**Overview of Nuclear Proliferation and Control Measures**

The proliferation of nuclear weapons poses a significant global security threat, raising concerns
about their use for both peaceful and military purposes. The challenge lies in distinguishing between
these dual uses of nuclear technology. The focus has been on preventing the spread of nuclear
weapons horizontally across countries.

**Four Phases of Nuclear Non-Proliferation Policy:**

1. **Post-War Secrecy (1940s):**

- Characterized by secrecy.

- The United States aimed to maintain a monopoly on nuclear weapons.

2. **"Atoms for Peace" Initiative (1953):**

- President Eisenhower introduced the initiative to encourage peaceful use of nuclear technology.

3. **NPT and CTBT (1968, 1996):**

- Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) in 1968 aimed at preventing the spread of nuclear
weapons.

- Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) in 1996 reinforced controls on nuclear testing.

4. **Defensive Posture and Legislation (1970s-1990s):**

- Shift in focus after nuclear tests by India and Pakistan.

- Nuclear Suppliers Club established, and the US enacted the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Act (1978).

- Transition from scientific to political discourse on nuclear weapons.

**Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT):**

- Initiated by the US and the Soviet Union shortly after the 1968 NPT.

- SALT agreement and Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty, signed during intense tensions.

- First limitations on strategic offensive and defensive weapons.

- Marked a period of détente, reducing the risk of nuclear conflict between the superpowers.

**Summary of the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT):**

**Objective of NPT:**

- The NPT, or Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons, is a crucial international

agreement.

- Aims to prevent nations without nuclear weapons from acquiring them, promote peaceful use of
nuclear energy, and ultimately achieve nuclear disarmament.

**Historical Context:**

- Originally a Cold War concern between industrialized countries, the global debate expanded with
China joining the nuclear club.

- Initially, the focus was on strategic parity and weaponry during the East-West Cold War era.

- Concerns about diverting nuclear materials from peaceful to military uses gained prominence,
especially after India's 1974 nuclear test.

**Evolution and Membership:**

- The NPT had 59 nations initially, and now boasts 191 parties.

- Only five nations were "nuclear-weapon states" at the treaty's signing; today, four additional
nations (India, Israel, Pakistan, North Korea) are believed to possess nuclear weapons without being
NPT signatories.

**Foundation of International Regime:**

- The NPT laid the groundwork for an international regime to prevent nuclear weapon proliferation.

- The United States and the Soviet Union recognized that uncontrolled proliferation would destabilize
global order.

**Criticism and Concerns:**

- Criticism arose from nations without nuclear weapons, focusing on perceived asymmetry,
preservation of commercial interests for weapon states, ambiguous commitments, and neglect of
non-weapon states' security concerns.

- Safeguards, initially framed in technological terms, became politically contentious due to

imbalances in the NPT's commitments.

**Role of Indian Test (1974):**

- The 1974 Indian nuclear test highlighted the connection between nuclear weapon development
and peaceful purposes, shifting the discussion from technical to political spheres.
**Conferences and Indefinite Extension:**

- Periodic review conferences were mandated by the NPT.

- In 1995, a decision was made to extend the NPT indefinitely, emphasizing its ongoing relevance.

**Summary of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT):**

**Objective and Background:**

- The Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) is a global agreement prohibiting explosive nuclear
weapons testing.

- Open for signatures since 1996, the treaty aims to prevent nuclear arms race and reduce global
tensions.

**Historical Context:**

- Initiated due to the arms race triggered by the first nuclear tests by the U.S. (1945) and the Soviet
Union (1949).

- Previous treaties, like the Limited Test Ban Treaty (1963) and Threshold Test Ban Treaty (1974),
addressed specific aspects of nuclear testing.

**Current Status:**

- As of August 2022, 186 states have signed, and 174 have ratified the CTBT, with Timor-Leste being
the latest to ratify.

- The treaty requires ratification by all 44 "nuclear capable" states for full effect. Notably, the U.S.,
China, Egypt, Iran, and Israel have signed but not ratified.

**Verification and Challenges:**

- Verification mechanisms established by the CTBTO aim to detect nuclear explosions globally.

- Challenges include accusations of low-yield nuclear tests by China and Russia, violating the CTBT.

**Key Points:**

- Known as a "zero yield" test ban, the CTBT forbids supercritical hydro-nuclear testing but allows
sub-critical hydrodynamic nuclear experiments.

- Hydronuclear tests simulate explosive shock compression, while subcritical experiments aim for no
yield.
- Eight states, including China, North Korea, Egypt, India, Iran, Israel, Pakistan, and the U.S., have not
taken required action.

- The treaty remains ineffective due to non-ratification by key nations, with Pakistan, North Korea,
and India conducting tests after 1996.

- The CTBTO, established in 1996, works towards treaty implementation and maintains a verification
system using seismic, radionuclide, infrasound, and hydroacoustic monitoring stations.

- The organization, based in Vienna, has about 260 employees from member states.

**Summary of the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT):**

**Background and SALT I (1972):**

- In 1969, the U.S. and USSR initiated bilateral talks to limit their strategic nuclear arsenals.

- The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM) was a result of SALT I (1972), prohibiting the use of anti-
ballistic missile defense systems for protecting territories.

**ABM Treaty (1972):**

- Prohibited the use of ABM systems on land, sea, air, or space for defense of U.S. and USSR
territories.

- Initially allowed for two distinct regions of ABM deployment, later reduced to one.

- Forbade the development, testing, and use of mobile ABM systems and components.

**SALT I Achievements:**

- First time during the Cold War that the U.S. and USSR agreed to limit nuclear missiles.

- Considered a success of the Nixon-Kissinger strategy of détente.

- Limited strategic missile defenses to 200 interceptors each and allowed construction of two missile
defense sites for each side.

**SALT II (1979):**

- The 1972 Moscow Summit finalized the ABM Treaty and signed the first SALT agreement.

- SALT II, negotiated in 1979, aimed to build on the achievements of SALT I.

- SALT II proposed more ambitious targets for long-term restrictions, with short-term goals for
challenging issues.

**Non-Ratification of SALT II (1980s):**

- SALT II faced challenges in ratification due to the deteriorating international situation, particularly
the Soviet incursion in Afghanistan.

- The treaty was not ratified, leading to an absence of a formal agreement beyond SALT I.

**Overall Impact:**

- SALT marked a historic agreement to limit nuclear arsenals during the Cold War.

- Despite limitations and non-ratification of later agreements, SALT set a precedent for arms control
negotiations between the U.S. and USSR.