that f ◦ f = 1, then f is either the identity
map, the reflection over a point, or the reflection over a line.
4 Let O1 , O2 , . . . , O2n be points in the plane, and let σk be the reflection over Ok
for all k = 1, 2, . . . , 2n. Prove that σ1 ◦ σ2 ◦ · · · ◦ σ2n−1 ◦ σ2n is the identity map if
−−−→ −−−→ −−−−−−→ − →
and only if O1 O2 + O3 O4 + · · · + O2n−1 O2n = 0 .
5 Given the reflections σ1 , σ2 , σ3 , σ4 , σ5 over five points in the plane, prove that
σ1 ◦ σ2 ◦ σ3 ◦ σ4 ◦ σ5 = σ5 ◦ σ4 ◦ σ3 ◦ σ2 ◦ σ1 .
6 Let a, b, c be three distinct lines in the plane, and let σa , σb , σc be the reflections
over these lines. Prove that
σa ◦ σb ◦ σc = σc ◦ σb ◦ σa
if and only if the lines a, b, c either have a common point or are parallel to one
another.
7 Show that the composition of the reflections over three lines that intersect
pairwise at three distinct points has no fixed points.
8 Let a, b, c, d be four distinct lines, and let σa , σb , σc , σd be the reflections over
these lines, respectively. How are the lines arranged in the plane if
32 1 Isometries
σa ◦ σb ◦ σc ◦ σd = σb ◦ σa ◦ σd ◦ σc ?
9 Let 1 and 2 be two parallel lines, and let be a line perpendicular to them.
Denote by M the midpoint of the segment determined by the intersection points of
1 and 2 with , and consider A, B ∈ such that M is the midpoint of AB. Let a, b
be two lines parallel to 1 and 2 that pass through A and B, respectively. Denote by
σ1 , σ2 , σa , σb , σA , and σB the reflections over the lines 1 , 2 , a, b and the points
A, B, respectively. Prove that
σ2 = σb ◦ σ1 ◦ σa = σB ◦ σ1 ◦ σA .
10 Show that all axes of symmetry of a polygon intersect at one point. (An axis of
symmetry is a line such that the reflection over that line maps the polygon to itself.)
11 Using a straight edge and a compass, construct a pentagon knowing the
midpoints of its sides.
12 Two cars travel at equal speeds on two roads that are nonparallel straight lines.
Show that there is a point from which the two cars are, at any moment, at equal
distances.
1.2 Isometries in Euclidean Geometry Problems
Isometries are ubiquitous in Euclidean geometry. Many a time they show up

explicitly, such as when noticing that the orthocenter lies at the intersection of the
three reflections of the circumcircle over the sides, or that the rotation of a segment
by 60◦ around one of its endpoints gives rise to an equilateral triangle.
It is hence time to show how isometries come into play in the old-fashioned, but
beautiful realm of Euclidean geometry.
1.2.1 Some Constructions and Classical Results in Euclidean

Geometry That Use Isometries
We introduce below two objects from the geometry of a triangle that are constructed
using reflections over the angle bisectors of a triangle.
I. The Symmedians of a Triangle
Given two lines that pass through the same vertex of a triangle (i.e., two cevians of
the same vertex), these lines are called isogonal if they reflect into each other over
the bisector of the angle at that vertex.
1.2 Isometries in Euclidean Geometry Problems 33
Fig. 1.22 The definition of A

the symmedian
B M M C
Definition A symmedian of a triangle is the reflection of a median of the triangle

over the corresponding angle bisector.
So the median and symmedian of a given vertex provide a particular example
of isogonal lines. The definition of the symmedian is illustrated in Fig. 1.22, where
M is the midpoint of the side BC and the line AM is the reflection of the line
of support of the median AM over the angle bisector of A. A triangle has three
symmedians, one for each median. The next result shows how to construct them.
Theorem 1.22 (Construction of Symmedians) Let ABC be a triangle. Then the

symmedian from A passes trough the point where the tangents to the circumcircle at
B and C intersect.
We will give two proofs of this result:
Proof 1 Let T be the intersection of the tangents to the circumcircle at B and C, let
M be the midpoint of BC, and let α, β, γ denote the measures of the three angles
of the triangle. Examining Fig. 1.23, we notice that BM = MC and BT = T C.
We can put these equalities to work using the Law of Sines in the triangles ABM,
ACM, ABT , and ACT
AM BM AM CM
= , = ,
sin β sin BAM sin γ sin CAM
AT BT AT CT
= , = ,
sin(α + β) sin BAT sin(α + γ ) sin CAT
where for the last two equalities we used the fact that ABT = α + β and ACT =
α + γ.
Using the abovementioned equalities of segments, we obtain
sin BAM sin CAT

= .

sin CAM sin BAT
And we have BAM + CAM = CAT + BAT = α, so by denoting the

measures of CAM and BAT by x and y, respectively, we obtain
34 1 Isometries
Fig. 1.23 The construction A

of the symmedian
B M C
sin(α − x) sin(α − y)
= .
sin x sin y
Using the subtraction formula for sine, this further yields
sin α cot x − cos α = sin α cot y − cos α.
But the cotangent function is one-to-one on (0, π ), so this equality implies x = y,

that is, CAM = BAT , showing that AT is symmedian.
Proof 2 Draw a line P Q through T (P ∈ AB, Q ∈ AC) that is antiparallel to
BC, namely, such that ACB = AP Q and (consequently) ABC = AQP (see
Fig. 1.24). We have
T BP = 180◦ − ABC − CBT = 180◦ − ABC − BAC

= ACB = BP T
and similarly T CQ = T QC. It follows that the triangles T P B and T QC are

isosceles, and hence T B = T P and T C = T Q. But T B = T C, so T is the
midpoint of P Q. And the triangle AP Q reflects over the angle bisector of BAC
to a triangle AP Q whose side P Q is parallel to BC (the antiparallel becomes
parallel). In that case the image T of T under this reflection is on the line AM.
Consequently the line AT is the reflection of AM; it is the symmedian.
This construction of the symmedian leads naturally to the concept of a harmonic
quadrilateral. We say that four points A, B, D, C that appear in this order on a circle
form a harmonic quadrilateral if
AB CB
: = 1 ⇐⇒ AB · CD = AD · BC.
AD CD
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
totally without exaggeration, and a lover, as well as a practicer, of
severe truth, he was a man whose representations might be fully
relied on. Even in his account of the extraordinary combat between
the Richard and Serapis, he stripped the affair of all its romance, and
of every thing that was wonderful; rendering the whole clear, simple
and intelligible as his own thoughts. The only narratives of that
battle, worthy of a seaman, have been written rigidly after his
explanations, which leave it a bloody and murderous fight, but one
wholly without the marvelous.
On his arrival at Philadelphia, after an absence of four years,
more than one of which had been spent in prison, Dale was just
twenty-four years and two months old. He was now regularly put on
the list of lieutenants, by the marine committee of Congress; his
former authority proceeding from the agents of the government in
Europe. It is owing to this circumstance that the register of
government places him so low as a lieutenant. Dale now parted from
Paul Jones, with whom he had served near two years; and that, too,
in some of the most trying scenes of the latter’s life. The commodore
was anxious to take his favorite lieutenant with him to the America
74; but the latter declined the service, under the impression it would
be a long time before the ship got to sea. He judged right, the
America being transferred to the French in the end, and Jones
himself never again sailing under the American flag.
The name of Dale will inseparably be connected with the battle of
the Richard and Serapis. His prominent position and excellent
conduct entitle him to this mark of distinction, and it says much for
the superior, when it confers fame to have been “Paul Jones’ first
lieutenant.” We smile, however, at the legends of the day, when we
recall the account of the “Lieutenants Grubb” and other heroes of
romance, who have been made to figure in the histories of that
renowned combat, and place them in contrast with the truth-loving,
sincere, moral and respectable subject of this memoir. The sword
which Louis XVI. bestowed on Jones, for this victory, passed into the
hands of Dale, and is now the property of a gallant son, a fitting mark
of the services of the father, on the glorious occasion it
commemorates.[4]
Dale was employed on board a schooner that was manned from
the Ariel, after reaching Philadelphia, and sent down the Delaware to
convoy certain public stores. The following June, he joined the
Trumbull 28, Captain Nicholson, as her first lieutenant. The Trumbull
left the capes of the Delaware on the 8th August, 1781, being
chased off the land by three of the enemy’s cruisers. The weather
was squally and night set in dark. In endeavoring to avoid her
pursuers, the Trumbull found herself alongside of the largest, a
frigate of thirty-two guns, and an action was fought under the most
unfavorable circumstances. The Trumbull’s fore-topmast was
hanging over, or rather through her forecastle, her crew was
disorganized, and the vessel herself in a state of no preparation for a
conflict with an equal force; much less with that actually opposed to
her. The officers made great exertions, and maintained an action of
more than an hour, when the colors of the American ship were struck
to the Iris 32, and Monk 18. The former of these vessels had been
the American frigate Hancock, and the latter was subsequently
captured in the Delaware, by Barney in the Hyder Ally.
This was the fourth serious affair in which Dale had been
engaged that war, and the fourth time he had been captured. As he
was hurt also in this battle, it made the third of his wounds. His
confinement, however, was short, and the treatment not a subject of
complaint. He was taken into New York, paroled on Long Island, and
exchanged in November.
No new service offering in a marine which, by this time, had lost
most of its ships, Dale obtained a furlough, and joined a large letter-
of-marque called the Queen of France, that carried twelve guns, as
her first officer. Soon after he was appointed to the command of the
same vessel. In the spring of 1782, this ship, in company with
several other letters-of-marque, sailed for France, making many
captures by the way. The ship of Dale, however, parted from the
fleet, and, falling in with an English privateer of fourteen guns, a
severe engagement followed, in which both parties were much cut
up; they parted by mutual consent. Dale did not get back to
Philadelphia until February of the succeeding year, or until about the
time that peace was made.
In common with most of the officers of the navy, Lieutenant Dale
was disbanded, as soon as the war ceased. He was now in the
twenty-seventh year of his age, with a perfect knowledge of his
profession, in which he had passed more than half his life, a high
reputation for his rank, a courage that had often been tried, a body
well scarred, a character beyond reproach, and not altogether
without “money in his purse.” Under the circumstances, he naturally
determined to follow up his fortunes in the line in which he had
commenced his career. He became part owner of a large ship, and
sailed in her for London, December, 1783, in the station of master.
After this, he embarked successfully in the East India trade, in the
same character, commanding several of the finest ships out of the
country. In this manner he accumulated a respectable fortune, and
began to take his place among the worthies of the land in a new
character.
In September, 1791, Mr. Dale was married to Dorothy Crathorne,
the daughter of another respectable ship-master of Philadelphia, and
then a ward of Barry’s. With this lady he passed the remainder of his
days, she surviving him as his widow, and dying some years later
than himself. No change in his pursuits occurred until 1794, when
the new government commenced the organization of another
marine, which has resulted in that which the country now possesses.
Dale was one of the six captains appointed under the law of
1794, that directed the construction of as many frigates, with a view
to resist the aggressions of Algiers. Each of the new captains was
ordered to superintend the construction of one of the frigates, and
Dale, who was fifth in rank, was directed to assume the
superintendence of the one laid down at Norfolk, virtually the place
of his nativity. This ship was intended to be a frigate of the first class,
but, by some mistake in her moulds, she proved in the end to be the
smallest of the six vessels then built. It was the unfortunate
Chesapeake, a vessel that never was in a situation to reflect much
credit on the service. Her construction, however, was deferred, in
consequence of an arrangement with Algiers, and her captain was
put on furlough.
Dale now returned to the China trade, in which he continued until
the spring of 1798. The last vessel he commanded was called the
Ganges. She was a fine, fast ship, and the state of our relations with
France requiring a hurried armament, the government bought this
vessel, in common with several others, put an armament of suitable
guns in her, with a full crew, gave her to Dale, and ordered her on
the coast as a regular cruiser.
In consequence of this arrangement, Capt. Dale was the first
officer who ever got to sea under the pennant of the present navy.
He sailed in May, 1798, and was followed by the Constellation and
Delaware in a few days. The service of Dale in his new capacity was
short, however, in consequence of some questions relating to rank.
The captains appointed in 1794 claimed their old places, and, it
being uncertain what might be the final decision of the government,
as there were many aspirants, Dale declined serving until the matter
was determined. In May, 1799, he sailed for Canton again, in
command of a strong letter-of-marque, under a furlough. On his
return from this voyage he found his place on the list settled
according to his own views of justice and honor, and reported himself
for service. Nothing offered, however, until the difficulties with France
were arranged; but, in May, 1801, he was ordered to take command
of a squadron of observation about to be sent to the Mediterranean.
Dale now hoisted his broad pennant, for the first and only time,
and assumed the title by which he was known for the rest of his
days. He was in the prime of life, being in his forty-fifth year, of an
active, manly frame, and had every prospect before him of a long
and honorable service. The ships put under his orders were the
President 44, Capt. James Barron; Philadelphia 38, Capt. Samuel
Barron; Essex 32, Capt. William Bainbridge; and Enterprise 12,
Lieut. Com. Sterrett. A better appointed, or a better commanded
force, probably never sailed from America. But there was little to do,
under the timid policy and defective laws of the day. War was not
supposed to exist, although hostilities did; and vessels were sent into
foreign seas with crews shipped for a period that would scarcely
allow of a vessel’s being got into proper order.
The squadron sailed June 1st, 1801, and reached Gibraltar July
1st. The Philadelphia blockaded the Tripolitan admiral, with two
cruisers, in Gibraltar, while the other vessels went aloft. A sharp
action occurred between the Enterprise and a Tripolitan of equal
force, in which the latter was compelled to submit, but was allowed
to go into her own port again, for want of legal authority to detain her.
Dale appeared off Tripoli, endeavored to negotiate a little about an
exchange of prisoners, and did blockade the port; but his orders
fettered him in a way to prevent any serious enterprises. In a word,
no circumstances occurred to allow the commodore to show his true
character, except as it was manifested in his humanity, prudence and
dignity. As a superior, he obtained the profound respect of all under
his orders, and to this day his name is mentioned with regard by
those who then served under him. It is thought that this squadron did
much toward establishing the high discipline of the marine. In one
instance only had Dale an opportunity of manifesting his high
personal and professional qualities. The President struck a rock in
quitting Port Mahon, and for some hours she was thought to be in
imminent danger of foundering. Dale assumed the command, and
one of his lieutenants, himself subsequently a flag officer of rare
seamanship and merit, has often recounted to the writer his
admiration of the commodore’s coolness, judgment, and nerve, on
so trying an occasion. The ship was carried to Toulon, blowing a
gale, and, on examination, it was found that she was only saved
from destruction by the skilful manner in which the wood ends had
been secured.
The vigilance of Dale was so great, however, and his dispositions
so skilful, that the Tripolitans made no captures while he
commanded in those seas. In March, 1802, he sailed for home,
under his orders, reaching Hampton Roads in April, after a cruise of
about ten months. The succeeding autumn, Com. Dale received an
order to hold himself in readiness to resume the command from
which he had just returned. Ever ready to serve his country, when it
could be done with honor, he would cheerfully have made his
preparations accordingly, but, by the order itself, he ascertained that
he was to be sent out without a captain in his own ship. This,
agreeably to the notions he entertained, was a descent in the scale
of rank, and he declined serving on such terms. There being no
alternative between obedience and resignation, he chose the latter,
and quitted the navy. At this time, he was the third captain on the list,
and it is no more than justice to say, that he stood second to no other
in the public estimation.
Dale never went to sea again. Possessed of an ample fortune,
and possessing the esteem of all who knew him, he commanded the
respect of those with whom he differed in opinion touching the
question which drove him from the navy. With the latter he never
quarreled, for, at the proper period, he gave to it his two elder sons.
To the last he retained his interest in its success, and his care of
mariners, in general, extended far beyond the interests of this life.
Many years previously to his death, Com. Dale entered into full
communion with the Protestant Episcopal Church, of which he
proved a consistent and pious member. Under the newly awakened
feelings which induced this step, he was the originater of a Mariner’s
Church, in Philadelphia, attending it in person, every Sunday
afternoon, for a long succession of years. He was as free with his
purse, too, as with his time; and his charities, though properly
concealed, were believed to be large and discriminating. With some
it may be deemed a matter of moment, with all it should be a proof of
the estimation in which Dale was held by certainly a very respectable
part of his fellow citizens, that he was named to be the first president
of the Washington Benevolent Society; an association that soon
degenerated to serve the ends of party politics, whatever may have
been the design that influenced the few with which it originated.
The evening of the life of Dale was singularly peaceful and
happy. It was as calm as its morning had been tempestuous. It is
true he had to weep for the loss of his first-born son, a noble youth,
who died of wounds received in the action between his old ship, the
President, and a British squadron; but he had given the young man
to his country, and knew how to bear up under the privation. He died,
himself, in the seventieth year of his age, in his dwelling at
Philadelphia, February 26th, 1826; departing in peace with God and
man, as he fondly trusted himself, and as those who survive have
every reason to hope.
By his marriage with Miss Crathorne, Com. Dale had several
children, five of whom lived to become men and women, viz. three
sons and two daughters. Of the former, Richard, the eldest, fell, at an
early age, a midshipman on board the President. John Montgomery,
the second, is now a commander in the navy, having served with
Warrington, in the last English war. This gentleman is married to a
lady of the well known family of Willing. Edward Crathorne, the
youngest son, is a merchant of Philadelphia. He is married and has
children. The eldest daughter, Sarah, married T. M’Kean Pettit, Esq.,
a judge of the District Court, in Philadelphia, and is dead, leaving
issue. Elizabeth, the youngest, is the wife of Com. George Campbell
Reed, of the navy, and has no issue.
In considering the character of Dale, we are struck with its simple
modesty and frank sincerity, quite as much as with its more brilliant
qualities. His courage and constancy were of the highest order,
rendering him always equal to the most critical duties, and never
wearying in their performance. Such a man is perfectly free from all
exaggeration. As he was not afraid to act when his cooler judgment
approved, he had no distrusts to overcome ere he could forbear, as
prudence dictated. Jones found him a man ready and willing to
second all his boldest and most hazardous attempts, so long as
reason showed the probabilities of success; but the deed done, none
more thoroughly stripped it of all false coloring, or viewed it in a truer
light than he who had risked his life in aiding to achieve it.
The person of Dale was in harmony with his moral qualities. It
was manly, seaman-like, and of singularly respectable bearing.
Simplicity, good faith, truth and courage were imprinted on his
countenance, which all who were thrown into his company soon
discovered was no more than the mirror of his mind. The navy has
had more brilliant intellects, officers of profounder mental
attainments, and of higher natural gifts, but it has had few leaders of
cooler judgment, sounder discretion, more inflexible justice, or
indomitable resolution. He was of a nature, an experience, and a
professional skill to command respect and to inspire confidence,
tributes that were cheerfully paid by all who served under his orders.
The writer of this article has had extensive opportunities of hearing
character discussed among the sea-officers of his country; few
escape criticism, of some sort or other, for their professional acts,
and fewer still, as men; yet he cannot recall a single instance in
which he has ever heard a whisper of complaint against the public or
private career of Richard Dale. This total exemption from the usual
fortunes of the race may, in part, be owing to the shortness of the
latter’s service in the present marine, and to the limited acquaintance
of his cotemporaries, but it is difficult to believe that it is not chiefly to
be ascribed to the thoroughly seaman-like character of the officer,
and to the perfect truth and sterling probity of the man.
[1] This ship has been differently stated to have been

the Liverpool and the Pearl. We follow what we
think the best authorities.
[2] The prize-officer of the Lexington was a young
American, of a highly respectable family, then an
acting lieutenant in the English navy. His prisoners
seized an occasion to rise, at a moment when he
had gone below for an instant, in consequence of
which he was dismissed the service; living the
remainder of his life, and dying, in his native
country.
[3] It is a curious feature of the times, that, the French
ordering the Americans to quit their ports with their
prizes, the latter were taken out a short distance to
sea and sold, Frenchmen becoming the purchasers,
and finding means to secure the property.
[4] This sword has, quite recently, become the subject
of public discussion, and of some private feeling,
under circumstances not wholly without interest to
the navy and the country. At page 63, vol. 2, of
Mackenzie’s Life of Paul Jones, is the following
note, viz.:
“This sword was sent by Jones’ heirs to his valued friend, Robert
Morris, to whose favor he had owed his opportunities of distinguishing
himself. Mr. Morris gave the sword to the navy of the United States. It
was to be retained and worn by the senior officer, and transmitted at his
death, to his successor. After passing through the hands of Commodore
Barry, and one or two other senior officers, it came into possession of
Commodore Dale, and now remains in his family, through some mistake
in the nature of the bequest, which seems to require that it should either
be restored to the navy in the person of its senior officer, or else revert
to the heirs of Mr. Robert Morris, from one of whom the writer has
received this information.”
That Captain Mackenzie has been correctly informed as to a portion
of the foregoing statement, is as probable as it is certain he has been
misled as to the remainder. It would have been more discreet, however,
in a writer to have heard both sides, previously to laying such a
statement before the world. A very little inquiry might have satisfied him
that Commodore Dale could not have held any thing as the senior
officer of the navy, since he never occupied that station. We believe the
following will be found to be accurate.
Of the manner in which Commodore Barry became possessed of
this sword we know nothing beyond report, and the statement of
Captain Mackenzie. We understand that a female member of the Morris
family gives a version of the affair like that published in the note we
have quoted, but the accuracy of her recollections can hardly be put in
opposition to the acts of such men as Barry and Dale.
The sword never passed through the hands “of one or two other
senior officers,” as stated by Captain Mackenzie, at all. It was
bequeathed by Commodore Barry to Commodore Dale, in his will, and
in the following words, viz.
“Item, I give and bequeath to my good friend Captain Richard Dale,
my gold-hilted sword, as a token of my esteem for him.”
We have carefully examined the will, inventory, &c. of Commodore
Barry. The first is dated February 27, 1803; the will is proved and the
inventory filed in the following September, in which month Commodore
Barry died. Now, Commodore Dale was not in the navy at all, when this
sword was bequeathed to him, nor when he received it. Dale resigned
in the autumn of 1802; and he never rose nearer to the head of the list
of captains, than to be the third in rank; Barry, himself, and Samuel
Nicholson, being his seniors, when he resigned.
The inventory of Commodore Barry’s personal property is very
minute, containing articles of a value as low as one dollar. It mentions
two swords, both of which are specifically bequeathed—viz. “my gold-
hilted” and “my silver-hilted sword.” No allusion is made in the will to
any trust. Only these two swords were found among the assets, and
each was delivered agreeably to the bequest. The gold-hilted sword
was known in the family, as the “Paul Jones sword,” and there is not the
smallest doubt Commodore Barry intended to bequeath this particular
sword, in full property, to Commodore Dale.
Let us next look to the probabilities of the case. The heirs of Paul
Jones, who left no issue, gave the sword to Robert Morris, says Captain
Mackenzie, as a mark of gratitude. This may very well be true. But Mr.
Morris “gave the sword to the navy of the United States,” to be retained
and worn by its senior officer. It would have been a more usual course
to have lodged the sword in the Navy Department, had such been the
intention. That Commodore Barry did not view his possession of the
sword in this light, is clear enough by his will. He gave it, without
restraint of any sort, to a friend who was not in the navy at all, and who
never had been its senior officer. This he did, in full possession of his
mind and powers, six months before he died, and under circumstances
to render any misconception highly improbable.
Can we find any motive for the bequest of Commodore Barry? It was
not personal to himself, as the sword went out of his own family. The
other sword he gave to a brother-in-law. “Paul Jones’ sword” was
bequeathed to a distinguished professional friend—to one who, of all
others, next to Jones himself, had the best professional right to wear it
—to “Paul Jones’ first lieutenant.” Commodore Dale did leave sons, and
some in the navy; and the country will believe that the one who now
owns the sword has as good a moral right to wear it, as the remote
collaterals of Jones, and a much better right than the senior officer of
the navy, on proof as vague as that offered. His legal right to the sword
seems to be beyond dispute.
In the inventory of Commodore Barry’s personals, this sword is thus
mentioned, viz.—“a very elegant gold-hilted sword—$300.” The other
sword is thus mentioned, viz.—“a handsome silver-hilted, do. $100.”
THE SERENADE.
Beneath a bower, where poplar branches long
Embracing wove Seclusion o’er the abode
Of hermit sage, what time the full moon rode
’Mid spectre clouds her star-paved streets along,
Rose on the listening air a plaintive song,
Sweet as the harmony of an angel’s lyre,
And soft as sweet; breathed heavenward from a quire
Of Beauty, hid the encircling shades among.
Of mysteries high, I ween, that sage had dreamed⁠—
Who now, upstarting, clasps his hands to hear
The mystic notes of Nature’s Anthem clear,
Which holiest bards have heard and heavenly deemed!
’Tis even thus as to that sage it seemed⁠—
’Tis Beauty makes the dreams of Wisdom, dear!
THE WIDOW OF NEWBURY.
———
BY THE AUTHOR OF “HENRI QUATRE.”
———
’Twas the eve of Newbury fair, and the time near the close of the
long reign of Harry the Eighth, after monasteries were suppressed.
Reform stalked through the land—all things were turned topsy-turvy
—abbots and monks beggared, that poor lords might thrive—priests
permitted marriage, and nuns driven from their pleasant retreats,
were forced to spin for a livelihood. But amid the greater marvels, the
townspeople of Newbury had often leisure to ask why Mistress Avery
remained so long a widow.
Sitting in her embowered porch, watching the cavalcade of
merchants, buffoons and jugglers, on their way to the encampment
and site of the morrow’s revels, she attracted many a longing eye.
The merchant, whose wandering vocation led him from ancient
Byzantium to the shores of the Thames, who came to Newbury to
exchange rich silks and foreign jewelry for broadcloth, as he rode by
the capacious square tenement, with its deep, embayed windows of
dark chesnut-wood, and caught a glimpse of the fair owner, sighed
when contrasting his own desolate, wandering lot with that of the
fortunate wooer of the rich, comely widow. Mistress Avery was relict
of the richest clothier of Newbury, who, dying, left her in sole
possession of looms, lands, tenements and leases. Handsome,
young, brisk, with riches unquestionable, she attracted tender
regards from all quarters—even the proud gentry of Berkshire, with
genealogical tree rooting from Norman marauder, far back as the
conquest, disdained not an alliance garnished with broad manors,
woods of a century’s growth, and goodly array of tenements, of
which our widow held fee-simple. But when pressed successively by
belted knight and worshipful esquire, she courteously declined their
offers, alleging she was bent on marrying one of her own class in
life, (if she should change condition,) one who could take upon
himself, without degradation, the task of superintending the looms.
High born swains repulsed, the field was open to gallants of lowlier
rank. But these faring no better, and incurring the ridicule of
neighbors, suitors became shy and reserved, seeking to extract
token of favor ere they avowed themselves. If the curate called,
’twas merely an inquiry after her soul’s health—the inquiry perhaps
linked to a request that she would, from her stores of boundless
wealth, add a trifle to the contributions of the poor’s box. The lawyer
had his ever ready and undeniable excuses for visiting—leases there
were to sign, indentures to cancel. Nor was the tailor barred his plea
—was there not much broadcloth yearly fashioned into apparel for
lusty serving-man, active apprentice?
Behind Mistress Avery, as she sat gazing at the straggling
pageantry, there loitered in hall and doorway the apprentices and
domestic servants of the household. Distinguished amongst his
companions, by superior stature, stood John Winehcomb, chief
apprentice. To him the widow oft turned with remark on passing
stranger; the soft regard thrown into her address would have
excused boldness in one far less favored by nature than the
apprentice, but his answers were submissive, modest, even bashful.
An acute observer might perhaps have detected a shade of
discontent on the widow’s handsome features, perhaps, as fancifully,
attributed it to the coyness and reserve of young Winehcomb; and,
indeed, as revolving months lengthened the period of widowhood,
there had not been wanting whispers, that ’Prentice John stood a
fairer chance with his mistress than all the knights or reputable
burgher citizens and yeomen of the county. His appearance certainly
did not gainsay the rumor—he had completed his twentieth year,
health flushed his cheeks, honesty and intelligence stamped his
looks—the features were bold and decided, though of modest
expression. In character, he was one of those gifted youths, in whom
strict attention and unvarying promptitude supply the place of
experience, and who acquire the management and conduct of
business, in ordinary cases, rarely entrusted to men of mature years.
The clothier, when dying, recommended his spouse to confide
business affairs to John—she had done so; in the factory and with
the workmen ’Prentice John was all and everything—from his word
’twas useless to appeal.
But when young Winehcomb’s credit with Mistress Avery was
canvassed, the gossips were at a loss to affix on decisive marks of
favor or tenderness. ’Tis true, he accompanied her to church, but so
did the other apprentices—walked by her side, sat next his mistress
during prayers, his arm was accepted, his hand arranged the
cushions—but then, was he not chief apprentice, would it not be
slighting to prefer the services of a junior? Look narrowly at his
conduct—there were none of the characteristics of a favored swain,
no semblance of behavior indicating one presumptuous of the honor,
nor could the absence of these tokens be attributed to natural
timidity in the presence of the sex, for at country meetings and fairs,
where hoydenish romping was the usual diversion of youth, John
participated in rustic gallantries. Yet, sooth to say, though the gossips
were at fault, they were not wrong in their conjectures; the widow
was deeply in love with ’Prentice John, for his sake had dismissed
high-born suitors, wealthy citizens, and, we need hardly say, (though
scrupulously regardful of reputation,) had given him many hints,
which, alas! he was slow to understand. It might be inexperience,
want of self-confidence, or innate modesty, which withheld the youth
from tracing her encouragement to its real motive; but from whatever
cause, Mistress Avery, who had a very high opinion of her own
personal attractions, knew he must be perfectly well acquainted with
her riches, was greatly perplexed with his diffidence, his want of
susceptibility, and concluded the apprentice must be in love
elsewhere to withstand such allurements.
One while, racked with jealousy, determined in very spite and
vexation to accept the offer of the first suitor, the next hour affection
gained the ascendancy, and she resolved to declare her love. But
pride took fire and caused a tumult in the heart, of which young
Winehcomb, the unconscious origin, was little aware. How provoking
the calmness of his replies, the quiet gaze which met her
impassioned glance! Oft with difficulty she refrained from bestowing
a hearty cuff on the cold youth, object of fond desire—as often, and
with greater difficulty, did she refrain from tenderer salute. To-morrow
shall put this wilful-headed boy to the test! If his heart be engaged, it
is more than likely he has made an assignation, which I will frustrate!
So thought Mistress Avery, revolving a scheme to bring young
Diffidence on his knees, or to a direct confession that he loved
another. Under pretence of making inquiries respecting the
description of merchandise then passing the house, borne on a long
train of pack-horses, under conduct of merchants of foreign aspect,
the widow beckoned the apprentice (who was standing at respectful
distance, beneath the threshold, with his fellow apprentices) to
approach her chair, placed outside the house under cover of the
overarching porch.
“John!” said the dame, fixing her large eyes on the youth, “I
warrant there is store enough of trinkets and finery in yon bales to
satisfy the wants of every maiden in Newbury. Happy the youth
whose wages are unspent, for to-morrow, by ’r Lady! he might buy
the love of the most hard-hearted damsel. Certes, no swain need die
of love, if he have money in his purse!”
“If the love were bought by those foreign pedlar wares, it would
not be much for a Newbury lad to boast of,” replied the young man,
blushing—for the gaze of his mistress was keen and ardent.
“Are the lads of Newbury then so disinterested, Master John,”
exclaimed the widow. “Well! I will put one, at least, to the proof. I
must walk through the fair, if only to chat with my tenants’ wives from
Spene and Thatcham, and shall need your protection, for these
strange foreigners may be rude, and Cicely is such a coward she
would run away.”
Mrs. Avery was rather baffled by the result of her own feint; for,
contrary to expectation, she could discover neither chagrin nor
disappointment; the apprentice answered cheerfully, he should be
proud to attend on his honored mistress, and would not forget a
good cudgel, more than a match for any foreigner’s steel—nay, to
ensure her from insult, he would bring all his fellow apprentices. This
was more than the lady desired. She was again puzzled, and
declined, rather pettishly, the extra corps of gallants, volunteered by
the apprentice, more especially, as she affirmed that it was contrary
to the letter and spirit of their indentures, which guaranteed festival
and fair-days to be at their own disposal. But they would gladly
abandon the privilege to do her service, rejoined the pertinacious
and simple youth, with ill-timed assiduity.
“Fool!” muttered the widow between her teeth, but not so
indistinctly as to pass unheard by the apprentice, who immediately
drew back abashed.
A bright morrow gladdened the hearts of the good folk of
Newbury. The morn was occupied in the sale and purchase of
commodities—the staple article of the town was readily exchanged
for foreign merchandise, or broad Spanish pieces, as suited the
inclination of the parties dealing. These were busy hours for young
Winehcomb and his associates, but amply redeemed by the gayety
and attractive dissipation of the afternoon. In walking through the fair,
Mistress Avery leaned on the youth’s arm, an honor envied the
apprentice by many an anxious, would-be suitor. Ere growing tired of
the drollery of the jugglers, mountebanks and buffoons, or the more
serious spectacle of the scenic moralites, they encountered Master
Luke Milner, the attorney, who thought the opportunity should not be
thrown away of endeavoring to gain the widow’s good graces.
Master Luke believed his chance very fair—he was of good family,
on the youthful side of thirty, but exceedingly foppish, after the style
of the London gallants, but caricatured—too many ribbons on
doublet, too many jewels on beaver, shoes garnished with roses
large as sunflowers. “The worshipful attorney will never do for me,”
thought Mistress Avery! She had often thought so, and was blind to
many courtesies and compliments which the learned man ventured
to throw in with his legal opinions. But now she had a part to play, a
stratagem to practice on the feelings of young Winehcomb. Love,
like hunger, will break through every restraint; she scrupled not
making the lawyer’s vanity subservient to her policy, and,
accordingly, listened to his flattery with more than ordinary attention,
keeping an eye, the while, on ’Prentice John, to observe the effect of
the legal gallant’s honeyed speeches. Alas! for poor, love-stricken
Mistress Avery—no burning jealousy flushed the cheek of John—
lightened in his eye, or trembled through his frame! Hearing the
conversation grow each moment more interesting and tender,
believing himself one too many, he politely retired to a respectful
distance. Was he so cold and insensible, the handsome blockhead?
soliloquized Mistress Avery, heedless of the lawyer’s flowing
speeches—I will break the indentures—banish him the house! The
wretch!
Not cold, not insensible, Mistress Avery, for see! Even whilst he
loiters, there approaches a party from the village of Spene, with
whom our apprentice is intimate—he laughs, chats with the young
men and maidens, and finally, as the mirth grows more uproarious,
salutes a very handsome, fresh colored, smart young damsel. The
dame, who witnessed the scene, stung with jealousy, believing her
suspicions confirmed, broke off abruptly, whilst Master Luke was at
the very acme of his tender theme; leaving the astonished gallant,
cap in hand, to the derision of acquaintance, who sarcastically
advised him to repair the loss by writ of error.
——
CHAPTER II.
Though the widow took no notice of the incident which aroused
her jealousy, John was made sensible he had incurred her
displeasure. She walked silent, moody, reserved, scarcely replied to
his remarks; her large, dark eye flashed anger, but the apprentice,
though awed, was struck with its beauty, more struck than he had
ever been. It was a new sensation he experienced. He inwardly
deprecated the threatened wrath, wondered by what sad mischance
he had incurred it, was more tremblingly alive to her resentment,
than when oft-times—during the course of apprenticeship—
conscious of deserving it. A strange, uneasy feeling began to haunt
him—he was sensible of loss of favor, and though, after taxing
memory, unconscious of merited disgrace—was surprised, inquieted,
by the deep dejection of spirits under which he labored. It seemed as
though he had incurred a loss, of which he knew not the extent till
now. His arm trembled, and she snappishly rebuked his
unsteadiness; he again encountered her glance—it was wild, angry,
fierce, yet he felt he could have looked forever.
They were opposite one of those temporary taverns, erected for
the accommodation of the higher classes frequenting the fair—
tricked out with gaudy splendor, yet affording delicious viands,
choice wines to wearied strollers. It so happened that, passing by the
open doorway, their progress was arrested by Master Nathaniel
Buttress, the wealthy tanner—mean, avaricious, advanced in years,
yet ardently longing to add the widow’s possessions to his own
accumulated riches. With studied bow, and precise flourish of
beaver, he bade Mistress Avery good day, and followed up the salute
by invitation to sip a glass of sack, the fashionable beverage of the
time. At fair-season, there was not the slightest impropriety, either in
the offer, or its acceptation—it was quite in the usual license of these
festivals. But ’Prentice John was doubly surprised; in the first place,
that the miserly tanner (his niggardliness was proverbial) should
have screwed up courage to treat any one with the high-priced
nectar—and that his arm, which he gallantly offered, should have
been accepted with alacrity by the fair dame, who, our apprentice
was aware, had oft made devious circuits, on many occasions, to
elude a meeting. Young Winehcomb found himself, lacquey-fashion,
following in the rear. He was deeply mortified—such circumstance
had never happened before—yet, though vexed, the annoyance was
only secondary to extreme surprise at the character of his own
feelings. He had valued highly the good will, kind words, and
occasional gifts of the lady, as proofs of favor, founded on his
honesty, diligence and promptitude, or, at least, without deeply
analizing his feelings, believed that in such spirit he received them.
But now, smarting under disgrace, it seemed as though lost favor
was dear for its own sake—bereft of smiles to which he had been
insensible till the present hour, he was unhappy, miserable. ’Prentice
John had great difficulty in withholding his cudgel from the tanner’s
back, but though he gave him not a beating, he mentally promised
one. Master Buttress, elated with good fortune, was more vain-
glorious than cautious; unlike prudent lover, uncertain of continuance
of sudden favor, dreading loss of vantage ground, snatched by eager
rivals, he escorted the dame to a conspicuous seat, whence they
could behold the fair, from whence his favored lot was visible to all.
The ready drawers, ere ardor called, hastened to place before the
guests a tray laden with costly delicacies, crowned with silver flagon
full of the favorite potation. Young Winehcomb, who sat apart,
though partaking the dainties, was maddened to behold his mistress
listen so complacently to the addresses of the veteran suitor. Could
she be serious? And if she were—what then? Was she not absolute
mistress of herself, her wealth—and was he so specially concerned
in her choice? This self-questioning elicited the conviction, startling
though true, that he was deeply, personally concerned. He was,
then, undeniably in love with his mistress! Was the passion of
sudden growth, the birth of the present hour? Alas! no—it had been
long smouldering unconsciously—nay, if he doubted, memory
flashed innumerable, though till now, unnoticed facts proving its
existence—and he had foolishly let slip the golden chance of wooing
till too late—till his advantages were the prey of a successful rival!—
his own affection only brought to light by the torch of jealousy. Such
was the cruel, torturing position of young Winehcomb. ’Twas
aggravated in being obliged to listen to the tanner’s flattery, to
witness its favorable reception. Nay, worse—he became conscious
that Mistress Avery remarked his inquietude, his ill-suppressed
hatred of Master Nathaniel, as her eye was often for a moment bent
on him. He was convinced she took pleasure in his torments, for on
these occasions her manner—though strictly within the rigid limits of
propriety—invariably was more marked and tender toward the
detested, fulsome niggard. He had heard, alas! such was the custom
of the sex. Often was ’Prentice John resolved on leaving the lovers
to their own conversation, but restrained anger on reflecting it was
his duty to be present with and protect Mistress Avery, till she quitted
the fair and returned home. Nor did he relish the notion of leaving the
field altogether to the tanner—jealousy united with sense of duty in
detaining the youth.
Master Buttress was in rare good humor; he could not deem
otherwise but that he was the fortunate, chosen man, and he found
leisure in the intervals of fits of gallantry, to conjure flitting visions of
broad manor added to broad manor, tenement to tenement, and to
picture the future Master—nay, Worshipful Master Nathaniel
Buttress, richest gentleman in the county of Berkshire. The only
damp on his high spirits was the present outlay; he had been drawn
into expenses far beyond usual habits; had never been guilty of
similar extravagance; the veriest prodigal of London could not have
ordered a more costly board; and that tall, rosy-cheeked lad imbibed
the precious sack with the avidity of a sponge, and never looked a
tithe the better humored, but sat grinning menaces at him—the
donor of the feast! Well! well! all should soon be remedied, and the
disagreeable, lanky apprentice turned adrift.
“But who is that now passing the tavern; is it not Master Luke
Milner, the attorney? How enviously he looks! he has the reputation
of having pressed hard his own suit, but in vain! If I invite him, he will
gladly come—drink the widow’s health—and it will save me half the
reckoning!” So reasoned the tanner. The lawyer accepted the
invitation, though a slight shade of displeasure, he could not wholly
dispel, flushed his brow. Master Luke entered, bowing lowly to the
widow. Drawing a chair, near as good manners admitted, to the fair
dame, he carefully deposited scented gloves and jeweled beaver on

Ebook Geometric Transformations 1St Edition Razvan Gelcaionut Onisorcarlos Yuzo Shine Online PDF All Chapter

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ebook Geometric Transformations 1St Edition Razvan Gelcaionut Onisorcarlos Yuzo Shine Online PDF All Chapter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Geometric Transformations 1st Edition

R■zvan Gelcaionu■ Oni■orcarlos Yuzo

Chess Explained The c3 Sicilian 1st Edition Sam Collins

Starting Out The c3 Sicilian 1st Edition John Emms

Harmony of Colour 85 Big Cats 1st Edition Various

Studies in Law, Politics, and Society (Volume 85) 1st

85 Years of the Oscar The Official History of the

Ao Oni Kenji Kuroda

Thirty Years Hundred Stories Engineering

The Unofficial Sims Cookbook : From Baked Alaska to

More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/714

Carlos Yuzo Shine

ISSN 0941-3502 ISSN 2197-8506 (electronic)

Mathematics Subject Classification: 97G50, 97U40, 54H15, 51M04

There is a true geometry which is not [. . . ] intended to be merely an illustrative form of

Geometric Transformations was carefully crafted by three experienced mathe-

Lubbock, TX, USA Răzvan Gelca

Bucharest, Romania Ionuţ Onişor

São Paulo, Brazil Carlos Yuzo Shine

1 Where there is matter, there is geometry.

2.2.2 Examples of Problems Solved Using Homothety . . . . . . . . . . 88

4.2 A Story of Complete Quadrilaterals

Part III Solutions

1.1 Theoretical Results About Isometries

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 3

Fig. 1.1 How figures are transformed under isometries

Fig. 1.2 Passing from synthetic to analytic geometry

1.1.1 Definition and Basic Properties

It is desirable to reach a good level of understanding of the isometries before starting

|f (z) − f (w)| = |z − w| for all z, w ∈ C.

|f (z) − f (w)| = |r(z − w)| = |r||z − w| = |z − w|;

while if f (z) = rz + a, then

|f (z) − f (w)| = |r(z − w)| = |r||z − w| = |z − w|,

so in each case f is an isometry.

so g is an isometry, too. We have g(0) = 0 and g(1) = 1.

g(z) · g(z) = z · z and (g(z) − 1) · (g(z) − 1) = (z − 1)(z − 1).

g(z) · g(z) = z · z and g(z) + g(z) = z + z.

|z − w| = |g(z) − g(w)| = |z − w|,

rta + r(1 − t)b + s = t (ra + s) + (1 − t)(rb + s).

Fig. 1.3 Inverses and compositions of isometries

1.1.2 Translations, Rotations, Reflections

In this section we introduce some particular classes of isometries.

This clarifies the geometric meaning of the transformation defined by adding a

Fig. 1.4 A translation τ A = τ (A)

Fig. 1.5 A rotation ρ. The A = (A ) B

This is because of the identity

arg(zw) = arg(z) + arg(w),

which follows from trigonometry

k1 (cos α + i sin α)k2 (cos β + i sin β)

Theorem 1.3 The rotation by α about z0 is then given by the formula

ρ(z) = r(z − z0 ) + z0 , where r = cos α + i sin α.

Proof There is nothing to prove if α = 0. If α = 0, then the point z0 is the unique

arg r(z − z0 ) = arg r + arg(z − z0 ) = α + arg(z − z0 ).

eαi = cos α + i sin α.

correspond to the multiplicative properties of the exponential function

A complex number is written in trigonometric form as

z = reiα , where r = |z| and α = arg z.

Then the counterclockwise rotation about a point w by angle α is defined by the

which gives z = eαi z − eαi w + w.

Fig. 1.6 Definition of directed angles

If a, b, c are the complex coordinates of A, B, C, then the directed angle  ABC

 BAC +  CBA +  ACB =  (AB, AC) +  (BC, AB) +  (AC, BC) = 0.

Also, if A, B, C are not collinear, then a point D is on the circumcircle of ABC

Proof There is nothing to prove if α = 0. If α = 0, then the point z0 is the unique

If a, b, c are the complex coordinates of A, B, C, then the directed angle ABC

BAC + CBA + ACB = (AB, AC) + (BC, AB) + (AC, BC) = 0.

where r, s ∈ C, |r| = 1 and s = 0.

Fig. 1.7 A reflection σ over a line

(OA, OA ) = (OA, OB) + (OB, OA )

Fig. 1.12 The case M = N B

If f preserves orientation, compose f with the reflection σ over , that is,

d(σ1 (P ), σ2 ◦σ1 (P )) = 2(d −d(P , 1 )). Therefore d(P , σ2 ◦σ1 (P )) = 2d(P , 1 )+

which is a rotation of angle arg(v12 v2 2 ) = 2 (1 , 2 ) about z0 .

to be able to take advantage of the fact that σ (O1 ) = O1 . But O1 ∈ , so ρ −1 (O1 ) ∈

σ2 = σb ◦ σ1 ◦ σa = σB ◦ σ1 ◦ σA .

sin BAM sin CAT

And we have BAM + CAM = CAT + BAT = α, so by denoting the

T BP = 180◦ − ABC − CBT = 180◦ − ABC − BAC

and similarly T CQ = T QC. It follows that the triangles T P B and T QC are