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G a r d n e r’ s
Art
Thro u g h t h e
Ages
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
G a r d n e r’ s
Art
Thro u g h t h e
Ages
A C onc ise Gl oba l H is tory
fourth edition
fred s. kleiner
Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2015
About the Cover Art
Song Su-nam, Summer Trees, 1983. Ink on paper, 2' 1 58 " high. British Museum, London.
Song Su-nam (b. 1938), a Korean artist who was one of the founders of the Oriental Ink Movement of the
1980s, has very successfully combined native Asian and Western traditions in his paintings. Song’s Summer
Trees, painted in 1983, owes a great deal to the Post-Painterly Abstraction movement of mid-20th-century
America and to the work of painters such as Helen Frankenthaler (1928–2011) and especially Morris Louis
(1912–1962). But in place of those painters’ acrylic resin on canvas, Song used ink on paper, the centuries-old
preferred medium of East Asian literati (scholar-artists). He forsook, however, the traditional emphasis on
brushstrokes to explore the subtle tonal variations that broad stretches of ink wash make possible. Nonethe-
less, the painting’s name recalls the landscapes of earlier Korean and Chinese masters. This simultaneous
respect for tradition and innovation has been a hallmark of art from both China and Korea throughout their
long histories. The fruitful exchange between Western and non-Western artistic traditions is one of the chief
characteristics of the global art scene today.
Song’s distinctive personal approach to painting characterizes the art of the modern era in general,
but it is not typical of many periods of the history of art when artists toiled in anonymity to fulfill the
wishes of their patrons, whether Egyptian pharaohs, Roman emperors, or medieval monks. Art through the
Ages: A Concise Global History surveys the art of all periods from prehistory to the present, and worldwide,
and examines how artworks of all kinds have always reflected the historical contexts in which they were
created.
Brief Contents
Preface xv Ch a pter 13
Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, and Symbolism,
I ntro duct io n
1870 to 1900 356
What Is Art History? 1
Ch a pter 14
C h a p t er 1
Modernism in Europe and America, 1900 to
Prehistory and the First Civilizations 14 1945 376
C h a p t er 2 Ch a pter 15
Ancient Greece 44 Modernism and Postmodernism in Europe and
C h a p t er 3 America, 1945 to 1980 410
The Roman Empire 82 Ch a pter 16
C h a p t er 4 Contemporary Art Worldwide 438
Early Christianity and Byzantium 116 Ch a pter 17
C h a p t er 5 South and Southeast Asia 460
The Islamic World 142 Ch a pter 18
C h a p t er 6 China and Korea 482
Early Medieval and Romanesque Europe 156 Ch a pter 19
C h a p t er 7 Japan 506
Gothic and Late Medieval Europe 186 Ch a pter 20
C h a p t er 8 Native Americas and Oceania 526
The Early Renaissance in Europe 216
Ch a pter 21
C h a p t er 9 Africa 554
High Renaissance and Mannerism in Europe 250
Notes 573
C h a p t er 10
Baroque Europe 284 Glossary 575
Bibliography 591
C h a p t er 11
Credits 603
Rococo to Neoclassicism in Europe and America 312
Index 607
C h a p t er 12
Romanticism, Realism, and Photography, 1800
to 1870 330
vii
Contents
Preface xv The Greeks and Their Gods 46

Prehistoric Aegean 47
Introduct i on
Greece 53
What Is Art History? 1 ■ R e l i g i o n a n d M y t h o l o g y: The Gods and Goddesses
Art History in the 21st Century 2 of Mount Olympus 47
■ A r c h i t e c t u r a l Ba s i c s : Doric and Ionic Temples 57

Different Ways of Seeing 13
■ Mat e r ia l s a n d T e c h n i q u e s : Hollow-Casting Life-
Size Bronze Statues 64
1 Prehistory and
■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : Polykleitos’s Prescription
for the Perfect Statue 65
the First Civilizations 14 ■ Mat e r ia l s a n d T e c h n i q u e s : White-Ground
Painting 72
F ra m i n g t h e E ra Pictorial Narration in Ancient
M a p 2 - 1 The Greek world 46
Sumer 15
Ti m e l i n e 16 THE BIG P I CTURE 81
Prehistory 16
Ancient Mesopotamia and Persia 22
3 The Roman Empire 82
Ancient Egypt 30
Framin g t h e Era Roman Art as Historical
■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : How to Represent
an Animal 17 Fiction 83
■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: Why Is There Art in Paleolithic Ti m e l i n e 84
Caves? 18
Rome, Caput Mundi 84
■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : How Many Legs Does
a Lamassu Have? 27 Etruscan Art 85
■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: Mummification and Immortality 32 Roman Art 88
■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : Building the Pyramids ■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: Who’s Who in the Roman World 90
of Gizeh 34
■ A r c h i t e c t u r a l Ba s i c s : Roman Concrete
M a p 1 - 1 Stone Age sites in western Europe 16 Construction 92
M a p 1 - 2 Ancient Mesopotamia and Persia 22 ■ A r c h i t e c t u r a l Ba s i c s : The Roman House 93
M a p 1 - 3 Ancient Egypt 30 ■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : The Spiral Frieze of the
Column of Trajan 104
THE BIG P I CTURE 43
■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : The Ancient World’s
Largest Dome 106
2 Ancient Greece 44
■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : Tetrarchic
Portraiture 112
F ram i n g t h e E ra The Perfect Temple 45 M a p 3 - 1 The Roman Empire at the death of Trajan in 117 ce 84
Ti m e l i n e 46 THE BIG P I CTURE 115
ix
■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : Beautifying God’s
4 Early Christianity and Byzantium 116 Words 161
■ R e l i g i o n a n d M y t h o l o g y: Medieval Monasteries
F ra m ing t h e E ra Romans, Jews, and Benedictine Rule 165
and Christians 117 ■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: Pilgrimages and the Veneration of
Ti m e l i n e 118 Relics 170
■ A r c h i t e c t u r a l Ba s i c s : The Romanesque Church

Early Christianity 118 Portal 173
Byzantium 124 ■ T h e Pat r o n ’ s V o i c e : Terrifying the Faithful at Autun 175
■ R e l i g i o n a n d M y t h o l o g y: Jewish Subjects in M a p 6 - 1 Western Europe around 1100 158
Christian Art 119
■ R e l i g i o n a n d M y t h o lo g y: The Life of Jesus in Art 120
■ Mat e r ia l s a n d T e c h n i q u e s : Mosaics 124
■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : Picturing the Spiritual

World 125
7 Gothic and Late Medieval Europe 186
■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : Placing a Dome over a Fr amin g t h e Era “Modern Architecture” in
Square 128 the Gothic Age 187
■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: Icons and Iconoclasm 134 Ti m e l i n e 188
M a p 4 - 1 The Byzantine Empire at the death of Justinian “Gothic” Europe 188
in 565 118
France 189
England 201
Holy Roman Empire 202
5 The Islamic World 142 Italy 205
F r a m ing t h e E ra The Rise and Spread ■ A r c h i t e c t u r a l Ba s i c s : The Gothic Rib Vault 190
of Islam 143 ■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : Building a High Gothic
Ti m e l i n e 144 Cathedral 193
■ Mat e r ia l s a n d T e c h n i q u e s : Stained-Glass
Muhammad and Islam 144 Windows 195
Architecture 144 ■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: Gothic Book Production 199
Luxury Arts 151 ■ Mat e r ia l s a n d T e c h n i q u e s : Fresco Painting 208
■ R e l i g i o n a n d M y t h o l o g y: Muhammad M a p 7- 1 Europe around 1200 188

and Islam 145
■ A r c h i t e c t u r a l Ba s i c s : The Mosque 147
M a p 5 - 1 The Islamic world around 1500 144
THE BIG P I CTURE 155 8 The Early Renaissance in Europe 216
Framin g t h e Era Rogier van der Weyden

and Saint Luke 217
6 Early Medieval and Romanesque Ti m e l i n e 218
Europe 156 The Early Renaissance in Europe 218

F r a m i ng t h e E r a The Door to Salvation 157 Burgundy and Flanders 219
Ti m e l i n e 158 France 224
Early Medieval Europe 158 Holy Roman Empire 226
Romanesque Europe 169 Italy 229
x Contents
■ Mat e r ia l s a n d T e c h n i q u e s : Tempera and Oil ■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : Rethinking the Church
Painting 220 Facade 291
■ Mat e r ia l s a n d T e c h n i q u e s : Woodcuts, Engravings, ■ A r t i s t s o n A r t: The Letters of Artemisia Gentileschi 294
and Etchings 228
■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : How to Make a Ceiling
■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : Linear and Atmospheric Disappear 295
Perspective 232
■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : Franz Hals’s Group
M a p 8 - 1 France, the duchy of Burgundy, and the Holy Roman Portraits 300
Empire in 1477 218
■ A r t i s t s o n A r t: Poussin’s Notes for a Treatise on
M a p 8 - 2 Italy around 1400 229 Painting 307
THE BIG P I CTURE 249 M a p 1 0 - 1 Europe in 1648 after the Treaty of Westphalia 286
9 High Renaissance and

Mannerism in Europe 250 11 Rococo to Neoclassicism
in Europe and America 312
F ra m i n g t h e E ra Michelangelo in the Service
of Julius II 251 Framin g t h e Era The Enlightenment, Angelica
Ti m e l i n e 252 Kauffman, and Neoclassicism 313
Italy 252 Ti m e l i n e 314
Holy Roman Empire 272 A Century of Revolutions 314
France 277 Rococo 314
The Netherlands 277 The Enlightenment 316
Spain 281 Neoclassicism 323
■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : Rethinking the Basilican ■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: Joseph Wright of Derby and the
Church 264 Industrial Revolution 317
M a p 9 - 1 Europe in the early 16th century 252 ■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : Grand Manner

Portraiture 320
THE BIG P I CTURE 283 ■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: The Grand Tour and Veduta Painting 322
■ A r t i s t s o n A r t: Jacques-Louis David on Greek Style and

Public Art 324
10 Baroque Europe 284 THE BIG P I CTURE 329
F r am i n g t h e E ra Baroque Art
and Spectacle 285
Ti m e l i n e 286
12 Romanticism, Realism,
and Photography, 1800 to 1870 330
Europe in the 17th Century 286
Italy 287 Fr amin g t h e Era The Horror—and Romance—
of Death at Sea 331
Spain 295
Ti m e l i n e 332
Flanders 298
Art under Napoleon 332
Dutch Republic 300
Romanticism 334
France 306
Realism 341
England 310
Architecture 348
■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : Completing Saint
Peter’s 288 Photography 351
Contents xi
■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: The Romantic Spirit in Art, Music, Ti m e l i n e 378
and Literature 335
Global Upheaval and Artistic Revolution 378
■ A r t i s t s o n A r t: Delacroix on David and
Neoclassicism 337 Europe, 1900 to 1920 378
■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : Unleashing the Emotive
United States, 1900 to 1930 390
Power of Color 340
■ A r t i s t s o n A r t: Gustave Courbet on Realism 342 Europe, 1920 to 1945 393

■ Mat e r ia l s a n d T e c h n i q u e s : Lithography 345 United States and Mexico, 1930 to 1945 399
■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: Edmonia Lewis, an African American Architecture 405
Sculptor in Rome 347
■ A r t i s t s o n A r t: Henri Matisse on Color 379
■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : Prefabricated
Architecture 350 ■ A r t i s t s o n A r t: Futurist Manifestos 387
■ Mat e r ia l s a n d T e c h n i q u e s : Daguerreotypes, ■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: The Armory Show 391

Calotypes, and Wet-Plate Photography 352
■ W r i t t e n S o u r c e s : André Breton’s First Surrealist
M a p 1 2 - 1 Europe around 1850 332 Manifesto 395
THE BIG P I CTURE 355 ■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: Jacob Lawrence’s Migration of

the Negro 402
M a p 1 4 - 1 Europe at the end of World War I 380
13 Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, THE BIG P I CTURE 409

and Symbolism, 1870 to 1900 356
F ra m ing t h e E r a Modernism at the Folies-
Bergère 357
15 Modernism and Postmodernism
in Europe and America, 1945 to 1980 410
Ti m e l i n e 358
Framin g t h e Era After Modernism: Post
Marxism, Darwinism, Modernism 358
modernist Architecture 411
Impressionism 360 Ti m e l i n e 412
Post-Impressionism 364 The Aftermath of World War II 412
Symbolism 370 Painting, Sculpture, and Photography 412
Sculpture 372 Architecture and Site-Specific Art 429
Architecture 373 Performance and Conceptual Art and New Media 434
■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : Painting Impressions ■ A r t i s t s o n A r t: Jackson Pollock on Action Painting 415
of Light and Color 359
■ A r t i s t s o n A r t: Helen Frankenthaler on Color-Field
■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: Women Impressionists 363 Painting 417
■ A r t i s t s o n A r t: The Letters of Vincent van Gogh 366 ■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: Pop Art and Consumer Culture 421
■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : Making Impressionism ■ A r t i s t s o n A r t: Judy Chicago on The Dinner Party 427
Solid and Enduring 369
M a p 1 3 - 1 France around 1870 with towns along the Seine 358 THE BIG P I CTURE 437
16 Contemporary Art Worldwide 438
14 Modernism in Europe and America, Fr amin g t h e Era Art as Sociopolitical

1900 to 1945 376 Message 439
Ti m e l i n e 440
F ra m ing t h e E r a Picasso Disrupts the Western
Pictorial Tradition 377 Art Today 440
xii Contents
Personal and Group Identity 440 ■ Mat e r ia l s a n d T e c h n i q u e s : Chinese Painting
Materials and Formats 491
Political and Social Commentary 445
■ Mat e r ia l s a n d T e c h n i q u e s : Calligraphy and
Representation and Abstraction 448 Inscriptions on Chinese Paintings 493
■ A r c h i t e c t u r a l Ba s i c s : Chinese Wood
Architecture and Site-Specific Art 451 Construction 494
New Media 456 ■ Mat e r ia l s a n d T e c h n i q u e s : Chinese Porcelain 497
■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: Public Funding of Controversial ■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : Planning an Unplanned
Art 443 Garden 498
■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : Rethinking the Shape of M a p 1 8 - 1 China during the Ming dynasty 484
Painting 450
■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: Maya Lin’s Vietnam Veterans
Memorial 454
A r t a n d S o c i e t y: Richard Serra’s Tilted Arc 455

19
■
Japan 506
Fr ami n g t h e Era The Floating World
of Edo 507
17 South and Southeast Asia 460 Ti m e l i n e 508
F ra m i n g t h e E ra The Great Stupa at Japan before Buddhism 508

Sanchi 461 Buddhist Japan 509
Ti m e l i n e 462
Japan under the Shoguns 513
South Asia 462
Modern Japan 523
Southeast Asia 477 ■ R e l i g i o n a n d M y t h o l o g y: Zen Buddhism 515
■ A r c h i t e c t u r a l Ba s i c s : The Stupa 465 ■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: The Japanese Tea Ceremony 518
■ R e l i g i o n a n d M y t h o l o g y: Buddhism and Buddhist ■ Mat e r ia l s a n d T e c h n i q u e s : Japanese Woodblock
Iconography 466 Prints 522
■ R e l i g i o n a n d M y t h o l o g y: Hinduism and Hindu M a p 1 9 - 1 Japan 508
Iconography 469
■ A r c h i t e c t u r a l Ba s i c s : Hindu Temples 471 THE BIG P I CTURE 525
■ Mat e r ia l s a n d T e c h n i q u e s : Indian Miniature

Painting 474
M a p 1 7- 1 South and Southeast Asia 462 20 Native Americas and Oceania 526
THE BIG P I CTURE 481 Fr amin g t h e Era War and Human Sacrifice
in Ancient Mexico 527
Ti m e l i n e 528
18 China and Korea 482 Native Americas 528
F ram i n g t h e E r a The Forbidden City 483 Oceania 546
Ti m e l i n e 484 ■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: The Mesoamerican Ball Game 532
China 484 ■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : The Underworld, the Sun,

and Mesoamerican Pyramid Design 534
Korea 501
■ R e l i g i o n a n d M y t h o l o g y: Aztec Religion 537
■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: The First Emperor’s Army in the
Afterlife 486 ■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: Nasca Lines 539
■ R e l i g i o n a n d M y t h o l o g y: Daoism and ■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: Tattoo in Polynesia 549

Confucianism 488 M a p 2 0 - 1 Mesoamerica 528
Contents xiii
M a p 2 0 - 2 Andean South America 538 20th Century 566
M a p 2 0 - 3 Native American sites in the United States and ■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: Art and Leadership in Africa 559
southern Canada 542
■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: African Artists and Apprentices 567
M a p 2 0 - 4 Oceania 547
■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: African Masquerades 568
M a p 2 1 - 1 Africa 556
21 Africa 554
F ra m ing t h e E ra The Royal Arts of Benin 555

Notes 573
Ti m e l i n e 556
Glossary 575
African Peoples and Art Forms 556
Bibliography 591
Prehistory and Early Cultures 557
Credits 603
11th to 18th Centuries 558
Index 607
19th Century 562
xiv Contents
Preface
I take great pleasure in introducing the extensively revised and of the Gardner text. The scales provide students with a quick and
expanded 4th edition of Gardner’s Art through the Ages: A Concise effective way to visualize how big or small a given artwork is and its
Global History, which for the first time is, like the unabridged 15th relative size compared with other objects in the same chapter and
edition published last year, a hybrid textbook—the only introductory throughout the book—especially important given that the illus-
survey of the history of art and architecture of its kind. This innova- trated works vary in size from tiny to colossal.
tive new type of “Gardner” retains all of the best features of traditional Also retained in this edition are the Quick-Review Captions
books on paper while harnessing 21st-century technology to increase (brief synopses of the most significant aspects of each artwork or
the number of works and themes discussed without enlarging the size building illustrated) that students have found invaluable when pre-
of the printed book—and at negligible additional cost to the reader. paring for examinations. These extended captions accompany not
When Helen Gardner published the first edition of Art through only every image in the printed book but also all the digital images
the Ages in 1926, she could not have imagined that nearly a cen- in the MindTap version of the text. Each chapter also again ends with
tury later instructors all over the world would still be using her the highly popular full-page feature called The Big Picture, which
textbook in their classrooms. (The book has even been translated sets forth in bullet-point format the most important characteristics
into Mandarin Chinese.) Nor could Professor Gardner have fore- of each period or artistic movement discussed in the chapter. Also
seen that a new publisher would make her text available in special retained from the third edition are the timelines summarizing the
editions corresponding to a wide variety of introductory art history major artistic and architectural developments during the era treated
courses ranging from yearlong global surveys to Western- and non- (again in bullet-point format for easy review) and the chapter-opening
Western-only surveys to the one-semester course for which this essays called Framing the Era discussing a characteristic painting,
concise edition was designed. Indeed, if Helen Gardner were alive sculpture, or building and illustrated by four photographs.
today, she would not recognize the book that long ago became—and Boxed essays on special topics again appear throughout the
remains—the world’s most widely read introduction to the history book as well. These essays fall under eight broad categories, three of
of art and architecture. I hope that instructors and students alike which are new to the fourth edition:
will agree that this new edition lives up to that venerable tradition Architectural Basics boxes provide students with a sound foun-
and, in fact, exceeds their high expectations. dation for the understanding of architecture. These discussions are
concise explanations, with drawings and diagrams, of the major
aspects of design and construction. The information included is essen-
key features of the 4th edition tial to an understanding of architectural technology and terminology.
For the 4th concise edition of Art through the Ages, in addition to Materials and Techniques essays explain the various media
updating the text of every chapter to incorporate the latest research, I that artists have employed from prehistoric to modern times. Since
have added several important new features while retaining the basic materials and techniques often influence the character of artworks,
format and scope of the previous edition. The new edition boasts these discussions contain important information on why many
more photographs, plans, and drawings than the previous three ver- monuments appear as they do.
sions of the book, nearly all in color and reproduced according to Religion and Mythology boxes introduce students to the princi-
the highest standards of clarity and color fidelity. The illustrations pal elements of the world’s great religions, past and present, and to
include a new set of maps and scores of new images, among them the representation of religious and mythological themes in painting
a series of superb photographs taken by Jonathan Poore exclusively and sculpture of all periods and places. These discussions of belief
for Art through the Ages in Germany and Italy (following similar systems and iconography give readers a richer understanding of
forays into France and Italy in 2009–2011). The online MindTap® some of the greatest artworks ever created.
component also includes custom videos made by Sharon Adams Art and Society essays treat the historical, social, political, cul-
Poore during those five photo campaigns. This extraordinary new tural, and religious context of art and architecture. In some instances,
archive of visual material ranges from ancient temples in Rome; to specific monuments are the basis for a discussion of broader themes.
medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque churches in France, Germany, In the Artists on Art boxes, artists and architects throughout
and Italy; to such modern masterpieces as Notre-Dame-du-Haut in history discuss both their theories and individual works.
Ronchamp, France, and the Bauhaus in Dessau, Germany. The 4th New to the 4th edition are three new categories of boxed essays:
edition also features an expanded number of the highly acclaimed Written Sources, The Patron’s Voice, and Problems and Solutions.
architectural drawings of John Burge. Together, these exclusive pho- The first category presents and discusses key historical documents
tographs, videos, maps, and drawings provide readers with a visual illuminating major monuments of art and architecture throughout
feast unavailable anywhere else. the world. The passages quoted permit voices from the past to speak
Once again, scales accompany the photograph of every paint- directly to the reader, providing vivid insights into the creation of art-
ing, statue, or other artwork discussed—another distinctive feature works in all media. The Patron’s Voice essays underscore the important
xv
roles that individuals and groups played in determining the character James Slauson, Carroll University; Anne Rudolph Stanton, Uni-
of the artworks and buildings that they commissioned and paid for. versity of Missouri; Suzanne Thomas, Rose State College; Achim
The new Problems and Solutions boxes are designed to make students Timmermann, University of Michigan; David Turley, Weber State
think critically about the decisions that went into the making of every University; Lee Ann Turner, Boise State University; Marjorie S.
painting, sculpture, and building from the Old Stone Age to the pres- Venit, University of Maryland; Shirley Tokash Verrico, Genesee
ent. These essays address questions of how and why various forms Community College; Louis A. Waldman, The University of Texas at
developed, the problems that painters, sculptors, and architects con- Austin; Ying Wang, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee; Lindsey
fronted, and the solutions that they devised to resolve them. Waugh, University of Tennessee; Gregory H. Williams, Boston Uni-
Other noteworthy features retained from the 3rd edition are versity; and Benjamin C. Withers, University of Kentucky.
the (updated) bibliography of books in English; a glossary contain- I am especially indebted to the following for creating the
ing definitions of all italicized terms introduced in both the printed instructor and student materials for the 4th edition: Ivy Coo-
text and MindTap essays; and a complete museum index, now per, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville; Patricia D. Cosper
housed online only, listing all illustrated artworks by their present (retired), The University of Alabama at Birmingham; Anne McCla-
location. The host of state-of-the-art MindTap online resources are nan, Portland State University; Amy M. Morris, The University of
enumerated on page xxi. Nebraska Omaha; Erika Schneider, Framingham State University;
and Camille Serchuk, Southern Connecticut State University. I also
thank the more than 150 instructors and students who participated
acknowledgments in surveys, focus groups, design sprints, and advisory boards to help
A work as extensive as a global history of art could not be undertaken us better understand your needs in our print and digital products.
or completed without the counsel of experts in all areas of world I am also happy to have this opportunity to express my gratitude
art. As with previous editions, Cengage Learning has enlisted more to the extraordinary group of people at Cengage Learning involved
than a hundred art historians to review every chapter of Art through with the editing, production, and distribution of Art through the Ages.
the Ages in order to ensure that the text lives up to the Gardner Some of them I have now worked with on various projects for nearly
reputation for accuracy as well as readability. I take great pleasure two decades and feel privileged to count among my friends. The suc-
in acknowledging here those individuals who made important con- cess of the Gardner series in all of its various permutations depends in
tributions to the 4th concise edition and to the unabridged 15th no small part on the expertise and unflagging commitment of these
edition on which the shorter version is based: Patricia Albers, San dedicated professionals, especially Sharon Adams Poore, product
Jose State University; Kirk Ambrose, University of Colorado Boul- manager (as well as videographer extraordinaire); Lianne Ames, senior
der; Jenny Kirsten Ataoguz, Indiana University–Purdue University content project manager; Rachael Bailey, senior product assistant;
Fort Wayne; Paul Bahn, Hull; Denise Amy Baxter, University of Cate Barr, senior art director and cover designer of this edition; J illian
North Texas; Nicole Bensoussan, University of Michigan–Dearborn; Borden, marketing manager; Rachel Harbour, content developer;

Amy R. Bloch, University at Albany, State University of New York; Erika Hayden, associate content developer; Chad Kirchner, content
Susan H. Caldwell, The University of Oklahoma; David C. Cateforis, developer; and the entire team of professionals, too numerous to list
The University of Kansas; Gina Cestaro, University of West Flor- fully here, who had a hand in the design, creation, and implementa-
ida; Thomas B. F. Cummins, Harvard University; Joyce De Vries, tion of the new e-reader featured in this edition’s MindTap. Finally,
Auburn University; Scott Douglass, Chattanooga State Community I owe my gratitude to the incomparable group of learning consultants
College; Verena Drake, Hotchkiss School; Jerome Feldman, Hawai’i nationwide who have passed on to me the welcome advice offered by
Pacific University; Maria Gindhart, Georgia State University; Tracie the hundreds of instructors they speak to daily.
Glazer, Nazareth College of Rochester; Annabeth Headrick, Uni- I am also deeply grateful to the following out-of-house contrib-
versity of Denver; Shannen Hill, University of Maryland; Angela K. utors to the 4th concise edition: the incomparable quarterback of the
Ho, George Mason University; Julie Hochstrasser, The University entire production process, Joan Keyes, Dovetail Publishing Services;
of Iowa; Hiroko Johnson, San Diego State University; Julie John- Michele Jones, copy editor; Susan Gall, proofreader; Pat Rimmer,
son, The University of Texas at San Antonio; Molly Johnson, Ocean Indexer; PreMediaGlobal, photo researchers; Cenveo Publisher Ser-
County College; Paul H.D. Kaplan, Purchase College, State Univer- vices; Jay and John Crowley, Jay’s Publishing Services; Mary Ann
sity of New York; Nancy Lee-Jones, Endicott College; Rob Leith, Lidrbauch, art log preparer; and, of course, Jonathan Poore and John
Buckingham Browne & Nichols School; Brenda Longfellow, The Burge, for their superb photos and architectural drawings.
University of Iowa; Susan McCombs, Michigan State University; I also owe thanks to two individuals not currently associated
Jennifer Ann McLerran, Northern Arizona University; Patrick R. with this book but who loomed large in my life for many years: Clark
McNaughton, Indiana University Bloomington; Mary Miller, Yale Baxter, who retired from Cengage in 2013 at the end of a long and
University; Erin Morris, Estrella Mountain Community College; distinguished career, from whom I learned much about textbook
Nicolas Morrissey, The University of Georgia; Basil Moutsatsos, St. publishing and whose continuing friendship I value highly, and my
Petersburg College–Seminole; Johanna D. Movassat, San Jose State former co-author and longtime friend and colleague, Christin J.
University; Micheline Nilsen, Indiana University South Bend; Cath- Mamiya of the University of Nebraska–Lincoln, with whom I have
erine Pagani, The University of Alabama; Anna Pagnucci, Ashford had innumerable conversations not only about Art through the Ages
University; Allison Lee Palmer, The University of Oklahoma; Wil- but the history of art in general. Her thinking continues to influence
liam H. Peck, University of Michigan–Dearborn; Lauren Peterson, my own, especially with regard to the later chapters on the history
University of Delaware; Holly Pittman, University of Pennsylvania; of Western art. I conclude this long (but no doubt incomplete) list of
Romita Ray, Syracuse University; Wendy Wassyng Roworth, The acknowledgments with an expression of gratitude to my colleagues
University of Rhode Island; Andrea Rusnock, Indiana University at Boston University and to the thousands of students and the scores
South Bend; Bridget Sandhoff, University of Nebraska at Omaha; of teaching fellows in my art history courses since I began teaching
James M. Saslow, Queens College, City University of New York; in 1975, especially my research assistant, Angelica Bradley. From
xvi Preface
them I have learned much that has helped determine the form and 4: Early Christianity and Byzantium: New Religion and Mythol-
content of Art through the Ages and made it a much better book than ogy box “Jewish Subjects in Christian Art.” New Art and Society box
it otherwise might have been. “Medieval Books.” New Problems and Solutions boxes “Picturing
Fred S. Kleiner the Spiritual World” and “Placing a Dome over a Square.” Added an
Early Christian statuette of the Good Shepherd, and images of Santa
Sabina in Rome and of the Rabbula Gospels. New photographs of
chapter-by-chapter changes Santa Costanza in Rome, of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, and of
the Katholikon at Hosios Loukas.
in the FOURTH edition
5: The Islamic World: New Art and Society box “Major Muslim
All chapters include changes in the text reflecting new research and Dynasties.” Added the ivory pyxis of al-Mughira, the Baptistère de
discoveries, new maps, revised timelines and The Big Picture, and Saint Louis, and Sultan-Muhammad’s Court of Gayumars. New pho-
online bonus images, essays, videos, and other features included tographs of the exterior and interior of the Dome of the Rock in
within the MindTap version of the text, an integral part of the com- Jerusalem and the Great Mosque at Kairouan.
plete learning package for this 4th edition of Art through the Ages: A
Concise Global History. 6: Early Medieval and Romanesque Europe: New Framing the Era
A chapter-by-chapter enumeration of the most important revi- essay “The Door to Salvation.” New Problems and Solutions box
sions follows. “Beautifying God’s Words.” New The Patron’s Voice box “Terrifying
the Faithful at Autun.” New Written Sources boxes “The Burning
Introduction: What Is Art History?: New chapter-opening illus- of Canterbury Cathedral” and “Bernard of Clairvaux on Clois-
tration of Claude Lorrain’s Embarkation of the Queen of Sheba with ter Sculpture.” New Religion and Mythology box “The Crusades.”
new details. Added 18th-century Benin altar to the hand. Added two Merovingian looped fibulae, the abbey church at Cor-
1: Prehistory and the First Civilizations: New Framing the Era vey, the Gospel Book of Otto III, and the Morgan Madonna. New
essay “Pictorial Narration in Ancient Sumer.” New Problems and photographs of the Palatine Chapel at Aachen and the south portal
Solutions boxes “How to Represent an Animal” and “How Many and cloister of Saint-Pierre at Moissac, and a new restored cutaway
Legs Does a Lamassu Have?” Added the Apollo 11 Cave in Namibia, view of the Aachen chapel.
the head of Inanna from Uruk, the seated scribe from Saqqara, and 7: Gothic and Late Medieval Europe: New Framing the Era essay
the Judgment of Hunefer. New photographs of the Warka Vase, “‘Modern Architecture’ in the Gothic Age.” New Art and Society
Stonehenge, the lamassu from the citadel of Sargon II, a model of boxes “Paris, the New Center of Medieval Learning” and “Gothic
the Gizeh pyramids, the Great Sphinx and pyramid of Khafre, and Book Production.” New The Patron’s Voice boxes “Abbot Suger and
the temple of Amen-Re at Karnak. the Rebuilding of Saint-Denis” and “Artists’ Guilds, Artistic Com-
missions, and Artists’ Contracts.” Added Nicholas of Verdun’s Shrine
2: Ancient Greece: New Art and Society box “Archaeology, Art
of the Three Kings, Pietro Cavallini’s Last Jugdment, and the Doge’s
History, and the Art Market.” New Problems and Solutions box
Palace, Venice. New photographs or drawings of Gothic rib vaults,
“Polykleitos’s Prescription for the Perfect Statue.” New Materials
the facade and rose window of Reims Cathedral, plan and elevation
and Techniques box “White-Ground Painting.” New Architectural
of Chartres Cathedral, elevation of Amiens Cathedral, aerial view
Basics box “The Corinthian Capital.” Added the calf bearer from
and interior of Salisbury Cathedral, Death of the Virgin tympanum
the Athenian Acropolis, the Charioteer of Delphi, the Massacre of
of Strasbourg Cathedral, the Naumburg Master’s Ekkehard and Uta,
the Niobids by the Niobid Painter, the tholos at Delphi, and the
and the Pisa baptistery pulpit by Nicola Pisano.
Hellenistic bronze boxer. New photographs of the Parthenon (gen-
eral view, Doric columns, and the cavalcade and seated gods of the 8: The Early Renaissance in Europe: New Framing the Era essay
frieze), the Lion Gate and exterior and interior of the Treasury of “Rogier van der Weyden and Saint Luke.” New Art and Society
Atreus at Mycenae, the Erechtheion and Temple of Athena Nike on box “The Artist’s Profession during the Renaissance.” New Written
the Athenian Acropolis, the theater at Epidauros, and the Barberini Sources box “The Commentarii of Lorenzo Ghiberti.” New Artists
Faun. New reconstruction drawing of the palace at Knossos. on Art box “Leon Battista Alberti’s On the Art of Building.” Added
Memling’s diptych of Martin van Nieuwenhove, the Buxheim Saint
3: The Roman Empire: New Framing the Era essay “Roman Art Christopher, Brunelleschi’s San Lorenzo and Pazzi Chapel, and
as Historical Fiction.” New Art and Society boxes “The ‘Audac- Alberti’s Palazzo Rucellai. New photographs of Riemenschneider’s
ity’ of Etruscan Women” and “Spectacles in the Colosseum.” New Creglingen Altarpiece and Donatello’s Gattamelata.
Written Sources box “Vitruvius’s Ten Books on Architecture.” New
Problems and Solutions boxes “The Spiral Frieze of the Column 9: High Renaissance and Mannerism in Europe: New Framing the
of Trajan,” “The Ancient World’s Largest Dome,” and “Tetrarchic Era essay “Michelangelo in the Service of Julius II.” New Artists on
Portraiture.” Added Apotheosis of Antoninus Pius, Banditaccia Art box “Leonardo and Michelangelo on Painting versus Sculpture.”
necropolis tumuli, the Maison Carrée at Nîmes, and third-century New Written Sources box “Giorgio Vasari’s Lives.” New The Patron’s
sarcophagus of a philosopher. New photographs of the Tomb of Voice box “The Council of Trent.” New Problems and Solutions box
the Leopards at Tarquinia, the Tomb of the Reliefs at Cerveteri, the “Rethinking the Basilican Church.” New Religion and Mythology
brawl in the Pompeii amphitheater, the Third Style cubiculum from box “Catholic versus Protestant Views of Salvation.” Added Michel-
Boscotrecase, and, in Rome, the Ara Pacis Augustae, the facade of angelo’s Fall of Man, the facade and plan of Il Gesú in Rome, Giulio
the Colosseum, the Arch of Titus (general view and two reliefs), Romano’s Fall of the Giants from Mount Olympus, and Lucas Cra-
the Column of Trajan (general view and three details), the interior nach the Elder’s Law and Gospel. New photographs of the Sistine
of the Markets of Trajan, the exterior of the Pantheon, the colossal Chapel and Bramante’s Tempietto in Rome.
portrait head of Constantine, the Basilica Nova, and the Arch of 10: Baroque Europe: New Problems and Solutions boxes “Com-
Constantine (general view and Constantinian frieze). pleting Saint Peter’s,” “Rethinking the Church Facade,” “How to
Preface xvii
Make a Ceiling Disappear,” and “Frans Hals’s Group Portraits.” No. 2, Schnabel’s The Walk Home, Song’s Summer Trees, Murray’s
Added Bernini’s Apollo and Daphne, Gentileschi’s Judith Slaying Can You Hear Me?, Anatsui’s Bleeding Takari II, Behnisch’s Hyso-
Holofernes, Gaulli’s Triumph of the Name of Jesus, Vermeer’s Woman lar Institute in Stuttgart, Hadid’s Signature Towers project in Dubai,
Holding a Balance, and Girardon and Regnaudin’s Apollo Attended Serra’s Tilted Arc, Kapoor’s Cloud Gate, and Suh’s Bridging Home.
by the Nymphs of Thetis. New photographs of Saint Peter’s, Bernini’s New Artists on Art box “Shirin Neshat on Iran after the Revolu-
Ecstasy of Saint Teresa, Borromini’s San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane tion.” New Problems and Solutions box “Rethinking the Shape of
(exterior and dome), and Rembrandt’s Night Watch. Painting.” New Art and Society box “Richard Serra’s Tilted Arc.” New
photographs of Christo and Jeanne-Claude’s Surrounded Islands and
11: Rococo to Neoclassicism in Europe and America: New Fram-
Gehry’s Guggenheim Museo in Bilbao.
ing the Era essay “The Enlightenment, Angelica Kauffman, and
Neoclassicism.” New Written Sources box “Femmes Savantes and 17: South and Southeast Asia: New Framing the Era essay “The Great
Rococo Salon Culture.” New Art and Society boxes “Joseph Wright Stupa at Sanchi.” New The Patron’s Voice box “Ashoka’s Sponsorship
of Derby and the Industrial Revolution” and “Vigée-Lebrun, of Buddhism.” New Materials and Techniques box “Indian Miniature
Labille-Guiard, and the French Royal Academy.” New Problems and Painting.” New Written Sources box “Abd al-Hamid Lahori on the Taj
Solutions box “Grand Manner Portraiture.” New The Patron’s Voice Mahal.” Added meditating Buddha statue from Gandhara, Mamalla-
box “Thomas Jefferson, Patron and Practitioner.” Added Labille- puram relief of Durga slaying Mahisha, Shiva as Nataraja from Tamil
Guiard’s Self-Portrait with Two Pupils, Batoni’s Charles John Crowle, Nadu, and the Bayon temple and towers at Angkor. New photographs
Boyle and Kent’s Chiswick House, and Jefferson’s Monticello. of the Great Stupa at Sanchi and its east torana; Bodhisattva Padma-
pani in Ajanta cave 1; the Vishnu Temple at Deogarh and its Ananta
12: Romanticism, Realism, and Photography, 1800 to 1870: New
panel; the Vishvanatha Temple at Khajuraho and its mithuna reliefs;
Framing the Era essay “The Horror—and Romance—of Death at
and the pietra dura stonework of the Taj Mahal.
Sea.” New Problems and Solutions boxes “Unleashing the Emo-
tive Power of Color” and “Prefabricated Architecture.” New Artists 18: China and Korea: New Materials and Techniques boxes “Chi-
on Art box “Thomas Cole on the American Landscape.” New Art nese Jade,” “Silk and the Silk Road,” and “Chinese Porcelain.” New
and Society box “Edmonia Lewis, an African American Sculptor Art and Society box “The First Emperor’s Army in the Afterlife.” New
in Rome.” Added Vignon’s La Madeleine in Paris, Daumier’s Nadar Artists on Art box “Xie He’s Six Canons.” New Problems and Solu-
Raising Photography to the Height of Art, and Muybridge’s Horse tions box “Planning an Unplanned Garden.” Added Eastern Zhou
Galloping. New photographs of Daumier’s Rue Transnonain and the bi disk; Lingering Garden, Suzhou; Shang Xi’s Guan Yu Captures
Houses of Parliament, London. General Pang De; Ming lacquered table with drawers; Shitao’s Riding
the Clouds; and Jeong Seon’s Geumgangsan Mountains. New photo-
13: Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, and Symbolism, 1870 graphs of the throne room in Beijing’s Forbidden City; Fan Kuan’s
to 1900: New Framing the Era essay “Modernism at the Folies- Travelers among Mountains and Streams; the Yuan David Vases; the
Bergère.” New Problems and Solutions boxes “Painting Impressions Garden of the Master of the Fishing Nets, Suzhou; Ye Yushan’s Rent
of Light and Color” and “Making Impressionism Solid and Endur- Collection Courtyard; and the Buddhist cave temple at Seokguram.
ing.” New Art and Society box “Women Impressionists.” Added
Manet’s A Bar at the Folies-Bergère and Claude Monet in His Studio 19: Japan: New Framing the Era essay “The Floating World of Edo.”
Boat, Monet’s Saint-Lazare Train Station, Morisot’s Summer’s Day, New Religion and Mythology box “Shinto.” New Written Sources
Rodin’s Burghers of Calais, Gaudi’s Casa Milà in Barcelona, and Sul- box “Woman Writers and Calligraphers at the Heian Imperial
livan’s Carson, Pirie, Scott Building in Chicago. New photographs of Court.” New Art and Society box “The Japanese Tea Ceremony.”
the Eiffel Tower and a detail of Seurat’s A Sunday on La Grande Jatte. Added the honden of the Ise Jingu in Ise, the Daibutsuden and
Unkei’s Agyo of Todaiji in Nara, the karesansui garden of Ryoanji in
14: Modernism in Europe and America, 1900 to 1945: New Fram- Kyoto, and the White Heron Castle of Himeji. New photographs of
ing the Era essay “Picasso Disrupts the Western Pictorial Tradition.” the Phoenix Hall at Uji, a tea ceremony Kogan in Cleveland, and a
New Art and Society boxes “The Armory Show” and “Jacob Law- large plate by Hamada Shoji.
rence’s Migration of the Negro.” New Written Sources box “André
Breton’s First Surrealist Manifesto.” Added Derain’s The Dance, 20: Native Americas and Oceania: New Framing the Era essay “War
Léger’s The City, Dove’s Nature Symbolized No. 2, Lam’s The Jungle, and Human Sacrifice in Ancient Mexico.” New Problems and Solu-
Moore’s Reclining Figure, and Orozco’s Hispano-America 16. New tions box “The Underworld, the Sun, and Mesoamerican Pyramid
photograph of the Bauhaus, Dessau. Design.” New Art and Society box “Nasca Lines.” New general view
and details of the watercolor copy of the Lord Chan Muwan mural
15: Modernism and Postmodernism in Europe and America, at Bonampak. Added the Raimondi Stele and a Mandan buffalo-hide
1945 to 1980: New Framing the Era essay “After Modernism: Post- robe as well as a new section on Oceania, including the Ambum
modernist Architecture.” New Artists on Art boxes “David Smith Stone, the moai of Rapa Nui, a Chuuk prow ornament, the Hawaiian
on Outdoor Sculpture,” “Roy Lichtenstein on Pop Art and Comic feather cloak of Kamehameha III, an engraving of a tattooed Mar-
Books,” and “Chuck Close on Photorealist Portrait Painting.” Added quesan warrior, the Maori Mataatua meeting house, a Rarotonga
Moore’s Piazza d’Italia, Krasner’s The Seasons, Noguchi’s Shodo staff god, an Australian Dreaming bark painting, a New Ireland
Shima Stone Study, Warhol’s Marilyn Diptych, Freud’s Naked Portrait, malanggan mask, and an Art and Society box “Tattoo in Polynesia.”
and White’s Moencopi Strata. New photographs of the interior of Le
Corbusier’s Notre-Dame-du-Haut and of Graves’s Portland Building. 21: Africa: New Framing the Era essay “The Royal Arts of Benin.”
New Art and Society box “African Artists and Apprentices.” Added
16: Contemporary Art Worldwide: Major reorganization and the Tassili n’Ajjer rock painting of a running woman, a 16th-century
expansion of the text with the addition of many new artists, archi- brass plaque portraying a Benin king on horseback, a Fang bieri
tects, artworks, and buildings: Burtynsky’s Densified Scrap Metal reliquary figure, the Kuba ndop portrait of King Shyaam aMbul
#3A, Rosler’s Gladiators, Botero’s Abu Ghraib 46, Zhang’s Big Family aNgoong, and a Baga d’mba mask.
xviii Preface
a bout the author
Fred S. Kleiner
Fred S. Kleiner (Ph.D., Columbia University) has been the author or coauthor of Gardner’s Art through the
Ages beginning with the 10th edition in 1995. He has also published more than a hundred books, articles,
and reviews on Greek and Roman art and architecture, including A History of Roman Art, also published by
Cengage Learning. Both Art through the Ages and the book on Roman art have been awarded Texty prizes
as the outstanding college textbook of the year in the humanities and social sciences, in 2001 and 2007,
respectively. Professor Kleiner has taught the art history survey course since 1975, first at the University of
Virginia and, since 1978, at Boston University, where he is currently professor of the history of art and archi-
tecture and classical archaeology and has served as department chair for five terms, most recently from
2005 to 2014. From 1985 to 1998, he was editor-in-chief of the American Journal of Archaeology.
Long acclaimed for his inspiring lectures and devotion to students, Professor Kleiner won Boston Uni-
versity’s Metcalf Award for Excellence in Teaching as well as the College Prize for Undergraduate Advising
in the Humanities in 2002, and he is a two-time winner of the Distinguished Teaching Prize in the College of
Arts & Sciences Honors Program. In 2007, he was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London,
and, in 2009, in recognition of lifetime achievement in publication and teaching, a Fellow of the Text and
Academic Authors Association.
Also by Fred Kleiner: A History of Roman Art, Enhanced Edition (Wadsworth/Cengage Learning 2010; ISBN
9780495909873), winner of the 2007 Texty Prize for a new college textbook in the humanities and social sciences. In
this authoritative and lavishly illustrated volume, Professor Kleiner traces the development of Roman art and architec-
ture from Romulus’s foundation of Rome in the eighth century bce to the death of Constantine in the fourth century ce,
with special chapters devoted to Pompeii and Herculaneum, Ostia, funerary and provincial art and architecture, and
the earliest Christian art. The enhanced edition also includes a new introductory chapter on the art and architecture
of the Etruscans and of the Greeks of South Italy and Sicily.
xix
Resources
For Faculty For Students

MindTap® for Instructors MindTap for Art through the Ages
Leverage the tools in MindTap for Gardner’s Art through the Ages: MindTap for Gardner’s Art through the Ages: A Concise Global History,
A Concise Global History, 4th edition, to enhance and personalize 4th edition, helps you engage with your course content and achieve
your course. Add your own images, videos, web links, readings, greater comprehension. Highly personalized and fully online, the
projects, and more either in the course Learning Path or right in the MindTap learning platform presents authoritative Cengage Learn-
chapter reading. Set project due dates, specify whether assignments ing content, assignments, and services offering you a tailored
are for practice or a grade, and control when your students see these presentation of course curriculum created by your instructor.
activities in their Learning Path. MindTap can be purchased as a MindTap guides you through the course curriculum via an
stand-alone product or bundled with the print text. Connect with innovative Learning Path Navigator where you will complete read-
your Learning Consultant for more details via www.cengage.com ing assignments, annotate your readings, complete homework, and
/repfinder/. engage with quizzes and assessments. This new edition features a
two-pane e-reader, designed to make your online reading experi-
Instructor Companion Site ence easier. Images discussed in the text appear in the left pane,
Access the Instructor Companion Website to find resources to help while the accompanying text scrolls on the right. Highly accessible
you teach your course and engage your students. Here you will find and interactive, this new e-reader pairs videos, Google Map links,
the Instructor’s Manual; Cengage Learning Testing, powered by and 360-degree panoramas with the matching figure in the text.
Cognero; and Microsoft PowerPoint slides with lecture outlines and Artworks are further brought to life through zoom capability right
images that can be used as offered or customized by importing per- in the e-reader. Numerous study tools are included, such as image
sonal lecture slides or other material. flashcards; glossary complete with an audio pronunciation guide;
downloadable Image Guide (a note taking template with all chapter
Digital Image library images); and the ability to synchronize your eBook notes with your
personal EverNote account.
Display digital images in the classroom with this powerful tool. This
one-stop lecture and class presentation resource makes it easy to New Flashcard App
assemble, edit, and present customized lectures for your course.
Available on flash drive, the Digital Image Library provides high- The new and improved Flashcard App in MindTap gives you more
resolution images (maps, diagrams, and the fine art images from the flexibility and features than ever before. Study from the preexisting
text) for lecture presentations and allows you to easily add your own card decks with all the images from the text, or create your own
images to supplement those provided. A zoom feature allows you to cards with new images from your collection or those shared by your
magnify selected portions of an image for more detailed display in instructor. Create your own custom study deck by combining cards
class, or you can display images side-by-side for comparison. from separate chapters or those you’ve created. Once you’ve com-
piled your flashcard deck, you can save it for later use or print it for
Google EarthTM on-the-go studying.
Take your students on a virtual tour of art through the ages!
Resources for the 4th edition include Google Earth coordinates for
all works, monuments, and sites featured in the text, enabling stu-
dents to make geographical connections between places and sites.
Use these coordinates to start your lectures with a virtual journey to
locations all over the globe, or take aerial screenshots of important
sites to incorporate in your lecture materials.
xxi
G a r d n e r’ s
Art
Thro u g h t h e
Ages
 I-1a Among the questions art
historians ask is why artists chose
the subjects they represented. Why
would a 17th-century French painter
set a biblical story in a contemporary
harbor with a Roman ruin?
 I-1b Why is the small boat in the foreground much larger than the
sailing ship in the distance? What devices did Western artists develop
to produce the illusion of deep space in a two-dimensional painting?
1 ft.
I-1 Claude Lorrain, Embarkation of the Queen of Sheba, 1648.

Oil on canvas, 4' 10" × 6' 4". National Gallery, London.
 I-1c Why does the large port

building at the right edge of this
painting seem normal to the eye
when the top and bottom of the
structure are not parallel horizontal
lines, as they are in a real building?
INTRODUCTION
What Is Art History?
What is art history? Except when referring to the modern academic discipline, people do not often jux-
tapose the words art and history. They tend to think of history as the record and interpretation of past
human actions, particularly social and political events. In contrast, most think of art, quite correctly,
as part of the present—as something that people can see and touch. Of course, people cannot see or
touch history’s vanished human events, but a visible, tangible artwork is a kind of persisting event. One
or more artists made it at a certain time and in a specific place, even if no one now knows who, when,
where, or why. Although created in the past, an artwork continues to exist in the present, long surviving
its times. The first painters and sculptors died at least 30,000 years ago, but their works remain, some of
them exhibited in glass cases in museums built only during the past few years.
Modern museum visitors can admire these objects from the remote past and countless others
produced over the millennia—whether a large painting on canvas by a 17th-century French artist
(fig. I-1), a wood portrait from an ancient Egyptian tomb (fig. I-12), or an 18th-century bronze altar
glorifying an African king (fig. I-13)—without any knowledge of the circumstances leading to the
creation of those works. The beauty or sheer size of an object can impress people, the artist’s virtuosity
in the handling of ordinary or costly materials can dazzle them, or the subject depicted can move them
emotionally. Viewers can react to what they see, interpret the work in the light of their own experience,
and judge it a success or a failure. These are all valid responses to a work of art. But the enjoyment and
appreciation of artworks in museum settings are relatively recent phenomena, as is the creation of art-
works solely for museum-going audiences to view.
Today, it is common for artists to work in private studios and to create paintings, sculptures,
and other objects for sale by commercial art galleries. This is what American artist Clyfford Still
(1904–1980) did when he produced his series of paintings (fig. I-2) of pure color titled simply with the
year of their creation. Usually, someone the artist has never met will purchase the artwork and display
it in a setting the artist has never seen. This practice is not a new phenomenon in the history of art—an
ancient potter decorating a vase for sale at a village market stall probably did not know who would buy
the pot or where it would be housed—but it is not at all typical. In fact, it is exceptional. Throughout
history, most artists created paintings, sculptures, and other objects for specific patrons and settings
and to fulfill a specific purpose, even if today no one knows the original contexts of those artworks.
Museum visitors can appreciate the visual and tactile qualities of these objects, but they cannot un-
derstand why they were made or why they appear as they do without knowing the circumstances of
their creation. Art appreciation does not require knowledge of the historical context of an artwork (or
a building). Art history does.
1
ART HISTORY IN THE 21ST CENTURY
Art historians study the visual and tangible objects that humans
make and the structures that they build. Beginning with the earli-
est Greco-Roman art critics, scholars have studied objects that their
makers consciously manufactured as “art” and to which the artists
assigned formal titles. But today’s art historians also study a multi-
tude of objects that their creators and owners almost certainly did
not consider to be “works of art.” Few ancient Romans, for example,
would have regarded a coin bearing their emperor’s portrait as any-
thing but money. Today, an art museum may exhibit that coin in
a locked case in a climate-controlled room, and scholars may sub-
ject it to the same kind of art historical analysis as a portrait by an
acclaimed Renaissance or modern sculptor or painter.
The range of objects that art historians study is constantly
expanding and now includes, for example, computer-generated
images, whereas in the past almost anything produced using a
machine would not have been regarded as art. Most people still con-
sider the performing arts—music, drama, and dance—as outside art
history’s realm because these arts are fleeting, impermanent media.
But during the past few decades even this distinction between “fine
1 ft. art” and “performance art” has become blurred. Art historians, how-
ever, generally ask the same kinds of questions about what they study,
whether they employ a restrictive or expansive definition of art.
The Questions Art Historians Ask

I-2 Clyfford Still, 1948-C, 1948. Oil on canvas, 6' 8 78 " × 5' 8 34 ".
HOW OLD IS IT? Before art historians can write a history of art,
Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution,
they must be sure they know the date of each work they study. Thus
Washington, D.C. (purchased with funds of Joseph H. Hirshhorn,
an indispensable subject of art historical inquiry is chronology, the
1992).
dating of art objects and buildings. If researchers cannot determine
Clyfford Still painted this abstract composition without knowing who would a monument’s age, they cannot place the work in its historical con-
purchase it or where it would be displayed, but throughout history, most artists text. Art historians have developed many ways to establish, or at
created works for specific patrons and settings. least approximate, the date of an artwork.
Physical evidence often reliably indicates an object’s age. The
material used for a statue or painting—bronze, plastic, or oil-based
pigment, to name only a few—may not have been invented before a
Thus a central aim of art history is to determine the original certain time, indicating the earliest possible date (the terminus post
context of artworks. Art historians seek to achieve a full under- quem: Latin, “point after which”) someone could have fashioned the
standing not only of why these “persisting events” of human history work. Or artists may have ceased using certain materials—such as
look the way they do but also of why the artistic events happened at specific kinds of inks and papers for drawings—at a known time,
all. What unique set of circumstances gave rise to the construction providing the latest possible date (the terminus ante quem: Latin,
of a particular building or led an individual patron to commission a “point before which”) for objects made of those materials. Some-
certain artist to fashion a singular artwork for a specific place? The times the material (or the manufacturing technique) of an object
study of history is therefore vital to art history. And art history is or a building can establish a very precise date of production or
often indispensable for a thorough understanding of history. In ways construction. The study of tree rings, for instance, usually can deter-
that other historical documents may not, art objects and buildings mine within a narrow range the date of a wood statue or a timber
can shed light on the peoples who made them and on the times of roof beam.
their creation. Furthermore, artists and architects can affect history Documentary evidence can help pinpoint the date of an object
by reinforcing or challenging cultural values and practices through or building when a dated written document mentions the work. For
the objects they create and the structures they build. Although the example, archival records may note when church officials commis-
two disciplines are not the same, the history of art and architecture sioned a new altarpiece—and how much they paid to which artist.
is inseparable from the study of history. Internal evidence can play a significant role in dating an art-
The following pages introduce some of the distinctive subjects work. A painter or sculptor might have depicted an identifiable
that art historians address and the kinds of questions they ask, and person or a kind of hairstyle or clothing fashionable only at a certain
explain some of the basic terminology they use when answering time. If so, the art historian can assign a more accurate date to that
these questions. Readers armed with this arsenal of questions and painting or sculpture.
terms will be ready to explore the multifaceted world of art through Stylistic evidence is also very important. The analysis of style—
the ages. an artist’s distinctive manner of producing an object—is the art
2 Introduction What Is Art History?

historian’s special sphere. Unfortunately, because it is a subjective Very often two artworks from the same place made centuries apart
assessment, stylistic evidence is by far the most unreliable chron- are more similar than contemporaneous works from two different
ological criterion. Still, art historians sometimes find style a very regions. To cite one example, usually only an expert can distinguish
useful tool for establishing chronology. between an Egyptian statue carved in 2500 bce and one made in
500 bce. But no one would mistake an Egyptian statue of 500 bce
WHAT IS ITS STYLE? Defining artistic style is one of the key ele- for one of the same date made in Greece or Mexico.
ments of art historical inquiry, although the analysis of artworks Considerable variations in a given area’s style are possible, how-
solely in terms of style no longer dominates the field the way it once ever, even during a single historical period. In late medieval Europe,
did. Art historians speak of several different kinds of artistic styles. French architecture differed significantly from Italian architecture.
Period style refers to the characteristic artistic manner of a spe- The interiors of Beauvais Cathedral (fig. I-3) and the church of
cific time, usually within a distinct culture, such as “Archaic Greek.” Santa Croce (Holy Cross, fig. I-4) in Florence typify the architec-
But many periods do not display any stylistic unity at all. How would tural styles of France and Italy, respectively, at the end of the 13th
someone define the artistic style of the second decade of the third century. The rebuilding of the east end of Beauvais Cathedral began
millennium in North America? Far too many crosscurrents exist in in 1284. Construction commenced on Santa Croce only 10 years
contemporary art for anyone to describe a period style of the early later. Both structures employ the pointed arch characteristic of this
21st century—even in a single city such as New York. era, yet the two churches differ strikingly. The French church has
Regional style is the term that art historians use to describe towering stone ceilings and large expanses of colored-glass win-
variations in style tied to geography. Like an object’s date, its prov- dows, whereas the Italian building has a low timber roof and small,
enance, or place of origin, can significantly determine its character. widely separated windows. Because the two contemporaneous
churches served similar purposes, regional style mainly explains
their differing appearance.
Personal style, the distinctive manner of individual artists or
architects, often decisively explains stylistic discrepancies among
artworks and buildings of the same time and place. For example, in
I-3 Choir of Beauvais Cathedral (looking east), Beauvais, France,

rebuilt after 1284. I-4 Interior of Santa Croce (looking east), Florence, Italy, begun 1294.
The style of an object or building often varies from region to region. This In contrast to Beauvais Cathedral (fig. I-3), this contemporaneous Florentine
cathedral has towering stone vaults and large stained-glass windows typical church conforms to the quite different regional style of Italy. The building has
of 13th-century French architecture. a low timber roof and small windows.
Art History in the 21st Century 3

1 ft.
I-5 Georgia O’Keeffe, Jack-in-the-Pulpit No. 4, 1930. Oil on

canvas, 3' 4" × 2' 6". National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
1 ft.
(Alfred Stieglitz Collection, bequest of Georgia O’Keeffe).
O’Keeffe’s paintings feature close-up views of petals and leaves in which

the organic forms become powerful abstract compositions. This approach to
painting typifies the artist’s distinctive personal style.
1930, Georgia O’Keeffe (1887–1986) painted Jack-in-the-Pulpit I-6 Ben Shahn, The Passion of Sacco and Vanzetti, 1931–1932.
No. 4 (fig. I-5), a sharply focused close-up view of petals and leaves. Tempera on canvas, 7' 12 " × 4'. Whitney Museum of American Art,
O’Keeffe captured the growing plant’s slow, controlled motion while New York (gift of Edith and Milton Lowenthal in memory of Juliana
converting the plant into a powerful abstract composition of lines, Force).
shapes, and colors (see the discussion of art historical vocabulary O’Keeffe’s contemporary, Shahn developed a style markedly different from
in the next section). Only a year later, another American artist, Ben hers. His paintings are often social commentaries on recent events and incor-
Shahn (1898–1969), painted The Passion of Sacco and Vanzetti porate readily identifiable people.
(fig. I-6), a stinging commentary on social injustice inspired by
the trial and execution of two Italian anarchists, Nicola Sacco and
Bartolomeo Vanzetti. Many people believed that Sacco and Vanzetti of the very different subjects the artists chose. But even when two
had been unjustly convicted of killing two men in a robbery in 1920. artists depict the same subject, the results can vary widely. The
Shahn’s painting compresses time in a symbolic representation of way O’Keeffe painted flowers and the way Shahn painted faces are
the trial and its aftermath. The two executed men lie in their cof- distinctive and unlike the styles of their contemporaries. (See the
fins. Presiding over them are the three members of the commission “Who Made It?” discussion on page 5.)
(headed by a college president wearing academic cap and gown) The different kinds of artistic styles are not mutually exclusive.
who declared the original trial fair and cleared the way for the For example, an artist’s personal style may change dramatically
executions. Behind, on the wall of a stately government building, during a long career. Art historians then must distinguish among
hangs the framed portrait of the judge who pronounced the initial the different period styles of a particular artist, such as the “Blue
sentence. Personal style, not period or regional style, sets Shahn’s Period” and the “Cubist Period” of the prolific 20th-century artist
canvas apart from O’Keeffe’s. The contrast is extreme here because Pablo Picasso.

I-7 Albrecht Dürer, The Four Horsemen of the
Apocalypse, ca. 1498. Woodcut, 1' 3 14 " × 11". Metro-
politan Museum of Art, New York (gift of Junius S.
Morgan, 1919).
Personifications are abstract ideas codified in human form.

Here, Albrecht Dürer represented Death, Famine, War, and
Pestilence as four men on charging horses, each man carry-
ing an identifying attribute.
Artists may depict figures with unique attri-

butes identifying them. In Christian art, for example,
each of the authors of the biblical gospel books, the
four evangelists, has a distinctive attribute. People
can recognize Saint Matthew by the winged man
associated with him, John by his eagle, Mark by his
lion, and Luke by his ox.
Throughout the history of art, artists have
also used personifications—abstract ideas codified
in human form. Because of the fame of the colos-
sal statue set up in New York City’s harbor in 1886,
people everywhere visualize Liberty as a robed
woman wearing a rayed crown and holding a torch.
Four different personifications appear in The Four
Horsemen of the Apocalypse (fig. I-7) by German
artist Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528). The print is
a terrifying depiction of the fateful day at the end
of time when, according to the Bible’s last book,
Death, Famine, War, and Pestilence will annihilate
the human race. Dürer personified Death as an
emaciated old man with a pitchfork. Famine swings
the scales for weighing human souls, War wields a
sword, and Pestilence draws a bow.
1 in.
Even without considering style and without
knowing a work’s maker, informed viewers can
determine much about the work’s period and prove-
nance by iconographical and subject analysis alone.
In The Passion of Sacco and Vanzetti (fig. I-6), for
example, the two coffins, the trio headed by an aca-
WHAT IS ITS SUBJECT? Another major concern of art histori- demic, and the robed judge in the background are all pictorial clues
ans is, of course, subject matter. Some artworks, such as modern revealing the painting’s subject. The work’s date must be after the
abstract paintings (fig. I-2), have no subject, not even a setting. But trial and execution, probably while the event was still newsworthy.
when artists represent people, places, or actions, viewers must iden- And because the two men’s deaths caused the greatest outrage in
tify these features to achieve complete understanding of the work. the United States, the painter–social critic was probably American.
Art historians traditionally separate pictorial subjects into various
categories, such as religious, historical, mythological, genre (daily WHO MADE IT? If Ben Shahn had not signed his painting of
life), portraiture, landscape (a depiction of a place), still life (an Sacco and Vanzetti, an art historian could still assign, or attribute,
arrangement of inanimate objects), and their numerous subdivi- the work to him based on knowledge of the artist’s personal style.
sions and combinations. Although signing (and dating) works is quite common (but by no
Iconography—literally, the “writing of images”—refers both to means universal) today, in the history of art countless works exist
the content, or subject, of an artwork, and to the study of content whose artists remain unknown. Because personal style can play
in art. By extension, it also includes the study of symbols, images a major role in determining the character of an artwork, art his-
that stand for other images or encapsulate ideas. In Christian art, torians often try to attribute anonymous works to known artists.
two intersecting lines of unequal length or a simple geometric cross Sometimes they assemble a group of works all thought to be by the
can serve as an emblem of the religion as a whole, symbolizing the same person, even though none of the objects in the group is the
cross of Jesus Christ’s crucifixion. A symbol also can be a familiar known work of an artist with a recorded name. Art historians thus
object that an artist has imbued with greater meaning. A balance or reconstruct the careers of artists such as “the Achilles Painter,” the
scale, for example, may symbolize justice or the weighing of souls anonymous ancient Greek artist whose masterwork is a depiction
on judgment day. of the hero Achilles. Scholars base their attributions on internal

personal style is of paramount importance. But in many times and
places, artists had little to say about what form their work would
take. They toiled in obscurity, doing the bidding of their patrons,
those who paid them to make individual works or employed them
on a continuing basis. The role of patrons in dictating the content
and shaping the form of artworks is also an important subject of art
historical inquiry.
In the art of portraiture, to name only one category of paint-
ing and sculpture, the patron has often played a dominant role in
deciding how the artist represented the subject, whether that patron
or another individual, such as a spouse, son, or mother. Many Egyp-
tian pharaohs and some Roman emperors, for example, insisted that
artists depict them with unlined faces and perfect youthful bodies
no matter how old they were when portrayed. In these cases, the
state employed the sculptors and painters, and the artists had no
choice but to portray their patrons in the officially approved man-
ner. This is why Augustus, who lived to age 76, looks so young in
his portraits (fig. I-8). Although Roman emperor for more than 40
years, Augustus demanded that artists always represent him as a
young, godlike head of state.
All modes of artistic production reveal the impact of patron-
age. Learned monks provided the themes for the sculptural deco-
ration of medieval church portals. Renaissance princes and popes
dictated the subject, size, and materials of artworks destined for dis-
play in buildings also constructed according to their specifications.
An art historian could make a very long list of commissioned works,
and it would indicate that patrons have had diverse tastes and needs
throughout history and consequently demanded different kinds of
art. Whenever a patron contracts an artist or architect to paint, sculpt,
or build in a prescribed manner, personal style often becomes a very
minor factor in the ultimate appearance of the painting, statue, or
building. In these cases, the identity of the patron reveals more to art
historians than does the identity of the artist or school.
1 in.
The Words Art Historians Use
As in all fields of study, art history has its own specialized vocabu-
lary consisting of hundreds of words, but certain basic terms are
I-8 Bust of Augustus wearing the corona civica (civic wreath),
indispensable for describing artworks and buildings of any time and
early first century ce. Marble, 1' 5" high. Glyptothek, Munich.
place. They make up the essential vocabulary of formal analysis, the
Patrons frequently dictate the form their portraits will take. The Roman visual analysis of artistic form. Definitions and discussions of the
emperor Augustus demanded that he always be portrayed as a young, most important art historical terms follow.
godlike head of state even though he lived to age 76.
FORM AND COMPOSITION Form refers to an object’s shape and
structure, either in two dimensions (for example, a figure painted on
e vidence, such as the distinctive way an artist draws or carves drap- a wall) or in three dimensions (such as a statue carved from a stone
ery folds, earlobes, or flowers. It requires a keen, highly trained eye block). Two forms may take the same shape but differ in their color,
and long experience to become a connoisseur, an expert in assigning texture, and other qualities. Composition refers to how an artist
artworks to “the hand” of one artist rather than another. organizes (composes) forms in an artwork, either by placing shapes
Sometimes a group of artists works in the same style at the on a flat surface or by arranging forms in space.
same time and place. Art historians designate such a group as a
school. “School” does not mean an educational institution. The term MATERIAL AND TECHNIQUE To create art forms, artists shape
connotes only shared chronology, style, and geography. Art histo- materials (pigment, clay, marble, gold, and many more) with tools
rians speak, for example, of the Dutch school of the 17th century (pens, brushes, chisels, and so forth). Each of the materials and
and, within it, of subschools such as those of the cities of Haarlem, tools available has its own potentialities and limitations. Part of
Utrecht, and Leyden. all artists’ creative activity is to select the medium and instrument
most suitable to the purpose—or to develop new media and tools,
WHO PAID FOR IT? The interest that many art historians show in such as bronze and concrete in antiquity and cameras and computers
attribution reflects their conviction that the identity of an artwork’s in modern times. The processes that artists employ, such as applying
maker is the major reason the object looks the way it does. For them, paint to canvas with a brush, and the distinctive, personal ways they

handle materials constitute their technique. Form, material, and tech- and green (yellow and blue). Complementary colors—red and green,
nique interrelate and are central to analyzing any work of art. yellow and purple, and blue and orange—complete, or “comple-
ment,” each other, one absorbing colors the other reflects.
LINE Among the most important elements defining an artwork’s Painters can manipulate the appearance of colors, however.
shape or form is line. A line can be understood as the path of a point One artist who made a systematic investigation of the formal
moving in space, an invisible line of sight. More commonly, however, aspects of art, especially color, was Joseph Albers (1888–1976), a
artists and architects make a line visible by drawing (or chiseling) German-born artist who emigrated to the United States in 1933. In
it on a plane, a flat surface. A line may be very thin, wirelike, and Homage to the Square: “Ascending” (fig. I-9)—one of hundreds of
delicate. It may be thick and heavy. Or it may alternate quickly from color variations on the same composition of concentric squares—
broad to narrow, the strokes jagged or the outline broken. When a Albers demonstrated “the discrepancy between physical fact and
continuous line defines an object’s outer shape, art historians call it psychic effect.”1 Because the composition remains constant, the
a contour line. All of these line qualities are present in Dürer’s Four Homage series succeeds in revealing the relativity and instability of
Horsemen of the Apocalypse (fig. I-7). Contour lines define the basic color perception. Albers varied the saturation (a color’s brightness
shapes of clouds, human and animal limbs, and weapons. Within or dullness) and tonality (lightness or darkness) of each square in
the forms, series of short broken lines create shadows and textures. each painting. As a result, the sizes of the squares from painting to
An overall pattern of long parallel strokes suggests the dark sky on painting appear to vary (although they remain the same), and the
the frightening day when the world is about to end. sensations emanating from the paintings range from clashing dis-
sonance to delicate serenity. In this way, Albers proved that “we see
COLOR Light reveals all colors. Light in the world of the painter colors almost never unrelated to each other.”2
and other artists differs from natural light. Natural light, or sunlight,
is whole or additive light. As the sum of all the wavelengths com- TEXTURE The term texture refers to the quality of a surface, such as
posing the visible spectrum, it may be disassembled or fragmented rough or shiny. Art historians distinguish between true texture—that
into the individual colors of the spectral band. The painter’s light in is, the tactile quality of the surface—and represented texture, as when
art—the light reflected from pigments and objects—is subtractive painters depict an object as having a certain texture, even though the
light. Paint pigments produce their individual colors by reflecting pigment is the true texture. Texture is, of course, a key determinant of
a segment of the spectrum while absorbing all the rest. Green pig- any sculpture’s character. People’s first impulse is usually to handle a
ment, for example, subtracts or absorbs all the light in the spectrum work of sculpture—even though museum signs often warn “Do not
except that seen as green. touch!” Sculptors plan for this natural human response, using surfaces
Artists call the three basic colors or hues—red, yellow, and varying in texture from rugged coarseness to polished smoothness.
blue—the primary colors. The secondary colors result from mixing Textures are often intrinsic to a material, influencing the type of stone,
pairs of primaries: orange (red and yellow), purple (red and blue), wood, plastic, clay, or metal that a sculptor selects.
SPACE AND PERSPECTIVE Space is the bounded

or boundless “container” of objects. For art histori-
ans, space can be the real three-dimensional space
occupied by a statue or a vase or contained within a
room or courtyard. Or space can be illusionistic, as
when painters depict an image (or illusion) of the
three-dimensional spatial world on a two-dimen-
sional surface.
Perspective is one of the most important
pictorial devices for organizing forms in space.
Throughout history, artists have used various
types of perspective to create an illusion of depth
or space on a two-dimensional surface. The French
painter Claude Lorrain (1600–1682) employed
several perspective devices in Embarkation of the
Queen of Sheba (fig. I-1), a painting of a biblical
episode set in a 17th-century European harbor with
an ancient Roman ruin in the left foreground, an
irrationally anachronistic combination that can be
1 ft.
I-9 Josef Albers, Homage to the Square: “Ascend-

ing,” 1953. Oil on composition board, 3' 7 12 " × 3' 7 12 ".
Whitney Museum of American Art, New York.
Albers painted hundreds of canvases using the same

composition but employing variations in color saturation
and tonality in order to reveal the relativity and instability of
color perception.

1 ft.
I-10 Ogata Korin, Waves at Matsushima, Edo period, ca. 1700–1716. Six-panel folding screen, ink, colors, and gold leaf on
paper, 4' 11 18 " × 12' 78 ". Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (Fenollosa-Weld Collection).
Asian artists rarely employed Western perspective (fig. I-1). Korin was more concerned with creating an intriguing composition of shapes
on a surface than with locating boulders, waves, and clouds in space.
1 ft.
I-11 Peter Paul Rubens, Lion Hunt, 1617–1618. Oil on canvas, 8' 2" × 12' 5". Alte Pinakothek, Munich.
Foreshortening—the representation of a figure or object at an angle to the picture plane—is a common device in Western art for creating
the illusion of depth. Foreshortening is a kind of perspective.
explained only in the context of the cultural values of the artist’s
time and place. In the painting, the figures and boats on the shore-
line are much larger than those in the distance, because decreasing
an object’s size makes it appear farther away. The top and bottom of
the port building are not parallel horizontal lines, as they are in a
real building. Instead, the lines converge beyond the structure, lead-
ing the viewer’s eye toward the hazy, indistinct sun on the horizon.
These perspective devices—the reduction of figure size, the con-
vergence of diagonal lines, and the blurring of distant forms—have
been familiar features of Western art since they were first employed
by the ancient Greeks. It is important to state, however, that all kinds
of perspective are only pictorial conventions, even when one or
more types of perspective may be so common in a given culture that
people accept them as “natural” or as “true” means of representing
the natural world.
In Waves at Matsushima (fig. I-10), a Japanese seascape paint-
ing on a six-part folding screen, Ogata Korin (1658–1716) ignored
these Western perspective conventions. A Western viewer might
interpret the left half of Korin’s composition as depicting the dis-
tant horizon, as in the French painting, but the sky is an unnatural
gold, and the clouds which fill that sky are almost indistinguish-
able from the waves below. The rocky outcroppings decrease in size
with distance, but all are in sharp focus, and there are no shadows.
The Japanese artist was less concerned with locating the boulders,
waves, and clouds in space than with composing shapes on a sur-
face, playing the swelling curves of waves and clouds against the
jagged contours of the rocks. Neither the French nor the Japanese
painting can be said to project “correctly” what viewers “in fact” see.
One painting is not a “better” picture of the world than the other.
The European and Asian artists simply approached the problem of
picture making differently.
FORESHORTENING Artists also represent single figures in space

in varying ways. When Flemish artist Peter Paul Rubens (1577–
1 ft.
1640) painted Lion Hunt (fig. I-11), he used foreshortening for all the
hunters and animals—that is, he represented their bodies at angles
to the picture plane. When in life someone views a figure at an angle,
the body appears to contract as it extends back in space. Foreshort-
ening is a kind of perspective. It produces the illusion that one part
of the body is farther away than another, even though all the painted
forms are on the same surface. Especially noteworthy in Lion Hunt
are the gray horse at the left, seen from behind with the bottom of
its left rear hoof facing the viewer and most of its head hidden by
its rider’s shield, and the fallen hunter at the painting’s lower right
corner, whose barely visible legs and feet recede into the distance.
The artist who carved the portrait of the ancient Egyptian offi-
cial Hesire (fig. I-12) did not employ foreshortening. That artist’s
purpose was to present the various human body parts as clearly
I-12 Hesire, relief from his tomb at Saqqara, Egypt, Third Dynasty,
as possible, without overlapping. The lower part of Hesire’s body
ca. 2650 bce. Wood, 3' 9" high. Egyptian Museum, Cairo.
is in profile to give the most complete view of the legs, with both
the heels and toes of each foot visible. The frontal torso, although Egyptian artists combined frontal and profile views to give a precise picture of
unnaturally twisted 90 degrees, presents its full shape, including the parts of the human body, as opposed to depicting how an individual body
both shoulders, equal in size, as in nature. (Compare the shoulders appears from a specific viewpoint.
of the hunter on the gray horse or those of the fallen hunter in Lion
Hunt’s left foreground.) Rubens and the Egyptian sculptor used very
different means of depicting forms in space. Once again, neither is can judge “correct proportions” intuitively (“that statue’s head seems
the “correct” manner. the right size for the body”). Or proportion can be a mathematical
relationship between the size of one part of an artwork or build-
PROPORTION AND SCALE Proportion concerns the relationships ing and the other parts within the work. Proportion in art implies
(in terms of size) of the parts of persons, buildings, or objects. People using a module, or basic unit of measure. When an artist or architect

I-13 Altar to the Hand (ikegobo), from
Benin, Nigeria, ca. 1735–1750. Bronze,
1' 5 12 " high. British Museum, London
(gift of Sir William Ingram).
One of the Benin king’s praise names is

Great Head, and on this cast-bronze royal
altar, the artist represented him larger than
all other figures and with a disproportion-
ately large head.
uses a formal system of proportions,

all parts of a building, body, or other
entity will be fractions or multiples of
the module. A module might be the
diameter of a column, the height of a
human head, or any other component
whose dimensions can be multiplied
or divided to determine the size of the
work’s other parts.
In certain times and places, art-
ists have devised canons, or systems,
of “correct” or “ideal” proportions for
representing human figures, constitu-
ent parts of buildings, and so forth.
In ancient Greece, many sculptors
formulated canons of proportions so
strict and all-encompassing that they 1 in.
calculated the size of every body part

in advance, even the fingers and toes,
according to mathematical ratios.
Proportional systems can differ
sharply from period to period, cul-
ture to culture, and artist to artist. Part of the task that art history On the bronze altar from Benin, Nigeria, illustrated here (fig. I-13),
students face is to perceive and adjust to these differences. In fact, the sculptor varied the size of each figure according to the person’s
many artists have used disproportion and distortion deliberately for social status. Largest, and therefore most important, is the Benin
expressive effect. Dürer’s Death (fig. I-7) has hardly any flesh on his king, depicted twice, each time flanked by two smaller attendants.
bones, and his limbs are distorted and stretched. Disproportion and The king’s head is also disproportionately large compared to his
distortion distinguish him from all the other figures in the work, body, consistent with one of the Benin ruler’s praise names: Great
precisely as the artist intended. Head.
In other cases, artists have used disproportion to focus atten- One problem that students of art history—and professional
tion on one body part (often the head) or to single out a group art historians too—confront when studying illustrations in art his-
member (usually the leader). These intentional “unnatural” discrep- tory books is that although the relative sizes of figures and objects
ancies in proportion constitute what art historians call hierarchy in a painting or sculpture are easy to discern, it is impossible to
of scale, the enlarging of elements considered the most important. determine the absolute size of the work reproduced because they

1 in.
1 ft. I-15 Head of a warrior, detail of a statue (fig. 2-34A) from the sea
off Riace, Italy, ca. 460–450 bce. Bronze, full statue 6' 6" high. Museo
Archeologico Nazionale, Reggio Calabria.
The sculptor of this life-size statue of a bearded Greek warrior cast the head,
limbs, torso, hands, and feet in separate molds, then welded the pieces
together and added the eyes in a different material.
I-14 Michelangelo Buonarroti, unfinished captive, 1527–1528.
Marble, 8' 7 12 " high. Galleria dell’Accademia, Florence.
renowned Italian artist Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475–1564)
Carving a freestanding figure from stone or wood is a subtractive process. clearly reveals the original shape of the stone block. Michelangelo
Italian master sculptor Michelangelo thought of sculpture as a process of thought of sculpture as a process of “liberating” the statue within
“liberating” the statue within the block of marble.
the block. All sculptors of stone or wood cut away (subtract) “excess
material.” When they finish, they “leave behind” the statue—in
all are printed at approximately the same size on the page. Read- this example, a twisting nude male form whose head Michelangelo
ers of Art through the Ages can learn the exact size of all artworks never freed from the stone block.
from the dimensions given in the captions and, more intuitively, In additive sculpture, the artist builds up the forms, usually
from the scales positioned at the lower left or right corner of each in clay around a framework, or armature. Or a sculptor may fash-
illustration. ion a mold, a hollow form for shaping, or casting, a fluid substance
such as bronze. The ancient Greek sculptor who made the bronze
CARVING AND CASTING Sculptural technique falls into two basic statue of a warrior found in the sea near Riace, Italy, cast the head
categories, subtractive and additive. Carving is a subtractive tech- (fig. I-15) as well as the limbs, torso, hands, and feet (fig. 2-34A )
nique. The final form is a reduction of the original mass of a block of in separate molds and then welded them together (joined them by
stone, a piece of wood, or another material. Wood statues were once heating). Finally, the artist added features, such as the pupils of the
tree trunks, and stone statues began as blocks pried from moun- eyes (now missing), in other materials. The warrior’s teeth are silver,
tains. The unfinished marble statue illustrated here (fig. I-14) by and his lower lip is copper.
The arrow icon indicates that the referenced Bonus Image or Bonus Essay appears in MindTap. 11
RELIEF SCULPTURE Statues and busts (head, shoulders, and chest) photography, and computer graphics are just some of the numer-
that exist independent of any architectural frame or setting and that ous other arts. All of them involve highly specialized techniques
viewers can walk around are freestanding sculptures, or sculptures described in distinct vocabularies. As in this introductory chapter,
in the round. In relief sculpture, the subjects project from the back- new terms appear in italics when they first appear. The compre-
ground but remain part of it. In high reliefs (fig. I-13), the images hensive glossary at the end of the book contains definitions of all
project boldly and may even cast shadows. In low reliefs (fig. I-12), italicized terms.
the projection is slight.
ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS People experience buildings both

Art History and Other Disciplines
visually and by moving through and around them, so they perceive By its very nature, the work of art historians intersects with the work
architectural space and mass together. Architects can represent of others in many fields of knowledge, not only in the humanities
these spaces and masses graphically in several ways, including as but also in the social and natural sciences. Today, art historians must
plans, sections, elevations, and cutaway drawings. go beyond the boundaries of what the public and even professional
A plan, essentially a map of a floor, shows the placement of a art historians of previous generations considered the specialized
structure’s masses and, therefore, the spaces they circumscribe and discipline of art history. Art historical research in the 21st century
enclose. A section, a kind of vertical plan, depicts the placement of is typically interdisciplinary in nature. To cite one example, in an
the masses as if someone cut through the building along a plane. effort to unlock the secrets of a particular statue, an art historian
Drawings showing a theoretical slice across a structure’s width are might conduct archival research hoping to uncover new documents
lateral sections. Those cutting through a building’s length are lon- shedding light on who paid for the work and why, who made it and
gitudinal sections. Illustrated here are the plan and lateral section when, where it originally stood, how people of the time reacted to it,
(fig. I-16) of Beauvais Cathedral, which readers can compare with and a host of other questions. Realizing, however, that the authors of
the photograph of the church’s choir (fig. I-3). The plan shows the the written documents often were not objective recorders of fact but
choir’s shape and the location of the piers dividing the aisles and observers with their own biases and agendas, the art historian may
supporting the vaults above, as well as the pattern of the crisscross- also use methodologies developed in fields such as literary criticism,
ing vault ribs. The lateral section shows not only the interior of the philosophy, sociology, and gender studies to weigh the evidence that
choir with its vaults and stained-glass windows but also the structure the documents provide.
of the roof and the form of the exterior flying buttresses holding the At other times, rather than attempting to master many disci-
vaults in place. plines at once, art historians band together with other specialists
Other types of architectural drawings appear throughout this in multidisciplinary inquiries. Art historians might call in chemists
book. An elevation drawing is a head-on view of an external or to date an artwork based on the composition of the materials used,
internal wall. A cutaway combines in a single drawing an exterior or might ask geologists to determine which quarry furnished the
view with an interior view of part of a building. stone for a particular statue. X-ray technicians might be enlisted in
This overview of the art historian’s vocabulary is not exhaus- an attempt to establish whether a painting is a forgery. Of course,
tive, nor have artists used only painting, drawing, sculpture, and art historians often reciprocate by contributing their expertise to the
architecture as media over the millennia. Ceramics, jewelry, textiles, solution of problems in other disciplines. A historian, for example,
0 10 20 30 feet
0 5 10 meters
N
Choir
Vault Ribs
Aisles Aisles
Piers
I-16 Plan (left) and lateral section (right) of Beauvais Cathedral,

Beauvais, France, rebuilt after 1284.
Architectural drawings are indispensable aids for the analysis of buildings.

Plans are maps of floors, recording the structure’s masses. Sections are vertical
“slices,” across either a building’s width or length.

might ask an art historian to determine—based on style, material, two contemporaneous portraits of a 19th-century Maori chieftain
iconography, and other criteria—if any of the portraits of a certain (fig. I-17)—one by an Englishman, John Sylvester (active early
king date after his death. Such information would help establish the 19th century), and the other by the New Zealand chieftain him-
ruler’s continuing prestige during the reigns of his successors. For self, Te Pehi Kupe (d. 1829). Both reproduce the chieftain’s facial
example, some portraits of Augustus (fig. I-8), the founder of the tattoo. The European artist (fig. I-17, left) included the head and
Roman Empire, postdate his death by decades, even centuries. shoulders and downplayed the tattooing. The tattoo pattern is one
aspect of the likeness among many, no more or less important than
the chieftain’s European attire. Sylvester also recorded his subject’s
DIFFERENT WAYS OF SEEING momentary glance toward the right and the play of light on his hair,
The history of art can be a history of artists and their works, of fleeting aspects having nothing to do with the figure’s identity.
styles and stylistic change, of materials and techniques, of images In contrast, Te Pehi Kupe’s self-portrait (fig. I-17, right)—
and themes and their meanings, and of contexts and cultures and made during a trip to Liverpool, England, to obtain European arms
patrons. The best art historians analyze artworks from many view- to take back to New Zealand—is not a picture of a man situated in
points. But no art historian (or scholar in any other field), no matter space and bathed in light. Rather, it is the chieftain’s statement of
how broad-minded in approach and no matter how experienced, the supreme importance of the tattoo design announcing his rank
can be truly objective. Like the artists who made the works illus- among his people. Remarkably, Te Pehi Kupe created the tattoo
trated and discussed in this book, art historians are members of a patterns from memory, without the aid of a mirror. The splendidly
society, participants in its culture. How can scholars (and museum composed insignia, presented as a flat design separated from the
visitors and travelers to foreign locales) comprehend cultures unlike body and even from the head, is the Maori chieftain’s image of him-
their own? They can try to reconstruct the original cultural con- self. Only by understanding the cultural context of each portrait can
texts of artworks, but they are limited by their distance from the art historians hope to understand why either representation appears
thought patterns of the cultures they study and by the obstructions as it does.
to understanding—the assumptions, presuppositions, and preju- As noted at the outset, the study of the context of artworks
dices peculiar to their own culture—that their own thought patterns and buildings is one of the central concerns of art historians. Art
raise. Art historians may reconstruct a distorted picture of the past through the Ages seeks to present a history of art and architecture
because of culture-bound blindness. that will help readers understand not only the subjects, styles, and
A single instance underscores how differently people of diverse techniques of paintings, sculptures, buildings, and other art forms
cultures view the world and how various ways of seeing can result in created in all parts of the world during 30 millennia but also their
sharp differences in how artists depict the world. Illustrated here are cultural and historical contexts. That story now begins.
I-17 Left: John Henry Sylvester, Portrait of Te Pehi Kupe, 1826. Watercolor, 8 14 " × 6 14 ". National Library of Australia,
Canberra (Rex Nan Kivell Collection). Right: Te Pehi Kupe, Self-Portrait, 1826. From Leo Frobenius, The Childhood of Man:
A Popular Account of the Lives, Customs and Thoughts of the Primitive Races (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1909), 35, fig. 28.
These strikingly different portraits of the same Maori chief reveal the different ways of seeing of a European artist and an Oceanic one.
Understanding the cultural context of artworks is vital to art history.
Different Ways of Seeing 13

 1-1a The
Warka Vase is
the first great
work of narrative
relief sculpture
known. It repre-
sents a ceremony
in honor of the
goddess Inanna
in which a
priest-king brings
votive offerings
to deposit in her
shrine.
 1-1b The Sumerians were the first to use pictures to tell coherent
stories. This sculptor placed the figures in three registers. In each band,
all the humans and animals stand on a common ground line.
1 ft.
1-1 Presentation of offerings to Inanna (Warka Vase),

from the Inanna temple complex, Uruk (modern  1-1c The two lowest registers show ewes, rams, and crops above a
Warka), Iraq, ca. 3200–3000 bce. Alabaster, wavy line representing water. The animals and food are Inanna’s blessings
3' 41 " high. National Museum of Iraq, Baghdad. to the inhabitants of the city-state.
1
Prehistory and
FRAMING THE ERA

the First Civilizations
Pictorial Narration in Ancient Sumer

Mesopotamia—a Greek word meaning “the land between the [Tigris and Euphrates] rivers”—is the
core of the region often called the Fertile Crescent, where humans first learned how to use the wheel
and plow and how to control floods and construct irrigation canals. In the fourth millennium bce,
the inhabitants of ancient Sumer, “the cradle of civilization,” established the earliest complex urban
societies, called city-states. The Sumerians also invented writing and were the first to use pictures to tell
coherent stories, far surpassing all earlier artists’ tentative efforts at pictorial narration.
The Warka Vase (fig. 1-1) from Uruk (modern Warka) is the first great work of narrative relief
sculpture known. Its depiction of a religious ceremony honoring the Sumerian goddess Inanna
(fig. 1-1A ) incorporates all of the pictorial conventions that would dominate narrative art for the
next 2,000 years. The artist divided the pictorial field into three bands (called registers or friezes) and
placed all the figures on a common ground line, a format that marks a significant break with the hap-
hazard figure placement of Stone Age art (figs. 1-4 to 1-6). The lowest band shows crops above a wavy
line representing water. Then comes a register with alternating ewes and rams. Agriculture and animal
husbandry were the staples of the Sumerian economy, but the produce and the female and male animals
are also fertility symbols. They underscore that Inanna blessed Uruk’s inhabitants with good crops and
increased herds.
A procession of naked men moving in the opposite direction of the animals fills the band at the
center of the vase. The men carry baskets and jars overflowing with the earth’s abundance. They will
present their bounty to the goddess as a votive offering (gift of gratitude to a deity usually made in
fulfillment of a vow). In the uppermost band of the Warka Vase is Inanna wearing a tall horned head-
dress. Facing her is a nude male figure bringing a large vessel brimming with offerings to be deposited
in the goddess’s shrine, and behind her (not visible in fig. 1-1), a man wearing a tasseled skirt and an
attendant carrying his long train. Near the man is the pictograph for the Sumerian official that scholars
ambiguously refer to as a “priest-king”—that is, both a religious and secular leader. Some art histori-
ans interpret the scene as a symbolic marriage between the priest-king and the goddess, ensuring her
continued goodwill—and reaffirming the leader’s exalted position in society. The greater height of the
priest-king and Inanna compared with the offering bearers indicates their greater importance, a con-
vention called hierarchy of scale, which the Sumerians also pioneered.
The arrow icon indicates that the referenced Bonus Image or Bonus Essay appears in MindTap. 15
PREHISTORY ingly varied. They range from simple shell necklaces to human
and animal forms in ivory, clay, and stone to life-size paintings,
Humankind originated in Africa in the very remote past. Yet it engravings, and relief sculptures covering the walls and ceilings of
was not until millions of years later that ancient hunters began to caves.
represent (literally, “to present again”—in different and substitute
form) the world around them and to fashion the first examples of VENUS OF WILLENDORF One of the oldest sculptures discovered
what people generally call “art.” The immensity of this intellectual to date, carved using simple stone tools, is the tiny limestone figu-
achievement cannot be exaggerated. rine (fig. 1-2) of a woman nicknamed the Venus of Willendorf after
its findspot in Austria (map 1-1). Art historians can only speculate
Paleolithic Age on the function and meaning of this and similar objects because
they date to a time before writing, before (or pre-) history. Yet the
The earliest preserved art objects date to around 40,000 to 30,000 bce, preponderance of female over male figures in the art of the Old
during the Old Stone Age or Paleolithic period (from the Greek Stone Age seems to indicate a preoccupation with women, whose
paleo, “old,” and lithos, “stone”). Paleolithic artworks are astonish- childbearing capabilities ensured the survival of the species. The
1-2 Nude woman

0 200 400 miles
(Venus of Willendorf ), Skara Brae
0 200 400 kilometers
from Willendorf, Aus N
tria, ca. 28,000–25,000
bce. Limestone, 4 14 "
North
high. Naturhisto Sea
I R E L AN D
risches Museum,
ENGLAND
Vienna. Stonehenge
G E R MANY
The anatomical exag-
ATLANTIC
gerations in this tiny figu-
OCEAN
rine—one of the oldest Willendorf
sculptures known—are FRANCE AUSTR IA

typical of Paleolithic rep-
Lascaux
resentations of women, Pech-Merle A
whose child-bearing dr
Altamira ia
capabilities ensured the ti
c
Le Tuc d’Audoubert ITALY Se
survival of the species. a
S PA I N
1 in.
Mediterranean Sea
Names and boundaries of
present-day nations appear
in brown AFRICA M A LTA
Map 1-1 Stone Age sites in western Europe.
P R E HISTO RY AND THE F I R ST CIVILIZAT ION S

40,000–3500 bce 3500–2150 bce 2150–1070 bce 1070–900 bce 900–330 bce
Stone Age Sumer, Akkad, Old Kingdom Babylonia, New Kingdom Assyria, Achaemenid Persia
■ Paleolithic (40,000–9000 bce) ■ Sumerians (3500–2332 bce) ■ Hammurabi, the greatest Baby ■ Assyrians (900–612 bce)
humans create the first sculp- establish the first city-states, lonian king (r. 1792–1750 bce), construct fortified citadels
tures and paintings. The construct temples on lofty sets up a stele recording his guarded by lamassu, and carve
works range in scale from tiny mud-brick platforms, and comprehensive laws. large-scale reliefs celebrating
figurines to life-size paintings adopt the register format for ■ Egyptian New Kingdom their prowess in warfare and
on cave walls. narrative art. (1550–1070 bce) architects hunting.
■ In the Neolithic (8000–3500 ■ Akkadians (2332–2150 bce) construct grandiose pylon ■ Achaemenid Persians
bce) age, the first settled com- produce the earliest known temples. Akhenaton intro- (559–330 bce) build an
munities appear in Anatolia life-size hollow-cast metal duces a new religion and new immense palace complex at
and Mesopotamia. Artists sculptures. art forms. Persepolis featuring an audi-
produce the first large-scale ■ Old Kingdom (2575–2134 ence hall that could accom-
sculptures and earliest paint- bce) Egyptian sculptors create modate 10,000 guests.
ings with coherent narratives. statuary types expressing the
eternal nature of divine king-
ship. The Fourth Dynasty kings
build three colossal pyramids
at Gizeh.
16 Chapter 1 Prehistory and the First Civilizations

PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS neither the front nor side fully. Only the profile view is completely infor-
mative about the animal’s shape, and that is why Paleolithic painters
How to Represent an Animal and relief sculptors universally chose it.
A very long time passed before artists placed any premium on
Like every artist in every age in every medium, the sculptor of the pair “variety” or “originality” either in subject choice or in representational
of bison (fig. 1-3) in the cave at Le Tuc d’Audoubert had to answer manner. These are quite modern notions in the history of art. The aim
two questions before beginning work: What shall be my subject? How of the earliest artists was to create a convincing image of their subject,
shall I represent it? In Paleolithic art, in Africa (fig. 1-3A ) as well a kind of pictorial definition of the animal capturing its very essence,
as in Europe, the almost universal answer to the first question was and only the profile view met their needs.
an animal. In fact, Paleolithic painters and
sculptors depicted humans infrequently, and
men almost never. In equally stark contrast
to today’s world, there was also agreement
on the best answer to the second question.
During the Old Stone Age and for thousands
of years thereafter, artists represented vir-
tually every animal in every painting in the
same manner: in strict profile. Why?
The profile is the only view of an animal
in which the head, body, tail, and all four legs
are visible. The frontal view conceals most
of the body, and a three-quarter view shows
1-3 Two bison, reliefs in the cave at Le Tuc

d’Audoubert, France, ca. 15,000–10,000 bce. 1 ft.
Clay, right bison 2' 78 " long.
Animals are far more common subjects in Paleo-

lithic art than are humans. In both relief sculpture
and painting, animals always appear in profile,
the only view completely informative about their
shape.
anatomical exaggeration of the Willendorf figurine has suggested CAVE PAINTING The bison of Le Tuc d’Audoubert are among the
to many scholars that this and other prehistoric statuettes of women largest sculptures of the Paleolithic period, but they are dwarfed by
served as fertility images. The breasts of the Willendorf woman the “herds” of painted animals that roam the cave walls of southern
are enormous, far larger in proportion than the tiny forearms and France and northern Spain. Examples of Paleolithic painting now
hands resting on them. In addition to using a stone chisel, the sculp- have been found at more than 200 European sites. Nonetheless,
tor also used a burin to incise (scratch) into the stone the outline of archaeologists still regard painted caves as rare occurrences, because
the pubic triangle. Sculptors often omitted this detail in other Paleo- even though the cave images number in the hundreds, prehistoric
lithic female figurines, however, and many of the women also have artists created them over a period of some 10,000 to 20,000 years.
far more slender proportions than the Willendorf woman, leading Paleolithic painters drew their subjects using chunks of red and
some scholars to question the nature of these figures as fertility yellow ocher. For painting, they ground these same ochers into pow-
images. In any case, it seems clear that the makers’ intent was not to ders that they mixed with water before applying. Large flat stones
represent a specific woman but the female form. served as palettes to hold the pigment. The painters made brushes
from reeds, bristles, or twigs, and may have used a blowpipe of reed
LE TUC D’AUDOUBERT Far more common than Paleolithic repre- or hollow bone to spray pigments on out-of-reach surfaces. Some
sentations of humans are sculptures and paintings of animals (see caves have natural ledges on the rock walls, on which the painters
“How to Represent an Animal,” above). An early example of animal could have stood in order to reach the upper surfaces of the natu-
sculpture is the pair of clay bison reliefs (fig. 1-3) in the cave at Le rally formed chambers and corridors. To illuminate their work, the
Tuc d’Audoubert, France. The sculptor modeled the forms by press- painters used stone lamps filled with marrow or fat, perhaps with
ing the clay against the surface of a large boulder at the back of the a wick of moss. Despite the difficulty of making the tools and pig-
cave. After using both hands to form the overall shape of the ani- ments, modern attempts at replicating the techniques of Paleolithic
mals, the artist smoothed the surfaces with a spatula-like tool and painting have demonstrated that skilled workers could cover large
used fingers to shape the eyes, nostrils, mouths, and manes. surfaces with images in less than a day.
Prehistory 17
art and society In contrast, some prehistorians have argued that the magical
purpose of the paintings and reliefs was not to facilitate the destruc-
Why Is There Art in Paleolithic Caves? tion of animal species. Instead, they believe that the first painters and
sculptors created animal images to assure the survival of the herds
Ever since the discovery of the first cave paintings at Altamira in north- on which Paleolithic peoples depended for their food supply and for
western Spain in 1879, scholars have wondered why the hunters of the their clothing. A central problem for both the hunting-magic and food-
Old Stone Age decided to cover the walls of dark caverns with animal creation theories is that the animals that were the staple foods of
images (figs. 1-3 to 1-6). Researchers have proposed various theories, Old Stone Age diets did not include the species most frequently
including that the animals were mere decoration, but this explanation portrayed.
cannot account for the narrow range of subjects or the inaccessibility Other researchers have sought to reconstruct an elaborate
of many of the representations. In fact, the remote locations of many of mythology based on the cave paintings and sculptures, suggesting that
the images, and indications that the caves were in use for centuries, are Paleolithic humans believed they had animal ancestors. Still others
precisely why many experts have suggested that prehistoric peoples have equated certain species with men and others with women and
attributed magical properties to the images they painted and sculpted. postulated various meanings for the abstract signs that sometimes
According to this argument, by confining animals to the surfaces of accompany the images.
their cave walls, Paleolithic communities believed they were bringing Almost all of these theories have been discredited over time, and
the beasts under their control. Some scholars have even hypothesized most prehistorians admit that the intent of these representations is
that rituals or dances were performed in front of the images and that unknown. In fact, a single explanation for all Paleolithic animal images,
these rites served to improve hunters’ luck in tracking and killing the even ones similar in subject, style, and composition (how the motifs are
animals. Others have speculated that the animal representations may arranged on the surface), is unlikely to apply universally. The meaning
have served as teaching tools to instruct new hunters about the char- of these works remains an unsolved mystery—and always will, because
acter of the various species they would encounter or even that the before the invention of writing, no contemporaneous explanations
images served as targets for spears. could be recorded.
1-4 Spotted horses and

negative hand imprints,
wall painting in the cave
at Pech-Merle, France,
ca. 23,000–22,000 bce.
11' 2" long.
Many Paleolithic paintings

include abstract signs and
handprints. Some scholars
think that the Pech-Merle
painted hands are “signa-
tures” of cult or community
members or, less likely, of
individual painters.
1 ft.
PECH-MERLE A mural (wall) painting (fig. 1-4) in a cave at Pech- have considered them “signatures” of cult or community mem-
Merle, France, provides some insight into the reason Stone Age art- bers or, less likely, of individual painters. Checks, dots, squares,
ists chose certain subjects for specific locations. The horse at the and other abstract signs appear near the painted animals in other
right may have been inspired by the rock formation in the wall sur- Paleolithic caves. In fact, the “spotted horses” of Pech-Merle may
face resembling a horse’s head and neck. Like the clay bison at Le not have spots. The “spots” also surround the horses and may be
Tuc d’Audoubert, the Pech-Merle horses are in strict profile. Here, stones or signs. Several observers think that these various signs are
however, painted hands accompany them. These and the majority a primitive form of writing, but like the hands—and everything else
of painted hands at other sites are “negative”—that is, the painter in Paleolithic art—their meaning is unknown (see “Why Is There
placed one hand against the wall and then brushed or blew or spat Art in Paleolithic Caves?” above).
pigment around it. Occasionally, the painter dipped a hand in the
pigment and then pressed it against the wall, leaving a “positive” LASCAUX The best-known Paleolithic cave is that at Lascaux, near
imprint. These handprints must have had a purpose. Some scholars Montignac, France, which features a large circular gallery called
18 Chapter 1 Prehistory and the First Civilizations

1-5 Left wall of the
Hall of the Bulls in
the cave at Lascaux,
France, ca. 16,000–
14,000 bce. Largest
bull 11' 6" long.
The purpose and

meaning of Paleolithic
cave paintings are
unknown, but it is clear
that the painters’ sole
concern was repre-
senting the animals,
not locating them in a
specific place or on a
common ground line.
1 ft.
the Hall of the Bulls (fig. 1-5). Not all of the painted animals are Another feature of the Lascaux paintings deserves attention.
bulls, despite the modern nickname. Some of the animals, such as The bulls show a convention of representing horns that art histori-
the great bull at the right in fig. 1-5, were represented using outline ans call twisted perspective, or composite view, because viewers see
alone, but others are colored silhouettes. These are the two basic the heads in profile but the horns from the front. Thus the painter’s
approaches to drawing and painting in the history of art. Here, they approach is not consistently optical (seen from a fixed viewpoint).
appear side by side, suggesting that different artists painted the ani- Rather, the approach is descriptive of the fact that cattle have two
mals at various times. The impression that a modern viewer gets of horns. Two horns are part of the concept “bull.” In strict profile,
a rapidly moving herd is therefore almost certainly false. The “herd” only one horn would be visible, but painting the animal in that way
consists of several different species of animals of disparate sizes would be an incomplete picture of it.
moving in different directions. Although most share a common Perhaps the most perplexing painting in any Paleolithic cave
ground line, some—for example, those in the upper right corner of is the mural (fig. 1-6) deep in the well shaft at Lascaux, where man
fig. 1-5—seem to float above the viewer’s head, like clouds in the (as opposed to woman) makes one of his earliest appearances in
sky. The painting has no setting, no background, no indication of the history of art. At the left, and moving to the left, is a rhinoceros.
place. The Paleolithic painter’s sole concern was representing the Beneath its tail are two rows of three dots of uncertain significance.
animals, not locating them in a specific place. At the right is a bison, with less realistic proportions, probably the
work of someone else. The second painter none-
theless successfully suggested the bristling rage of
the animal, whose bowels hang from its belly in a
heavy coil. Between the two beasts is a bird-faced
(masked?) man with outstretched arms and hands
having only four fingers. The painter depicted
the man with far less care and detail than either
animal, but made the hunter’s gender explicit by
the prominent penis. The position of the man
is ambiguous. Is he wounded or dead or merely
tilted back and unharmed? Do the staff(?) with
1-6 Rhinoceros, wounded man, and disemboweled

bison, painting in the well of the cave at Lascaux,
France, ca. 16,000–14,000 bce. Bison 3' 4 12 " long.
1 ft.
If these paintings of two animals and a bird-faced
(masked?) man, deep in a well shaft in the Lascaux
cave, depict a hunting scene, they constitute the earliest
example of narrative art ever discovered.
Prehistory 19
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He sank into his chair, debating his problem. There was in Rodrigo a
strange intuition about women. His success with them had, apart from his
physical attractiveness, consisted in an ability, far greater than that of the
usual predatory male, to understand them. He thought now that he
understood Mary. In a quiet, conventional way she had fallen in love with
John Dorning, he reasoned from his recent observation of them, and John
with her. Their love was still in its budding state. Unless it were interfered
with, it would grow steadily into a steadfast union. John would ask her to
marry him and she would assent. Her love would be mingled with pity, but
yet it would be as near pure love as modern marriages usually subsist upon.
"Unless it were interfered with." In this last meeting with Mary, brief as
it had been, Rodrigo detected something that would ordinarily have set his
heart to exulting. Mary's coming to him, her eagerness to extend her
personal greetings alone, her face and manner, her desire to remain longer
and her obvious disappointment at his rather, curt reception of her, had
convinced him of something that, never addicted to false modesty, he did not
hide.
"Unless it were interfered with." Well, he took a sad little triumph in

assuring himself, he could interfere if he chose, successfully interfere. Just
now, when she was here, he could have, if he had yielded to his selfish
desire, swept her into his arms and made her his forever. He could have
killed that budding love for John within her by appealing to the force of her
original love for himself, by rushing her off her feet with his superior
strength and feeling. He was sure of this.
Mary Drake still loved him, was the refrain that kept pounding in his
heart. He could have her now if he wanted to take her. If he remained near
her, he would not be able to keep his love silent. He would have to tell her.
Every fibre of his being would revolt against the sacrifice. He would not be
strong enough to give her up to John, though John needed her, loved her,
depended upon her to keep him out of the dark shadows that had so
tragically enveloped him.
No, Rodrigo concluded, he would have to go away—and stay away. Go

away at any cost. Go away as soon as he decently could.
Having spent the day in the details of securing his baggage and
unpacking it amid the familiar scenes of the Park Avenue apartment, he met
John and had dinner with him at their favorite little French restaurant.
Afterward, in the softly lighted living-room of the apartment, over their
pipes they talked.
"I have been wondering," John said, "why you came back so suddenly,
without warning us. I had been expecting a letter or cablegram for weeks. I
had begun to worry about you. You left no forwarding address with me.
And, of course, I would not have asked you to cut short your vacation
anyway. Poor chap, you were tired out, and, to tell you the truth, you don't
look particularly chipper now."
"I received a letter from Mary. She spoke of certain 'developments.'"

Rodrigo said doggedly, anxious to have it over. "She urged me to return and
talk with you."
John asked quietly, "Did she say what those 'developments' were?"
"No."
John smiled, "Wonderful, competent Mary! She insisted I write you to

come back. I refused, because I felt you were coming soon anyway. She,
strangely enough, was not so sure. So she wrote you herself? Well, perhaps
she was wise."
"And the 'developments' she spoke of?" Rodrigo's voice sounded very
small.
John tapped the ashes from his pipe, looked at his friend gravely.
"Rodrigo," he said, "I have found out the truth about Elise."
Rodrigo started with the unexpectedness of the answer, a chaos of

thoughts running suddenly riot within him.
"I know that she is dead," John continued. "And I know that you know
she is dead, that you have always known it. But wait, I will begin at the
beginning! You will remember that I spoke to you before you left about
selling my house in Millbank. Well, I kept putting that off because I dreaded
to enter the place. You see, I had left everything exactly the way it was
before—she went. While my mental condition was still uncertain, I did not
want to disturb things. I felt that the shock of going there, seeing her room,
her clothes, everything that my happiness, my life, had depended upon,
would be too much for me. Even after I came back from California feeling
so much improved, I kept putting it off. I dreaded the ordeal. But three or
four weeks after you left, I pulled myself together, told myself that those
foolish fears were nonsense, a sign even that I had gone a little mad. So I
went over there, and I spent two whole days in the house, alone. I put my
house of memories in order. And, Rodrigo, I found out many terrible things."
Rodrigo, his eyes fixed intensely upon his friend, shuddered.
But John went on calmly. "Well, I had to break into her desk, among
other things, and I found there letters, love-letters from other men. Among
them were letters from you, showing me, Rodrigo, that she loved you and
that you had had the courage to repulse her love. My idol crashed then and
there down to the floor, and the whole world went black again. Rodrigo,
there in that room alone I came as near going crazy as I hope ever to again in
this world. I cursed God for letting me see that He had made life so hideous.
I wanted to die. But I came through it. I think that it was those letters of
yours—those letters were striking blows for my happiness—that brought me
through. That is twice you have saved my life, Rodrigo—once from Rosner
and once—from myself."
Rodrigo rose and cried suddenly, "Don't say that, John! I can't bear it!"
"Please, Rodrigo," John restrained him. "I understand. You have always
tried to protect my happiness. You tried to keep me from knowing that I
loved a woman who never existed. But she is dead now. After I came out of
that house and went back to my father's and told them what I had found, they
confessed to me that anonymous notes had come to me soon after Elise's
disappearance hinting that I might learn something about her if it were
possible to identify the victims of the Van Clair fire. My father and Warren
had kept those notes from me. They felt it was time now to tell me about
them. And it became clear to me. The woman who died in the Van Clair fire
was Elise."
Rodrigo cried out, the secret wrenched from him almost without his
volition, "I know she was! And I sent her there that night, John! You'll
remember you went to Philadelphia and wired me to take the midnight train
and meet you the next morning. Well, she came to me that night in the
office, where I was working on the estimates. I was in a reckless mood,
disappointed—but no matter, it was no excuse for me. I sent her to the Van
Clair, intending to follow. Oh, I didn't go. I got my senses back, thank God!
But I was responsible. I thought I had grown so good, and I knifed my best
friend." He lifted his pale, stricken face to John, pleading for mercy, "I've
been through an ordeal too, John. The difference between us is that—I
deserved it and—the ordeal is going to go right on. Even though I've torn
this awful secret out of me at last!"
John Dorning was silent, stunned, trying to realize the significance of his
friend's confession.
And again Rodrigo cried out, pleadingly, "I couldn't tell you before,
John. I had to let you go on driving yourself crazy from anxiety about her. I
thought it would kill you to know. Mary begged me to tell you—but I
couldn't." Tears were in his eyes. His strong body was shaken with emotion.
Suddenly he flung himself at John's feet and no longer tried to control his
weeping.
And finally John spoke, and Rodrigo wonderingly looked up and saw
that John had a little smile on his face, that he was laying gentle hands upon
the recumbent back. "I knew something was tearing at you," John said, "And
I'm glad you told me about—Elise. Knowing her now for what she really
was, I can forgive you, Rodrigo. None of us are perfect. God knows I have
found that out. You were my friend even that night of the Van Clair—in the
critical moment you were my friend. And you always will be."
Dorning helped Rodrigo to his feet, made him smile again, took his
hand. Rodrigo clutched it, crying, "John, you are a saint. If you hadn't
forgiven me, if you—" He turned his head and went slowly back to his chair.
"I told Mary what I had discovered about Elise," said John. A light of
understanding burst upon him with these words. He ventured, "Rodrigo, had
you told her already of—the Van Clair?"
Rodrigo nodded affirmatively.
John was thinking rapidly.
"What did Mary say?" he asked.
"She called me a coward for not telling you the truth, sick as you were.
She said she could not—respect me, if I didn't."
John said almost to himself, "Mary thought a lot of you, Rodrigo—does

yet."
"She loves you," Rodrigo answered softly, but he could not quite keep
the despair out of his voice.
John glanced at him understandingly at last, but he said nothing. When,

after a long silence, they resumed the conversation, Dorning strove to
change its subject.
"I wish you'd take it easy for a while at the shop, Rodrigo. You don't look
well," he said gently. "Rosner has things quite well in hand. We miss you,
but I do want you well and perfectly happy when you come back to work."
"I was thinking of returning to Europe," Rodrigo replied, attempting to

make his statement as matter-of-fact as possible.
"Not because of anything you have said here to-night, I hope," John
urged at once. "I want you to believe me, old man, that your confession
hasn't made any difference. It's rather relieved my mind, to tell the truth. I
suspected something was up that I did not yet know about. It's made me love
you more than ever, drawn us closer."
"I appreciate that, John. I feel the same way," Rodrigo said.
Nevertheless, he told himself, he was going away. He would see Mary;

deliberately kill her love for him, throw her into John's arms. John needed
her. John deserved happiness. It was the least he could do for John. But it
was not a confession of weakness, his wanting to see Mary again. He must
see her, must do something that would convince her he was unworthy of her
love, that would strangle any desire in her to keep his memory alive after he
was gone. He must disappear from her heart as well as from her sight.
CHAPTER XX
Rodrigo walked slowly into the offices of the Italian-American Line late
the next morning, like a man lately condemned to the scaffold, and booked
passage on a vessel sailing for Naples the following Saturday. Then he took
the subway uptown.
The warm sun drenching the exhibition rooms of Dorning and Son, the
cheerful good mornings of the clerks, mocked at his mood. He summoned a
masking smile on his face and held it while he opened the door of John's
office and strode in. Mary was sitting beside John at the latter's desk, their
heads quite close together. They had been talking confidentially, almost
gayly. Their faces sobered as they looked up at the intruder. It seemed a
warning to Rodrigo that he must go through with his program. The faint
hope, conceived the night before, that the "developments" Mary had written
him about, concerned the discovery of Elise's treachery only and had nothing
to do with an announcement of a troth between Mary and John, vanished. It
was unmistakable. They loved each other. It showed in the quick, warning
glance that passed between them as he entered, in the way they almost
sprang apart at the sight of a third person.
They greeted him warmly enough, and almost immediately John

departed on the excuse of a conference with Henry Madison. Rodrigo took
the seat that his partner had vacated. He did not have to urge Mary to
remain.
His voice simulated a careless nonchalance as he smiled at her and said,

"I hadn't a chance hardly to say a word to you yesterday, Mary."
"That wasn't my fault," she pouted. He was surprised to discover that

Mary could pout. He thought she had never looked more adorable. Sophie,
Rosa, Elise—never in their prime had they been as beautiful as Mary.
"Did you enjoy your vacation?" she asked unexpectedly.
"Very much," he replied, smiling as if in memory. "You know, Mary,

there's no use pretending—I've never changed. I found it out when I got
abroad. I can't play the hermit. It isn't in me. Over here, with you around,
perhaps, I can hold myself in leash. But I am not like you or John, like
Americans, at heart. There is something in my blood. I was torn up
physically and emotionally when I left, and I had to forget somehow. That
isn't an excuse, of course, but it may explain things to you a little. I—I sank
into the old rut over there, Mary. The different environment, the different
sort of women, the liquor, everything." He flung out his hands hopelessly, in
a continental gesture.
"You saw some of your old friends?" she asked quietly.
"Many of them. And they were unchanged too. It was the same old story.
I met a girl in Naples whose father had once blackmailed me for an affair
with her—and now I suppose he'll be blackmailing me over again. In
London, I ran across Sophie Binner. You remember Sophie? We became
quite good friends again. She seems to be my sort. I'm what you called me—
a coward." He sighed, and watched her face.
But her face, strangely enough, did not flinch. She asked him in the same
quiet voice, "You are trying to tell me that you are the same man you were
that first day here, when you tried to play sheik with me, flirted with me?"
He shrugged his shoulders.
"I shouldn't think you would have come back here—after playing fast
and loose all over Europe, after betraying the trust John and I put in you."
"I came in response to your letter," he said with some dignity.
"Nevertheless, you shouldn't have come in that case. You should have
stayed with your—friends."
"I know. You are right," he said. "And I am going back to—them. I
booked my passage this morning. I am sailing in a week for Italy, and this
time I am not coming back."
She started. Her face lost its imperturbability. She said, "And that is all
you have to say to me?"
He leaned toward her, his throat filling with a storm of words. But then
he fell back, lowering his head. "Yes," he said in a low voice. "That is all—
that and—please think as well as you can of me, Mary. And go on—loving
John and taking care of him."
Her lips were twitching a little now. "Do you want to know what I really
think of you?" she asked suddenly.
He raised his tired eyes, his eyes that were saying what his lips were
sealed against, and he nodded his head.
She suddenly left her chair and came to him, laid her hands upon his
shoulders, and said clearly and proudly, "I think that you are a terrible fibber.
I think you have a crazy notion that John and I are in love. And I know this
—I love you, Rodrigo, and you are never going to leave me again."
And then he reached out and clutched her fiercely, devouringly into his
arms, kissed her again and again, crying her name pitifully like a baby. And
when at last he, still holding her tightly, raised her face so that he could look
at it and prove he was not dreaming, he saw that she too was weeping.
He cried, "Mary! Mary! Oh, my dear," again and again. And again and
again he kissed her.
Finally he let her go to adjust her disheveled hair and clothes into some
semblance of order. She smiled at him and asked, "How could you think I
could love anybody but you—coward or no coward? Oh, I found out while
you were gone how foolish I was ever to risk losing you. I lay awake
reviling myself that I had sent you away—yes, I did send you. And I had to
have you back—or dash over to Europe and search for you."
"But John?" he asked. "I thought John and you——"

"I love John too, but as a brother. I always have. And he has felt the same
towards me. But you—oh, my poor, poor boy!" He seized her greedily again,
and his lips were upon hers as a knock sounded upon the door. He released
her, looked at her so guiltily that she laughed aloud.
"It is only John," she said happily. "He knows—about us. He confirmed
my suspicions that you were torturing yourself with this silly idea that he
and I were in love. He even foretold that you would pretend to be the bold,
bad man of old. John is wise, you see, wiser even than you. But not half so
——"
And then John walked in and read their faces at a glance.
CHAPTER XXI
But, after all, Rodrigo sailed for Italy the next Saturday. Though he had
changed his booking from a single to a double cabin and the passenger list
read: The Count and Countess Rodrigo di Torriani.
John Dorning, looking almost as radiant as the bride and groom, saw
them off at the pier. For a long time they stood chatting on the deck of the
great vessel together, these three young people amid the throng of waving,
shouting tourists. When the warning blasts sounded from the smokestack
whistle, John whispered banteringly to Rodrigo, "This time you will not call
upon any of your ex-lady friends, eh? Rosa or Sophie—you bet I was glad to
get that good news of Sophie. Well, cable me when you land. And please
come back on schedule. You are leaving Dorning and Son terribly
handicapped, you know—my two best partners away at once." He kissed
Mary and pressed Rodrigo's hand, and hurried down the gangplank. He
stood there, a thin, but sturdy figure, waving to them while the great ship
backed out into the channel and pointed her bow toward the east.
"John Dorning is the finest of all the men that ever lived," Rodrigo said
solemnly.
"Almost," Mary replied.
Gliding through the magic moonlight over a mirror-like sea, they sat
very close to each other that evening in deck-chairs, and she said to him, at
the end of a long conversation, "And that is why I love you most, Rodrigo—
because you have conquered yourself."
"And so has good old John," he replied.
"Yes, so has John. And both you—and I—have found joy because of
that. It's the only way to win real happiness."
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Gardner S Art Through The Ages A Concise Global History 4Th Edition Fred S Kleiner Online Ebook Texxtbook Full Chapter PDF

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Preface xv The Greeks and Their Gods 46

■ A r c h i t e c t u r a l Ba s i c s : Doric and Ionic Temples 57

Ti m e l i n e 46 THE BIG P I CTURE 115

■ A r c h i t e c t u r a l Ba s i c s : The Romanesque Church

■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : Picturing the Spiritual

Luxury Arts 151 ■ Mat e r ia l s a n d T e c h n i q u e s : Fresco Painting 208

■ R e l i g i o n a n d M y t h o l o g y: Muhammad M a p 7- 1 Europe around 1200 188

M a p 5 - 1 The Islamic world around 1500 144

THE BIG P I CTURE 155 8 The Early Renaissance in Europe 216

Framin g t h e Era Rogier van der Weyden

Europe 156 The Early Renaissance in Europe 218

THE BIG P I CTURE 311

9 High Renaissance and

Holy Roman Empire 272 A Century of Revolutions 314

The Netherlands 277 The Enlightenment 316

M a p 9 - 1 Europe in the early 16th century 252 ■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : Grand Manner

■ A r t i s t s o n A r t: Jacques-Louis David on Greek Style and

■ A r t i s t s o n A r t: Gustave Courbet on Realism 342 Europe, 1920 to 1945 393

■ Mat e r ia l s a n d T e c h n i q u e s : Daguerreotypes, ■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: The Armory Show 391

THE BIG P I CTURE 355 ■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: Jacob Lawrence’s Migration of

M a p 1 4 - 1 Europe at the end of World War I 380

13 Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, THE BIG P I CTURE 409

THE BIG P I CTURE 375

16 Contemporary Art Worldwide 438

14 Modernism in Europe and America, Fr amin g t h e Era Art as Sociopolitical

A r t a n d S o c i e t y: Richard Serra’s Tilted Arc 455

F ra m i n g t h e E ra The Great Stupa at Japan before Buddhism 508

■ A r c h i t e c t u r a l Ba s i c s : Hindu Temples 471 THE BIG P I CTURE 525

■ Mat e r ia l s a n d T e c h n i q u e s : Indian Miniature

China 484 ■ P r o b l e m s a n d S o l u t i o n s : The Underworld, the Sun,

■ R e l i g i o n a n d M y t h o l o g y: Daoism and ■ A r t a n d S o c i e t y: Tattoo in Polynesia 549

THE BIG P I CTURE 571

F ra m ing t h e E ra The Royal Arts of Benin 555

For Faculty For Students

I-1 Claude Lorrain, Embarkation of the Queen of Sheba, 1648.

 I-1c Why does the large port

What Is Art History?

The Questions Art Historians Ask

2 Introduction What Is Art History?

I-3 Choir of Beauvais Cathedral (looking east), Beauvais, France,

Art History in the 21st Century 3

I-5 Georgia O’Keeffe, Jack-in-the-Pulpit No. 4, 1930. Oil on

O’Keeffe’s paintings feature close-up views of petals and leaves in which

4 Introduction What Is Art History?

Personifications are abstract ideas codified in human form.

Artists may depict figures with unique attri-

Art History in the 21st Century 5