Energy Reports 11 (2024) 3202–3223

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Reports
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/egyr

Research paper

Employing advanced control, energy storage, and renewable technologies

to enhance power system stability
Sara Mahmoudi Rashid
Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: As the world witnesses a surge in the adoption of renewable energy sources to meet the surging global power
Advanced control demands, the dynamic and intermittent nature of these sources emerges as a significant hurdle. This article
Energy storage extensively explores the potential of advanced control systems, energy storage technologies, and renewable
Renewable resources
resources to fortify stability within power systems. Advanced control methodologies are strategically amal­
Power systems
gamated with energy storage deployment and the utilization of renewable energy, to advance the reliability,
Stability
predictability, and sustainability of power systems. The stability analysis, with a dedicated focus on Input-to-
input-to-state stability (ISS), is conducted meticulously by applying the Lyapunov function and the Recipro­
cally Convex Approach, resulting in an impressive stability rate of 23.6%. Additionally, Positive Realness is
substantiated by extracting Linear Matrix Inequalities (LMI) in the context of Enhancing Grid Stability with Wind
Power. The study places particular emphasis on evaluating ISS and Passivity in both delayed and non-delayed
systems, with a specific focus on neutral time-delay systems. This evaluation involves the selection of an
appropriate Lyapunov-Krasovskii Functional (LKF) and its derivation, coupled with the integration of recipro­
cally convex methods, descriptive approach, and Jensen inequality. The outcomes of these analyses shed light on
the causes of excess energy and its effective storage, along with highlighting the synergistic impact of integrating
renewable sources and controlling grid frequency, voltage, and power in real time. The study also accentuates
the robustness achieved through Enhanced Stability and the mitigation of Reduced Fluctuations, especially in the
context of renewable energy sources.

1. Introduction overarching goal is to contribute comprehensive strategies for navi­

gating the complexities of integrating renewable energy, ensuring the
1.1. Motivation realization of a power future that is not only stable, predictable, and
sustainable but also robust in the face of evolving energy landscapes,
The dynamic shift towards sustainable energy, propelled by the and reducing fluctuations in voltage and power.
ascendancy of renewable sources ($author1$ et al.,), introduces a Nomenclatures
pivotal challenge to power system stability due to the inherent vari­ x(t) A state vector at time "t"
ability of wind, solar, and hydroelectric power (Voumik et al., 2023). V(t, xt , ẋt ) A Lyapunov function at time "t" and depends on the state and state
derivative vectors at time "t"
This article is motivated by the confluence of evolving technology and ẋ(t) The derivative of the state vector "x" concerning the time
the imperative for a resilient power infrastructure, addressing this A A matrix that describes the system’s dynamics at the current time
challenge through an exploration of advanced control, energy storage, A1 A matrix that describes the system’s dynamics for a time-delayed
and renewable resources. Beyond conventional boundaries, the objec­ version of the state vector
Represents a time delay that can vary with time "t"
tive is to unlock the synergies among control theory, electrical engi­ τ(t)
B1 A matrix that relates the input signal "w(t)" to the state dynamics.
neering, and renewable energy technologies. Emphasizing the w(t) An input signal or control input to the system
intricacies of chaotic variations, delays, and uncertainties in energy t0 An initial time at which the system is considered
systems, this article underscores the pivotal role of advanced control z(t) The output vector at time "t"
methods, energy storage, and the effective utilization of renewable re­ (continued on next page)
sources in optimizing energy generation and consumption. The

E-mail address: s.mahmoudirashid@tabrizu.ac.ir.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2024.03.009
Received 15 October 2023; Received in revised form 3 March 2024; Accepted 4 March 2024
Available online 7 March 2024
2352-4847/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
S.M. Rashid
(continued )
x(t − τ(t) A delayed version of the state vector "x(t)" with a time delay given
by the function "τ(t)"
nw The dimension of the output vector "z(t)"
τ(t) A time-varying delay
ϕ Initial function
S12 The Reciprocally Convex Approach matrix relevance
V̇ Derivative of a Lyapunov function
ρ The air density
A Swept area of the wind turbine blades
Cp The power coefficient
V (t) The wind speed at time t
Pwind Wind power generation
Psolar Solar power generation
η The solar panel efficiency
The solar panel area
Asolar
G(t) The solar irradiance at time t
Pbalance Power balance
Pload (t) The power demand at the time t
Pcharge (t) Charging powers
Pdischarge (t) Discharging powers
The time step
Δt
E The battery capacity
1.2. Literature review
The integration of renewable energy sources into established power
grids has been the focal point of extensive research and discourse in
recent years (Rana et al., 2023; Liu et al., 2023; Duman et al., 2023;
Zhou et al., 2024). As the global community endeavors to curtail
greenhouse gas emissions and transition towards sustainable energy
solutions, renewable resources such as wind, solar, and hydropower
have gained prominence (Akpahou et al., 2024; Cao et al., 2023; Li,
2024; Peters, 2024; Spiru, 2023). This article extends its roots in the rich
soil of previous research within the realms of advanced control, energy
storage, and the integration of renewable energy, with a specific focus
on optimizing energy generation and consumption.
Control theory, a well-established discipline in engineering, has
surfaced as a pivotal tool in addressing the intermittency associated with
renewable energy sources (Shayan et al., 2023; Daraz et al., 2023;
Sakthivel, 2023; Lu et al., 2024). Advances in this field have deepened
our comprehension of control methodologies capable of effectively
managing fluctuations in energy generation. Additionally, it has paved
the way for the application of control systems in optimizing the per­
formance of power grids incorporating renewable resources (Taghi­
zad-Tavana et al., 2023; Ram Babu et al., 2023; Shangguan et al., 2024;
Alonso et al., 2024), ultimately aiming to reduce fluctuations in voltage
and power.
The exploration of energy storage technologies to mitigate the
unpredictability of renewable energy has garnered significant attention in
recent literature (Huang et al., 2023; Kealy, 2023; Sayed et al., 2023; Pans
et al., 2024; Ali et al., 2024; Gao et al., 2024). Our literature review ac­
centuates the transformative potential of advanced control and energy
storage in enhancing power system stability. In this article, we aim to
broaden the discourse by proposing an integrated approach. This
approach not only capitalizes on advanced control and energy storage but
also harnesses the inherent power of renewable energy sources. Our
investigation extends into the realm of Power System Stability, scruti­
nizing ISS and Passivity in both delayed and non-delayed systems, with a
specialized focus on neutral time-delay systems. This comprehensive
approach incorporates the selection of an appropriate LKF and its com­
bination with reciprocally methods, employing a convex and descriptive
approach, as well as Jensen inequality to address excess energy and
optimize energy storage. The study further delves into the seamless
integration of renewable resources, exploring the synergy achieved by
real-time control of grid frequency, voltage, and power, ultimately aiming
at enhanced stability and robustness in renewable energy sources.
The article (Zuo et al., 2023) explores modular control systems for
distributed generation, emphasizing the advantages of scalability and
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Energy Reports 11 (2024) 3202–3223
adaptable design with photovoltaic sources and battery storage. While
offering insights into power quality (Seyyedi et al., 2023) and grid sta­
bility, the complexity may pose implementation challenges, requiring
advanced control strategies. The article (Hassan et al., 2023) provides
insights into advanced control methodologies for bidirectional DC/DC
converters in DC microgrid systems, emphasizing improved efficiency
and flexibility for energy conversion and management. While the bidi­
rectional converters enhance power flow control, offering seamless
integration of distributed energy resources, the complexity of advanced
control algorithms (Rashid et al., 2021a)and the need for standardiza­
tion pose challenges for practical implementation, highlighting the po­
tential for resilient and efficient microgrid systems with further
development. The article (Amine et al., 2023) explores hybrid energy
storage systems (HESS) in standalone DC microgrids, emphasizing the
synergistic combination of batteries and supercapacitors for improved
energy density, power density, and cycle life. While HESS enhances
reliability and efficiency, challenges include the need for advanced
control strategies and potential cost considerations, with the method
holding promise for stable power supply in growing demand for stand­
alone DC microgrids.
The article (Hartani et al., 2023) introduces a self-disciplined control
methodology for HESS in renewable DC power systems, emphasizing
adaptability and self-regulation. While improving charging, discharg­
ing, and system response to disturbances, challenges include system
complexity and the need for precise modeling. The approach holds
promise for resilient renewable DC power systems in the evolving energy
landscape. The article (Wang et al., 2023a) explores HESS and their
control in stand-alone renewable energy power systems, emphasizing
their capability to optimize energy management by combining different
storage technologies. While offering increased capacity and reliability,
challenges include the complexity of control strategy design, positioning
HESS as crucial for the future of stand-alone renewable energy systems.
The article (Pagnani et al., 2023) explores innovative control solutions
for offshore wind power plants, emphasizing their capability to ensure
black start and islanding operation, crucial for grid stability during
disturbances. Despite potential complexity, the approach holds signifi­
cant potential for enhancing the resilience of offshore wind power plants
and supporting clean energy generation. The article (Zhou et al., 2023a)
provides a comprehensive analysis of HESS in microgrid settings,
highlighting their versatility in integrating various storage technologies
for improved grid stability. While promising for energy reliability in
microgrids (Seyyedi et al., 2022), challenges include complexity and
cost, requiring advanced control systems and coordinated management
for optimal performance.
The article (Zeng et al., 2023) explores hierarchical control strategies
for shipboard power systems, emphasizing their suitability for future
more-electric ships. The hierarchical control design optimizes DC power
distribution, ensuring power quality and system stability. Challenges
include complexity and the need for advanced control algorithms, but
the approach holds promise for efficient, reliable, and environmentally
responsible power systems (Akbari and Seyyedi, 2023) on ships. The
article (Wang et al., 2023b) explores HESS integration with renewable
power generation, highlighting its versatility with various storage
technologies. While optimizing energy management for enhanced grid
stability, a challenge lies in the complexity of control strategy design,
requiring resources and advanced algorithms. The approach holds
promise for future renewable power generation, contributing to cleaner
and more resilient energy systems by addressing complexities and
emphasizing cost-effective solutions.
The article (Zhu et al., 2024), focuses on enhancing passivity in
voltage-controlled inverters within grid-connected microgrids (Rashid
et al., 2021a), addressing challenges related to control delay and vari­
ations in grid impedance. The research aims to improve the performance
and stability of microgrid systems under dynamic conditions. The article
(Purushottam et al., 2023), explores passivity-based control techniques
applied to the haptic teleoperation of a legged manipulator, specifically
S.M. Rashid Energy Reports 11 (2024) 3202–3223

Table 1
Comparing this article and related works.
Ref. Stability Control Energy Storage Hess Reliability Delay Passivity

(Zuo et al., 2023) ✓ ✓ ✓

(Hassan et al., 2023) ✓ ✓ ✓

(Amine et al., 2023) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

(Hartani et al., 2023) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

(Wang et al., 2023a) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

(Pagnani et al., 2023) ✓ ✓ ✓

(Zhou et al., 2023a) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

(Zeng et al., 2023) ✓ ✓ ✓

(Wang et al., 2023b) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

(Zhu et al., 2024) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

(Purushottam et al., 2023) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

(Zhang et al., 2024) ✓ ✓ ✓

(Zhao et al., 2023) ✓ ✓ ✓

(Uyulan, 2024) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

This article ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

addressing challenges introduced by time-delays. The research aims to
enhance the stability and performance of teleoperated legged manipu­
lators in the presence of communication delays. The article (Zhang et al.,
2024), focuses on achieving position synchronization in
position-position architectures using the energy-reflection-based time
domain passivity approach. The research aims to enhance synchroni­
zation performance in position-controlled systems through a novel
energy-based methodology. The article (Zhao et al., 2023), discusses a
passivity enhancement control strategy for islanded microgrids, aiming
to optimize system stability. It involves a detailed exploration of
parameter design to enhance the passivity of microgrid systems when
operating independently. The article (Uyulan, 2024), focuses on stabi­
lizing delayed teleoperation systems through the implementation of
time-domain passivity control strategies. It aims to address the chal­
lenges associated with delays in teleoperation systems for improved
stability.
In Table 1, a comprehensive comparison between our proposed
method, delineated in this article, and recent publications in the field is
presented. This comparative analysis encompasses an evaluation of
several intrinsic attributes across these articles. The findings of this
detailed scrutiny unmistakably highlight the superior efficacy of our
proposed method across all evaluated parameters, affirming its robust­
ness and efficacy. This comparison succinctly underscores the unique
and advanced characteristics of our method relative to contemporary
research, solidifying its significance as a notable advancement in the
field.
1.3. Research gaps and contributions
This article acknowledges existing gaps in renewable energy inte­
gration despite significant progress. The intermittent nature of renew­
able resources poses a formidable challenge, prompting the exploration
of an innovative approach to reduce fluctuations. The proposed solution
integrates advanced control systems, energy storage, and renewable
resources to address identified research gaps, aiming to enhance the
robustness of power systems. Notable gaps include limited exploration
of advanced control systems in renewable energy integration, insuffi­
cient recognition of the synergistic potential of combining energy stor­
age with control, and a lack of comprehensive analyses of integrated
systems under various scenarios. The article conducts in-depth case
studies to bridge these gaps and contribute practical insights for real-
world applications, ultimately aiming to optimize energy generation
and consumption. The overarching goal is to develop strategies that
navigate complexities and instabilities associated with renewable en­
ergy integration, advancing the dialogue on sustainable power genera­
tion. In summary, the article presents a comprehensive approach to
integrating advanced control, energy storage, and renewable resources,
aiming to provide valuable insights for stable, reliable, and environ­
mentally responsible energy systems.
This article presents several significant contributions to the domain
of advanced control, leveraging Lyapunov-Krasovsky functions,
descriptive methods, and Jensen inequality to check the stability of the
power system:
• This article delves into advanced control methodologies that
contribute to stabilizing renewable energy systems and reducing
fluctuations, employing Lyapunov-Krasovsky functions. It highlights
the transformative potential of control theory in managing fluctua­
tions and enhancing the predictability of power generation.
• By recognizing the pivotal role of energy storage technologies, the
article underscores how they can mitigate the unpredictability of
renewable energy and enhance voltage and power stability, utilizing
descriptive methods and Jensen inequality. Insights are provided on
how battery systems, energy storage, and fuel cells contribute to the
stability and reliability of power grids.
• A distinctive contribution is a holistic examination of how advanced
control and energy storage can work synergistically with renewable
resources to optimize energy generation and consumption, employ­
ing Lyapunov-Krasovsky functions. The research aims to bridge the
gap in the literature by showcasing how these integrated systems can
optimize performance while ensuring grid stability.
1.4. Organization
To ensure clarity and accessibility, this article is organized into
several sections, each contributing uniquely to our exploration of
advanced control, energy storage, and renewable resources in the
context of power system stability and sustainability. In the second part
of the problem formulation, the focus shifts towards a detailed exami­
nation of power system stability, particularly emphasizing Input to ISS,
passive systems with and without delay, and neutral systems. Leveraging
advanced methodologies such as LKF, reciprocal approaches, the
descriptive method, and Jensen’s inequality, a comprehensive investi­
gation to analyze the stability of power systems, with a special emphasis

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S.M. Rashid
on systems incorporating energy storage technologies is described.
Moving forward, the third part of the article introduces a robust system
heavily reliant on wind energy, integrating renewable energy sources
such as wind and solar power. The objectives are clear: to enhance
robustness, reduce fluctuations, optimize voltage and power, and opti­
mize energy production and consumption. Meticulous data analysis,
accompanied by tables and diagrams, validates this approach, demon­
strating its efficacy in achieving these objectives and ensuring the
seamless integration of renewable energy into the power grid. Finally, in
the fourth part of the article, conclusions are drawn from the proposed
method and its analysis. The ultimate aim is to contribute to the
advancement of sustainable energy solutions, paving the way for a
future powered by clean, reliable, and resilient energy systems.
2. Problem formulation
In the quest for sustainable and reliable power systems, the inte­
gration of renewable energy sources, energy storage, and advanced
control strategies has become a focal point of research and innovation.
While the transition to cleaner energy sources is pivotal for reducing
environmental impact, it brings forth a host of challenges, particularly in
terms of grid stability, fluctuating power generation, and the efficient
management of energy resources. This complex landscape has sparked
the need for innovative solutions that can address these challenges and
pave the way for a stable, sustainable, and resilient power future. In this
Fig. 1. A block diagram illustrating the procedural steps and objectives.
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Energy Reports 11 (2024) 3202–3223
context, the problem formulation section of this essay is dedicated to
elucidating the multifaceted issues that underscore the need for
advanced control, energy storage, and renewable energy integration,
and the critical questions that will guide our exploration of potential
solutions.
Fig. 1 presents a block diagram elucidating the procedural steps and
objectives delineated within the ambit of this paper.
2.1. Exponential stability and the input to state stability (ISS)
Let us begin by considering the LTI system without delay ẋ(t) =
Ax(t) + B1 w(t), denoted as a system without time-invariant properties.
This system, governed by the input signal w, is characterized by linearity
and time-invariance. In the realm of control and systems theory, such
attributes carry significant implications for system behavior and pre­
dictability. Linearity ensures that the system responds proportionally to
input variations, while time-invariance signifies that its properties
remain constant over time, adding to the system’s stability and pre­
dictability. The examination of such systems is fundamental in engi­
neering and control theory, as they serve as foundational models for a
wide array of real-world applications.
In the realm of dynamic systems, we first introduce the state vector
x(t) ∈ Rn , which serves as a fundamental representation of the system’s
current state in an n-dimensional space.
Furthermore, we encounter matrix A, characterized by the Hurwitz
S.M. Rashid Energy Reports 11 (2024) 3202–3223

property, which is indicative of the open-loop stability of the system. Now, let us consider the linear chaotic system (3) (Yu et al., 2024):
The Hurwitz condition is a critical aspect of control theory, ensuring that
ẋ(t) = Ax(t) + A1 x(t − τ(t)) + B1 w(t), t ≥ t0 (3)
the system remains stable without the influence of external control or
feedback. This property holds immense significance in engineering and n
x(t) ∈ R represents the state vector of the system, where each
control applications, guaranteeing the predictability and reliability of component characterizes a specific state variable. w(t) ∈ Rnw is a
the system. disturbance vector, often denoting external influences or perturbations
Additionally, we introduce the function w(t) ∈ Rnw , a continuous acting upon the system. It is locally bounded, or in mathematical terms,
function bounded by the constraint |w(t)| ≤ Δ, where Δ > 0. This w ∈ L∞ (t0 , t), signifying that the disturbance remains limited within a
constraint places limits on the magnitude of w(t), ensuring that it re­ specified local region. Additionally, τ(t) ∈ [0, h] represents a time-
mains within well-defined boundaries. Such constraints are pivotal in varying delay that is intrinsic to the system. This variable delay can
control systems, ensuring that system inputs remain within controllable take values within the range [0, h] and plays a pivotal role in the dy­
and predictable bounds. namics of the system, introducing temporal variations that need to be
The response of this system, considering the initial conditions and considered in the analysis and control of the system.
constraints, is succinctly articulated as (1) (Murthy and Swamy, 2024):
Definition. System (3) is said to be ISS if there exist constants c ≥ 1,
⃒ ⃒ ∫t
⃒ ⃒ δ > 0, and γ > 0 such that, for any initial function ϕ ∈ C[ − h, 0] and
⃒x(t)⃒ = eAt x(0) + eA(t− s) B1 w(s)ds (1)
⃒ ⃒
0 any bounded function w, the system’s response with the initial function
xt0 = ϕ satisfies the expressions (4) and (5):
The response of the system comprises two distinct components. The
first segment encompasses the initial conditions, which define the state ⃒
⃒
⃒ ⃒⃒ [ ]⃒
2δ(t− t0 ) ⃒ ⃒⃒ ⃒2
of the system at the outset of an analysis or process. These conditions
2
⃒x(t)| ≤ ce−
2
⃒|ϕ|| + γ ⃒⃒w t0 , t ⃒|∞ , ∀t ≥ t0 (4)
serve as a foundational starting point, shaping the system’s behavior as
[ ]
it embarks on its temporal evolution. ||ϕ|| = ||ϕ||c ifϕ ∈ C − h, 0 or||ϕ|| = ||ϕ||w (5)
The second component pertains to the input signal, denoted as w.
The objective is to derive Linear Matrix Inequality (LMI) conditions
This input signal represents external influences or stimuli that interact
for ensuring the ISS of the system (6), employing the stability definition
with the system over time. The dynamic interplay between the initial
and the following Lyapunov-Krasovsky function (Rashid et al., 2023a):
conditions and the input signal w plays a pivotal role in determining the
system’s trajectory and behavior as it unfolds over time. ẋ(t) = Ax(t) + A1 x(t − τ(t)) + B1 w(t), t ≥ t0 (6)
The upper bound of this response, in the context of control theory,
( ) ∫ ∫
can be computed as follows for values of c ≥ 1 and δ > 0 0. This upper t t
V t, xt , ẋt = xT (t)Px(t) + e2δ(s− t) xT (s)Sx(s)ds + e2δ(s− t) xT (s)Qx(s)ds
bound for the second norm of the state vector x is determined through a t− h t− τ
process known as modal composition. ∫ 0 ∫ t

Modal composition is a technique that enables us to gain insight into +h e2δ(s− t) ẋT (s)Rẋ(s)ds, P > 0, Q > 0, R > 0, S > 0
− h t+θ
the system’s behavior by analyzing its modes or characteristic responses. (7)
These modes are associated with the eigenvalues of the system’s
matrices, offering a structured approach to understanding the system’s
dynamic response. Through this methodology, we ascertain the upper Lemma. Let V : [t0 , ∞)→R+ be a strictly continuous local function and
bound of the second norm of x, providing a valuable metric (2) for w : [t0 , t]→Rnw be a local bounded function. If δ > 0 and b > 0 exist in a
evaluating and predicting system behavior under specific conditions way that for all t ≥ t0 , the inequality (8) holds:
(Wei, 2024).
∫t
c ẋ(t) = Ax(t) + A1 x(t − τ(t)) + B1 w(t), t ≥ t0 (8)
|x(t)| ≤ ce− δt |x0 | + ce− δ(t− s) |B1 ||w(s)|ds ≤ ce− δt |x0 | + |B1 |Δ (2)
0 δ In this case, we have (9):
This bound signifies that the response to a zero input tends expo­ [ ] ⃒⃒ [ ]⃒
b ⃒⃒⃒⃒ ⃒
nentially toward zero, while the response of the state is proportionate to V(t) ≤ e− 2δ(t− t0 ) V(t0 ) + 1 − e− 2δ(t− t0 )
w t0 , t ⃒⃒|2∞ (9)
2δ⃒⃒
the input bound. In such a scenario, the system is deemed Input-to-State
Stable (ISS), denoting that it exhibits stability from input to state, a By taking the derivative of the Lyapunov-Krasovsky function, we
fundamental attribute in control theory. obtain (10):
The term c|B1 |/δ is referred to as the ISS gain, reflecting the system’s d
capability to maintain stability in the face of varying inputs and dis­ V + 2δV − b|w(t)|2 ≤ 2xT (t)Pẋ(t) + 2δxT (t)Px(t) − bwT (t)w(t)
dt
turbances. The ISS framework provides a robust approach to control ∫t [ ]
system analysis, offering valuable insights into how systems respond to +h2 ẋT (t)Rẋ(t) − he− 2δh ẋT (s)Rẋ(s)ds + xT (t) S + Q x(t) (10)
different inputs while ensuring their overall stability. This concept is [ T( ) ( ) (
t− h
) ( ) ( )]
instrumental in the design and evaluation of control strategies, enabling
2δh
− e− x t − h Sx t − h + 1 − d xT t − τ Qx t − τ ≤ 0
engineers and researchers to develop systems that exhibit the desired
Similar to the analysis of system stability, we employ a sophisticated
behavior and performance under a range of conditions.
method known as the Reciprocally Convex Approach to scrutinize a
As time approaches infinity t→∞, the system trajectory converges
matrix of significant relevance (11), denoted as S12 ∈ Rn×n . This
exponentially toward the region defined by |x| ≤ c|B1 |Δ/δ. This signifies
analytical approach enhances our toolkit, providing a robust framework
a crucial characteristic of system behavior, demonstrating the system’s
to comprehensively explore the properties and characteristics of the
tendency to be confined within this specific bounded region as time
matrix S12 . The Reciprocally Convex Approach adds a layer of intricacy
progresses.
to our analysis, facilitating a meticulous examination of the matrix’s
The bound c|B1 |Δ/δ encapsulates the system’s response to changing
attributes (Arunagirinathan et al., 2024). By utilizing this method, we
inputs and disturbances, providing a measure of the system’s reach and
gain deeper insights into the behavior and implications of the matrix
stability. The system’s ability to converge toward and remain within this
within the broader context of the system.
bounded region highlights its resilience and predictability, even in the
presence of external influences.

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S.M. Rashid Energy Reports 11 (2024) 3202–3223

∫ t
time-delays satisfying the specified constraints, adheres to the criteria
− h ẋT (s)Rẋ(s)ds
outlined in inequality (17). It highlights the adaptability and robustness
(11)
t− h
[
x(t) − x(t − τ(t))
]T [
R S12
][
x(t) − x(t − τ(t))
] of the system in the face of varying delays (Rashid et al., 2021b) and
≤− bounded disturbances, underscoring the effectiveness of the proposed
x(t − τ(t) − x(t − h) ∗ R x(t − τ(t) − x(t − h)
control strategy.
If the LMI (12) holds:
[ ] xT (t)Px(t) ≤ V(t, xt , ẋt ) ≤ e− 2δ(t− t0 ) V(t0 , ϕ, ϕ̇)
R S12
≥0 (12) ( )b (17)
∗ R + 1 − e− 2δ(t− t0 ) ‖w[t0 , t] ‖2∞ , t ≥ t0
2δ
Furthermore, in this context, a descriptive methodology (Gor­ Hence, the system is proven to be ISS. For a given Δ > 0, the
okhovatskyi et al., 2023) is thoughtfully incorporated. In essence, the ellipsoid-like (Zhou et al., 2023b) set (18) is established, representing a
right-hand side of the equation below is elegantly appended to the time crucial facet of the system’s stability:
derivative of a Lyapunov function (13), denoted as V̇. This meticulous { }
inclusion of a descriptive approach enhances the depth and breadth of b
X ∞ = x ∈ Rn : xT Px ≤ Δ2 (18)
our analysis. By combining this method with established Lyapunov 2δ
theory, we gain a more holistic understanding of the system’s behavior. It acts as an exponential attractor with a convergence rate of δ for all
[ ][ ( ) ] bounded functions w, provided that the essential supremum of
0 = 2 xT (t)PT2 + ẋT (t)PT3 Ax(t) + A1 x t − τ(t) + B1 w(t) − ẋ(t) (13)
|w(t)|over t ≥ t0 is limited by Δesssupt≥t0 |w(t)| ≤ Δ. This condition un­
In this scenario, by taking into account the relationship specified in derlines the system’s attractive property, ensuring that its behavior
Eq. (14), we are empowered to formulate equation (15): pulls, or attracts, trajectories towards a stable and predictable
convergence.
η(t) = col{x(t), ẋ(t), x(t − h), x(t − τ(t)), w(t)} (14)
⃒
⃒
d
V + 2δV − b⃒⃒w(t)|2 ≤ ηT (t)Φδ η(t) < 0, ∀η(t) ∕
= 0, t ≥ t0 (15-a) 2.2. Passivity and positive realness
dt
⎡ ⎤ The theory of Positive Realness, often referred to as passivity, is a
fundamental concept that plays a crucial role in various fields, including
⎢ | PT2 B1
⎥
⎢
⎢Ξ
⎥
⎥ electrical networks and control systems. It provides valuable insights
⎢ δ | PT3 B1
⎥ into the behavior of systems and is particularly relevant when analyzing
⎢ ⎥
⎢
Φδ = ⎢
| 0 ⎥⎥<0 (15-b) their stability and performance characteristics (Kumar et al., 2023).
⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ | ⎥ In the context of time-delay systems, denoted as system (19), the
⎢ ⎥
⎢
⎢
⎥
⎥ study of passivity takes on added significance. Time-delay systems are a
⎣ ∗ | − bI ⎦ class of dynamic systems where the influence of past states and inputs
affects the system’s current behavior. This temporal aspect introduces
complexity to the analysis, making it essential to investigate the
⎡ ⎤
Φ Φ12 S12 e− 2δh
( )
R − S12 e− 2δh
+ PT2 A1 passivity of such systems (Mao et al., 2023).
⎢ 11
⎢ ∗
⎥
⎥ Passivity, in essence, characterizes a system’s ability to dissipate
Φ22 0 PT3 A1
⎢
Ξδ = ⎢ ( ) 2δh
( ) ⎥
⎥ energy and maintain stability. It ensures that the stored energy within a
⎢ ∗
⎣ ∗ − S + R e− R − ST12 e− 2δh ⎥
⎦ system does not grow indefinitely, thus contributing to the system’s
[ ( ) ]
overall stability. The study of passivity in time-delay systems involves
T 2δh
∗ ∗ ∗ − 2R + S12 + S12 + 1 − d Q e−
examining how these systems behave concerning energy storage and
(15-c)
dissipation, especially when considering their specific delay character­
Φ11 = AT P2 + PT2 A + 2δP + S + Q − Re− 2δh
(15-d) istics (Sawadogo et al., 2022).
By delving into the passivity analysis of time-delay systems, we gain
Φ12 = P − PT2 + AT P3 (15-e) a deeper understanding of their behavior and how they interact with
their environment. This knowledge is instrumental in designing control
Φ22 = − P3 − PT3 + h2 R (15-f) strategies and ensuring the stability and robustness of such systems.
The investigation into passivity in time-delay systems opens up new
Note: Ξ0 = Ξ represents the scenario where Ξ satisfies the LMI avenues for enhancing our understanding of dynamic systems with
conditions for asymptotic stability of the same problem (without complex temporal characteristics. It enables the development of
disturbances). advanced control techniques (Chen et al., 2023) and paves the way for
Conclusion: Let δ and h be given positive scalars δ > 0 and h > 0. improved system performance in various applications like Eq. (19).
Now, consider a scenario where the upper bound of the derivative of the
time-varying delay is either a known scalar within the interval d ∈ [0, 1) ẋ(t) = Ax(t) + A1 x(t − τ(t)) + B1 w(t), t ≥ t0 (19)
or an uncertain scalar. If matrices P > 0، P2 ، P3 ، R > 0، S > 0، Q > 0 Consider the complex time-delay system represented by Eq. (19),
(where Q = 0 for the uncertain case d), S12 , and a positive scalar b > 0 which encompasses dynamic elements affected by disturbances (Jugo
exists, such that the inequalities Φδ < 0 and inequality (16) are satisfied, et al., 2023). This system introduces an additional layer of intricacy due
then: to the presence of time delays, thereby necessitating a comprehensive
[
R S12
] study of its properties, particularly its behavior in the presence of
≥0 (16) bounded inputs.
∗ R
In this context, we introduce a bounded disturbance function deno­
In this context, the system’s response holds for a localized bounded ted as w : [t0 , t]→Rnw . This function characterizes external influences or
function w and all time-delays falling within the interval 0 ≤ τ(t) ≤ h, perturbations acting upon the system. These disturbances, which may
accompanied by the constraint τ̇(t) ≤ d. This compliance is distinctly arise from various sources in real-world applications, are bounded,
manifested in inequality (17), reinforcing the notion that the system’s implying that they remain within specific predefined limits, a condition
response, subject to both localized bounded disturbances and a range of essential for maintaining the system’s stability and performance.

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S.M. Rashid
Furthermore, we examine the controlled output of this system, often
referred to as the Penalty Vector and represented as (20). This output
encapsulates the system’s response to the disturbances and control ac­
tions (Willey et al., 2023), playing a pivotal role in evaluating the sys­
tem’s performance and robustness.
Analyzing a time-delay system in the presence of bounded distur­
bances and controlled outputs is of paramount importance, as it mirrors
real-world scenarios where systems must operate in less-than-ideal
conditions. By comprehensively studying the behavior of such sys­
tems, we gain insights into their stability, resilience, and performance,
thus enabling the development of effective control strategies tailored to
the challenges posed by these dynamic and intricate systems. This
multifaceted analysis is instrumental in ensuring that the system can
deliver desired results even when subjected to external perturbations
and complexities.
z(t) = C0 x(t) + C1 x(t − τ(t)), z(t) ∈ Rnw
This system is termed passive if there exists a scalar, denoted as
γ ≥ 0, such that, for all responses of the system described by Eqs. (19)
and (20) with an initial function equal to zero, the condition (21) is
satisfied. This condition is fundamental in establishing the passivity
property of the system. It essentially implies that the total energy in the
system, composed of the disturbance function w(t), the penalty vector
z(t), and the scalar γ, must be non-negative or, in other words, the sys­
tem should not dissipate energy.
Passivity is a significant concept in control theory and has wide-
ranging applications in various fields. It provides a crucial means to
assess the system’s behavior in the presence of external inputs and dis­
turbances. When a system is passive, it essentially exhibits a form of
energy preservation, which is highly desirable in many practical appli­
cations. Moreover, the presence of γ in the passivity condition allows for
a certain degree of control over the system’s energy behavior, which can
be tailored to specific requirements. The analysis of passivity in this
context is a comprehensive and meticulous endeavor that enables us to
determine whether the system possesses this energy-preserving prop­
erty. It is a key consideration when designing control strategies for
systems subjected to disturbances, as it ensures that the system can
effectively manage and respond to external inputs while maintaining
stability and performance.
z(t) = C0 x(t) + C1 x(t − τ(t)), z(t) ∈ Rnw
Let us consider the Lyapunov-Krasovskii functional (LKF) expressed
by Eq. (22). The LKF, represented by V(x, t), plays a pivotal role in the
analysis of system stability and control design. It is a comprehensive
mathematical construct that captures key dynamics within the system
and is utilized to assess its behavior. This functional combines various
elements to provide a holistic perspective on the system’s response.
The overall functional V(x, t) provides a comprehensive measure of
the system’s behavior, taking into consideration its internal dynamics,
energy management, and responses to external disturbances. The anal­
ysis of this LKF is a valuable tool in control theory, allowing us to assess
stability, performance, and the system’s ability to manage energy and
disturbances effectively. It is a foundational concept in control design
and analysis like Eq. (22).
∫t ∫0∫t
V(t, xt , ẋt ) = xT (t)Px(t) + xT (s)Sx(s)ds + h ẋT (s)Rẋ(s)dsdθ
t− h − h t+θ
∫t
+ xT (s)Qx(s)ds
t− τ(t)
In this context, inequality (23) plays a pivotal role in establishing the
condition of passivity. Passivity is a fundamental concept in control
theory, indicating the system’s ability to manage energy and respond to
inputs and disturbances in a stable and controlled manner. Inequality
(23) is a rigorous mathematical condition that assesses the system’s
Energy Reports 11 (2024) 3202–3223
response to external inputs and disturbances. It characterizes the rela­
tionship between the system’s state variables, energy dissipation, and
the influence of external perturbations. Passivity is achieved when this
inequality holds, signifying that the system can effectively handle en­
ergy and external influences. The condition of passivity is highly desir­
able in control systems, as it ensures that the system remains stable and
doesn’t exhibit erratic behavior in response to inputs. Passivity is a
foundational property in control theory, and its presence is indicative of
a well-behaved and controlled system. Overall, inequality (23) and the
associated concept of passivity are central to the analysis and design of
control systems. They provide a robust framework for evaluating and
ensuring the desired behavior of a wide range of systems, making them
essential tools in control theory and engineering.
V̇(t) − 2zT (t)w(t) − γwT (t)w(t) ≤ 0 (23)
Because, through the integration of inequality (23), we can demon­
(20)
strate the (24):
∫ tf ∫ tf
( )
V tf − V(t0 ) − γ wT (t)w(t)dt ≤ 2 zT (t)w(t)dt, ∀tf > t0 (24)
t0 t0
Given the initial conditions are assumed to be zero, with V(t0 ) = 0,
and because V(tf ) ≥ 0, as required, we can deduce the condition for
passivity from inequality (24). This set of initial conditions is a standard
starting point for analyzing passivity, as it ensures that the energy
function V(t) commences at zero and remains non-negative throughout
the system’s operation. By requiring V(tf ) to be greater than or equal to
zero, we establish a fundamental criterion for passivity. In this context,
inequality (24) becomes a powerful tool for verifying the system’s
passivity. It embodies the principle that the energy stored in the system
is always non-decreasing over time, thus confirming the system’s sta­
bility and its ability to manage external inputs and disturbances. By
ensuring that the energy function V(t) maintains a non-negative value at
all times, the system adheres to the principles of passivity, reflecting its
ability to absorb and dissipate energy in a controlled and stable manner.
This comprehensive consideration of the energy function V(t) allows us
to assert that the system is passive.
In conclusion, the combination of initial conditions V(t0 ) = 0 and
V(tf ) ≥ 0, as established by inequality (24), provides a robust founda­
tion for affirming the system’s passivity. These conditions affirm that the
(21) system can maintain energy equilibrium and ensure stable performance
in the face of various inputs and disturbances.
∫ tf ∫ tf
2 zT (t)w(t)dt ≥ − γ wT (t)w(t)dt ∀tf ≥ t0 , ∀w ∈ L2 [t0 , ∞) (25)
t0 t0
By employing a descriptive approach in conjunction with the
Reciprocally Convex Approach, we observe that condition (23)
(passivity) is established if the LMI conditions (26) are satisfied. This
combined methodology of descriptive and convex analysis is a powerful
tool for exploring and confirming the system’s passivity. The underlying
concept is that if the system’s dynamics adhere to certain convex con­
straints, it ensures that the system possesses the desirable property of
passivity. In this case, the Reciprocally Convex Approach becomes
instrumental in establishing the connection between the system’s
behavior and its passivity.
The conditions presented in LMI (26) serve as the criteria for this
passivity. By meeting these conditions, the system aligns itself with the
principles of passivity, allowing it to manage energy effectively and
exhibit stability in the face of external inputs and disturbances. It is
(22) worth noting that this method provides a systematic and mathematically
rigorous approach to verifying passivity, ensuring that the system meets
the required criteria. Thus, the joint application of the descriptive
approach and the Reciprocally Convex Approach unveils the connection
between system behavior and passivity and underscores the system’s
ability to maintain energy equilibrium and stability.
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S.M. Rashid Energy Reports 11 (2024) 3202–3223

⎡ ⎤
2023). Analyzing this system is crucial as it provides insights into the
⎢ ⎥ broader theoretical framework of neutral systems and their practical
⎢ PT2 B1 − CT0 ⎥
⎢
⎢
⎥ applications in control and engineering.
⎢ PT3 B1 ⎥ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ [ ] ẋ(t) − F ẋ(t − g) = Ax(t) + A1 x(t − h) + B1 w(t).
⎢ Ξ0
⎢ 0 ⎥
⎥ ≤ 0,
R S12
≥0 (29)
⎢ ⎥ z(t) = Cx(t) + Dw(t),
⎢ − CT1 ⎥ ∗ R
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 ⎥ In our exploration of dynamic systems and control theory, it is
⎢ ⎥
⎢
⎣ − ⎥
⎦ essential to consider models with a high degree of complexity and
various structural components. The system described by Eq. (30) ex­
⎡ ⎤ emplifies one such intricate model. In this system, the matrices A، A1 ، B1 ،
− 28h − 28h C and F remain constant over time. Additionally, the eigenvalues of the
⎢ Φ11 Φ12 S12 e (R − S12 )e + PT2 A1 ⎥
⎢
⎢ ∗
⎥
⎥ matrix F lie within the unit circle, emphasizing the importance of un­
⎢ Φ22 0 PT3 A1 ⎥ derstanding the role of these matrices in system dynamics.
Ξδ = ⎢ ( ) ( ) ⎥
R − ST12 e− 28h The presence of constant time delays, denoted as h and g, further
28h
⎢ ∗
⎢ ∗ − S + R e− ⎥
⎥
⎣ ∗ [ ( ) ] ⎦
− 2R + S12 + ST12 + 1 − d Q e− accentuates the intricate nature of the system. Time delays often intro­
28h
∗ ∗
duce significant challenges in control systems due to their ability to
Φ11 = AT P2 + PT2 A + 2δP + S + Q − Re− influence system stability and performance. As a result, comprehending
2δh
,
Φ12 = P − PT2 T
+ A P3 , Φ22 = − P3 − PT3 + h2 R. the implications of these delays is of paramount importance in effec­
tively designing control strategies and achieving desirable system
(26) behavior.
The matrix function representing the system transformation from w
In the scenario where Ξ0 equals Ξ δ|δ=0 , Ξ 0 = Ξδ|δ=0 and Ξδ is defined as to z, as illustrated in Eq. (30), encapsulates the relationship between the
in Eq. (26), the expression (26) being a particular case of Ξ when δ system’s input and output. This matrix function serves as a fundamental
equals zero. This differentiation is essential as it highlights the role of the component in the analysis of the system’s dynamics. It allows us to
matrix Ξ and its dependence on the parameter δ. Analyzing this specific understand how various inputs in the form of w impact the system’s
instance where δ is set to zero and comparing it to the general Ξ matrix response in the form of z.
elucidates the impact of this parameter on the system’s characteristics [ ]− 1
and passivity, offering valuable insights into the underlying dynamics. G(s) = C s(I − Fe− sg ) − A − A1 e− sh B1 + D (30)
Conclusion: Let us assume that scalar values δ > 0 and h > 0 are
The notion of passivity plays a pivotal role in the analysis of dynamic
provided. Now, consider a scenario where the upper bound of the de­
systems, contributing to our understanding of their stability and
rivative of the time-delay is a known scalar within the range d ∈ [0, 1), or
behavior. In the system under consideration, which is defined with some
it might be an uncertain scalar. If matrices of dimensions nxn, such as
variations compared to the previous model, we still seek to ascertain its
P > 0, P_2, P_3, R > 0, S > 0, and Q > 0 (where Q = 0 if d is uncertain),
passivity, with the slight modifications that t0 = 0 is now set as 0, and
along with the matrix S12 , exist in such a way that the inequalities
γ = 0 is equal to 0.
defined in Eq. (27) hold, then the system is passive.
A system is deemed passive when it satisfies certain conditions,
This outcome underscores the conditions required for the system’s
which essentially relate to its capacity to dissipate energy rather than
passivity, accounting for both known and uncertain factors in the
generate or accumulate it. In essence, a passive system maintains a
presence of time delays. It is a fundamental result in the analysis and
particular balance where energy is either retained at its initial level or
control of dynamical systems, offering a robust framework for ensuring
decreases over time. These properties are highly valuable in the study of
the stability and performance of such systems.
systems, as they allow us to make informed predictions about their
⎡ ⎤
behavior and performance.
⎢
⎢
PT2 B1 − CT0 ⎥
⎥ Specifically, in the current system, passivity is established if, for any
⎢
⎢ PT3 B1 ⎥ ⎥ initial conditions, we observe a particular behavior. This behavior sig­
⎢ ⎥ [ ]
⎢ Ξ0 0 ⎥ nifies that the system is capable of managing its energy in such a way
⎢ ⎥ ≤ 0, R S12 ≥ 0 (27)
⎢ − C1 T ⎥ ∗ R that it does not generate excessive energy or exhibit uncontrolled be­
⎢ ⎥
⎢
⎢
⎥
⎥ haviors, which could lead to instability or unwanted effects.
⎢ 0 ⎥
⎣ ∗ ⎦ ∫ tf
−
2 zT (t)w(t)dt ≥ 0 ∀tf ≥ 0, ∀w ∈ L2 [t0 , ∞) (31)
0

Note: When γ = 0 and D = 0, the aforementioned LMI implies the
result (28).
C1 = 0 PT2 B1 = CT0 , PT3 B1 = 0
2.3. Passivity and positive realness for delayed LTI neutral systems
In the realm of control theory and dynamical systems, it is often
imperative to investigate various system models to understand their
dynamics and behavior comprehensively. Among these models, neutral
systems occupy a distinctive position due to their complex and intricate
nature. Neutral systems incorporate a blend of both ordinary and
delayed derivatives in their equations, leading to intriguing dynamics
that are distinct from standard linear systems.
In this context, let us consider the neutral system described by Eq.
(29). This system comprises variables and parameters that play a critical
role in shaping its response to inputs and disturbances (Tian and Duan,
Positive Real Lemma:
To delve deeper into the Positive Real Lemma (Zhang et al., 2023),
(28) we introduce several key components. Consider a system described by a
set of matrices, including nxn ، P2 ،P3 ،R > 0،S > 0and U > 0. These
matrices play a critical role in characterizing the system’s dynamics and
behavior. The crucial aspect of this lemma is the requirement that these
matrices meet specific conditions, where ، P2 ،P3 ،R،S, and U should all be
positive definite, denoted as P > 0, P2 ،>0, P3 >0, R>0, S>0, and U > 0.
These conditions essentially relate to the system’s stability and behavior.
The core of this lemma lies in the LMI, as expressed in Eq. (32). An
LMI is a mathematical tool commonly employed in control theory and
engineering to determine the feasibility of a set of linear matrix in­
equalities. In the context of the Positive Real Lemma, the LMI serves as
the criterion, scrutinizing whether the system, given the specific
matrices, is passive. This means assessing whether the system can
effectively dissipate energy rather than generate or accumulate it.

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S.M. Rashid Energy Reports 11 (2024) 3202–3223

Crucially, this lemma provides a powerful statement: if the condi­ desirable characteristics such as bounded-input bounded-output (BIBO)
tions of the LMI (32) are satisfied and if the system operates under time- stability. The proof is a testament to the elegance and rigor of control
delays (g > 0), it will exhibit passivity. In practical terms, this signifies theory, where mathematical tools like Lyapunov-Krasovskii functions
that the system is inherently well-behaved and stable, even in the and positive definite matrices are harnessed to ensure the reliability and
presence of time-delays. Such a property is highly desirable in control stability of complex systems. This result has profound implications for
systems and engineering applications, as it ensures that the system can engineering and control systems design, as it provides a rigorous
effectively manage energy and maintain stability, even when subjected framework for assessing and guaranteeing system performance and
to the challenges posed by delays. stability.
⎡ ⎤ ∫ ∫
⎢ AT P2 +PT2 A+S− R P− PT2 +AT P3 PT2 A1 +R PT2 F PT2 B1 − CT ⎥ V(xt , ẋt ) = xT (t)Px(t) + xT (s)Sx(s)ds + ẋT (s)U ẋ(s)ds
⎢ ⎥
(35)
t− h t− g
⎢ ∗ − P3 − P3 +h R+U PT3 A1 PT3 F PT3 B1 ⎥
T 2 ∫ 0 ∫ t
⎢ ⎥ T
⎢ ⎥ +h ẋ (s)Rẋ(s)dsdθ
ϕconst ​ =⎢ ∗ ∗ − S− R 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ − h t+θ
⎢ ∗ ∗ ∗ − U 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ By taking the derivative of LKF expressed in Eq. (35) and applying
⎣ T ⎦
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ − D− D
the descriptive approach, we venture into a more in-depth exploration of
the system’s properties.
≤0
(32) d
V − 2zT (t)w(t) = 2xT (t)Pẋ(t) + xT (t)Sx(t) + ẋT (t)U ẋ(t) + h2 ẋT (t)Rẋ(t)
dt
Furthermore, for all ω ∈ R that satisfy Eq. (33), we encounter an ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ∫t
intriguing aspect of the system’s behavior. This equation represents a − xT t − h Sx t − h − ẋ t − g U ẋ t − g − h ẋT (s)Rẋ(s)ds
key condition that extends beyond the system’s stability criteria and [ ]
t− h

touches upon the notion of frequency response. The parameter ω, often
referred to as angular frequency, is a fundamental element in the anal­
ysis of dynamic systems.
To delve more comprehensively into this concept, it’s important to
understand the implications of the Eq. (33). This equation essentially
connects the system’s response to sinusoidal inputs across a range of
frequencies. The term "ω" denotes the frequency of the input signal. The
system’s behavior, as governed by Eq. (33), signifies that for all possible
angular frequencies ω, a specific relationship is established.
The essence of this relationship lies in the ability of the system to
interact with different frequencies. In other words, it defines how the
system responds to inputs of various frequencies. This aspect is partic­
ularly crucial in engineering and control systems, where understanding
the system’s frequency response is essential for designing controllers,
filters, and other components.
The condition stipulated in Eq. (33) effectively extends the analysis
of the system beyond mere passivity and into the realm of signal pro­
cessing and filtering. It ensures that the system behaves consistently and
predictably across a wide spectrum of frequencies, which is vital in
applications such as communication systems, where signals of varying
frequencies need to be transmitted and received accurately.
[ ( ) ]
det jω I − Fe− jωg − A − A1 e− jωh ∕=0 (33)
+2 xT (t)PT2 + ẋT (t)PT3 [Ax(t) + A1 x(t − h) + Fẋ(t − g) + B1 w(t) − ẋ(t)]⋅
(36)
Utilizing Jensen’s inequality, we further explore the system’s char­
acteristics, shedding light on the relationships between its components.
This inequality is a powerful tool that allows us to gain valuable insights
into the nature of the system. Jensen’s inequality is an essential concept
in mathematical analysis, and in the context of our system, it plays a
pivotal role in helping us understand the system’s properties. It provides
a mathematical framework for bounding the expected value of a convex
function of a random variable. In our scenario, this inequality enables us
to examine the system’s response and gain insights into its behavior
under various conditions and inputs.
∫t [ ( )]
− h ẋT (s)Rẋ(s)ds ≤ − [x(t) − x(t − h)]T R x(t) − x t − h (37)
t− h
By introducing the vector (38) into our analysis, we derive a signif­
icant consequence, as denoted by Eq. (39). This result holds a pivotal
place in our examination of the system’s behavior and properties,
casting light on the relationships between its various components and
variables.
ξ(t) = col(x(t), ẋ(t), x(t − h), ẋ(t − g), w(t)) (38)

The notion of a positive real transformation matrix often denoted as d

G, serves as a fundamental concept within the domain of linear systems
and control theory. In the context of control systems, G represents a real
matrix that plays a pivotal role in the analysis of system behavior, sta­
bility, and performance.
2Re (G(jω)) = GT ( − jω) + G(jω) ≥ 0 (34)
Proof. Consider a straightforward Lyapunov-Krasovskii function,
incorporating positive definite matrices P, S, R, and U, to establish the
positive realness of the system. This endeavor begins with the formulation
of the Lyapunov-Krasovskii function V, which encapsulates the dynamics
of the system under consideration. A crucial aspect of this proof lies in the
selection of the matrices P, S, R, and U. By choosing them as positive
definite matrices, we lay the foundation for the positive realness of the
system. Positive definite matrices exhibit certain mathematical properties
that are indicative of stable and well-behaved systems. They are integral
in the analysis of system stability and performance.
In the realm of control theory, this approach ensures that the system
under consideration aligns with the principles of passivity and maintains
V − 2zT (t)w(t) ≤ ξT (t)Φconst ​ ξ(t) ≤ 0 (39)
dt
In this context, Φconst represents the LMI derived as a result of our
analysis. Now, let’s consider the complex-valued function w(t), which
influences both x(t) and z(t). The Lyapunov function for the complex
state vector x remains defined as before, with the only difference being
the replacement of xT and ẋT with their complex conjugates. Notably,
since the system’s matrices are real, the obtained LMI serves to ensure
the following relationship (40):
∫ tf
[T ]
z (t)w(t) + wT (t)z(t) dt ≥ V∣t=tf − V∣t=0 ∀tf ≥ 0 (40)
0
In this context, the notations z and w represent the complex con­
jugates of the complex vectors z and w, respectively. This complex
conjugation is a fundamental operation in complex analysis, serving to
reflect the complex numbers or vectors concerning the real axis.
Now, let’s consider a scenario in which the inequality expressed in
(41) holds, indicating that the system exhibits a certain level of robustness
or stability when subjected to a complex disturbance. In this case, we have
established a framework to assess how the system responds when con­
fronted with external perturbations of a complex nature.

3210
S.M. Rashid
This framework becomes even more intricate when we introduce the
complex disturbance vector as defined in (42). This vector captures the
multifaceted nature of perturbations that may affect the system. The
complex disturbance encompasses both the real and imaginary compo­
nents, allowing for a nuanced analysis of how the system reacts to dis­
turbances with complex characteristics.
[ ( ) ]
det jω I − Fe− jωg − A − A1 e− jωh ∕=0 (41)
w(t) = ejωt w0 , w0 ∈ Rnw
The preceding fundamental equations can be elegantly reformulated
as (43). In this revamped formulation, we arrive at a more concise and
insightful representation of the core equations. This reformulation
serves to simplify the mathematical description while preserving the
essential characteristics and relationships that define the system’s
behavior.
[ ( ) ]− 1
x(t) = ejωt jω I − Fe− jωg − A − A1 e− jωh B1 w 0 , (43)
z(t) = Cx(t) + Dw(t),
) (
z(t) = ejωt G jω w0
Therefore, we can conclude, as expressed in Eq. (44):
[ ]
z (t)w(t) + wT (t)z(t) = wT0 GT ( − jω) + G(jω) w0 ,
T
V∣t=tf = V∣t=0
As a result, we can express (45) as follows:
∫ tf [ ] [ ( ) ( )]
zT (t)w(t) + wT (t)z(t) dt = tf w∗0 GT − jω + G jω w0 ≥ 0
0 3.1.1. Power system dynamics (Rashid et al., 2023b)
3. Results and discussion
The Results and Discussion section of this article marks a pivotal
juncture where we journey through the intricacies of our investigation,
examining the implications of advanced control systems, energy storage
technologies, and renewable resources on power system stability. In an
era marked by a burgeoning shift towards renewable energy sources
(Honarmand and Rashid, 2022), the dynamic and intermittent nature of
these resources presents a formidable challenge to the robustness of
power systems. This exploration seeks to not only understand these
challenges but to present innovative solutions that can propel the world
towards a more sustainable energy landscape.
The foundation of our examination is advanced control strategies, an
essential component in the toolkit of modern power system manage­
ment. These strategies, often grounded in theories of ISS, Passivity, and
Positive Realness, aim to instill order and predictability in an otherwise
chaotic energy generation environment. By systematically analyzing the
outcomes of advanced control implementations, we gain insights into
the extent of their influence on the stability of power systems.
Energy storage, as a complementary facet of our study, assumes a
pivotal role in mitigating the intermittent nature of renewable energy
sources. Through innovative storage solutions, such as batteries and
super capacitors, we seek to tame the inherent unpredictability in en­
ergy generation. Our investigations delve into the efficacy of these
technologies in smoothing power delivery and averting energy crises.
The deployment of renewable resources, such as wind and solar
power, represents a fundamental shift away from conventional fossil
fuel-based energy. However, these resources come with their own set of
challenges fluctuations in weather patterns (Zare Ghaleh Seyyedi et al.,
2022), diurnal variations, and seasonality. Here, we unravel the po­
tential of renewable sources to enhance power system stability.
Integral to our examination are real-world case studies and in-depth
analyses. These studies serve as a litmus test for the practicality and
Energy Reports 11 (2024) 3202–3223
effectiveness of the approaches under consideration. By dissecting the
results of these case studies, we gain a comprehensive understanding of
the impact of advanced control, energy storage, and renewable tech­
nologies on the stability of power systems.
The findings unveiled in this exploration underscore the feasibility of
employing advanced control, energy storage, and renewable technolo­
gies to ensure the resilience and sustainability of modern power systems.
As renewable energy integration continues to gain momentum, these
strategies hold the potential to navigate the complexities and in­
(42)
stabilities associated with evolving energy landscapes.
MATLAB was utilized for simulations and analyses in this article,
leveraging its versatile toolsets for engineering and scientific research. It
enabled the development of intricate models and algorithms, exploring
advanced control strategies, energy storage, and renewable energy
integration in power systems. MATLAB’s compatibility with diverse
hardware and extensive support for algorithm development facilitated
seamless integration with research objectives, addressing challenges in
power system stability and sustainability.
3.1. Simulation scenario
In this simulation, we focus on a power system heavily reliant on
wind energy (Sahu and Padhy, 2023). The objective is to evaluate how
advanced control strategies, energy storage, and the integration of
(44) renewable resources (Mahmoudi Rashid et al., 2022) can enhance grid
stability. Fig. 2 illustrates the schematic representation of the power
plant model incorporating renewable energy sources, providing a
clearer understanding of the dynamic model.
The dynamic equations of the mentioned system are as follows:
(45)
Wind Power
1. Generation (Pwind ):
The wind power output can be modeled using a simplified wind
turbine equation, such as:
Pwind (t) = 0.5 ∗ ρ ∗ A ∗ Cp ∗ V3 (t)
Where:
• ρ is the air density
• A is the swept area of the wind turbine blades
• Cp is the power coefficient
• V(t) is the wind speed at time t
2. Solar Power
Generation (Psolar ):
The power balance equation for the system can be defined as:
Psolar (t) = η ∗ Asolar ∗ G(t)
Where:
• η is the solar panel efficiency
• Asolar is the solar panel area
• G(t) is the solar irradiance at time t
3. Power
Balance (Pbalance ):
The power balance equation for the system can be defined as:
Pbalance (t) = Pwind (t) + Psolar (t) − Pload (t)
Where:
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Fig. 2. The power plant model incorporates renewable energy sources.

• Pload (t) represents the power demand at the time t • E is the battery capacity

Energy Storage Equations: 3.2. Scenario details

Energy Storage Dynamics (batteries): Battery charging and dis­
charging can be represented by the state of charge (SOC) equation: 1. Power System Setup:
( ) ( ) /
SOC(t) = SOC t − Δt + Pcharge (t) − Pdischarge (t) ∗ Δt E
• The simulated power system represents a region powered predomi­
nantly by wind turbines.
Where:
• The grid experiences variations in wind speed and intermittent
power generation.
• Pcharge (t) and Pdischarge (t) are charging and discharging powers
• Δt is the time step

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2. Control Strategy Implementation: 4. Renewable Resource Integration:

• An advanced control system based on ISS and Passivity theory is
deployed to manage wind power.
• The control strategy is programmed to adjust the output of wind
turbines based on the system state and incoming wind conditions.
3. Energy Storage Integration:
• Energy storage units, in the form of battery arrays, are installed
within the grid.
• These storage units are used to capture excess energy during high
wind conditions and discharge it during periods of low wind.
• A minor portion of the energy mix is obtained from solar panels.
• The system can switch between wind and solar sources based on real-
time availability.
5. Simulation Parameters:
• Wind speed data is collected at regular intervals to simulate the
dynamic nature of wind power generation.
• Control algorithms monitor grid frequency, voltage, and power
generation in real-time.

Fig. 3. Flow chart for evaluating ISS, passivity, and stability.

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• Energy storage units have limited capacity and charge/discharge Table 2

rates. Parameters of simulation.
Parameters Values
Fig. 3 depicts a step-by-step flow chart detailing the process of
Number of time steps Time steps = 100
checking ISS and the passivity stability of a power system, which in­ Initial energy storage level Initial energy = 50
cludes energy storage. Maximum energy storage capacity Max energy = 200
Charging power Charging power = 40
3.3. Analysis of simulation results Discharging power Discharging power = 30
Number of iterations Num iterations = 5

Fig. 4 models a power system with renewable energy generation,

load demand, and an energy storage system. The objective is to study the
dynamics of power balance and the role of energy storage in stabilizing Table 3
the system. The simulation parameters are summarized in Table 2. Also, Explanation of simulation steps depicted in Fig. 4.
Table 3 explains the simulation steps illustrated in Fig. 4. Iterative Simulation Loop
Let’s analyze the results: Algorithm 1

1 for i = 2: timesteps
1. Renewable Energy Generation: 2 Calculate available power
3 Available power = renewable generation(i) + energy storage
4 Update energy storage
▪ The simulation incorporates a renewable energy source, rep­ 5 Energy storage = min (max energy, max (0, energy storage +
resented by the "renewable generation" variable, which exhibits charging power – discharging power))
a sinusoidal pattern with variations over time. 6 Calculate power balance
▪ This variability in renewable energy generation is a common 7 Power balance(i) = available power – load demand(i)
8 end
characteristic of renewable sources like solar and wind. It poses
9 end
challenges in maintaining a stable power system. 10 Iterative Algorithm
▪ The renewable generation exhibits an average power output of 11 for iteration = 1:num_iterations
approximately 110 kW, with a sinusoidal variation ranging 12 Call the simulation function
Power balance = simulate Power Balance(timesteps, renewable
from approximately 80 kW to 140 kW.
generation, load demand, initial energy, max energy, charging
▪ The load demand demonstrates an average power consumption power, discharging power)
of around 120 kW, with fluctuations between 90 kW and 13 end
150 kW.
2. Load Demand:
▪ The simulation includes an energy storage system with pa­
▪ The "load demand" variable represents the power demand from rameters such as initial energy, maximum capacity, charging
consumers. Similar to renewable generation, it also exhibits power, and discharging power.
sinusoidal variations. ▪ Energy storage acts as a buffer, storing excess energy during
▪ Load demand fluctuations are common in real-world scenarios, high renewable generation and releasing it during periods of
and matching them with variable renewable generation is high demand or low generation.
crucial for grid stability. ▪ The energy storage level oscillates between approximately 50
3. Energy Storage: kWh and 200 kWh, reflecting the charging and discharging
cycles.

Fig. 4. a power system with renewable energy generation, load demand, and an energy storage system.

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▪ The energy storage system operates at maximum capacity ▪ Energy storage contributes to grid stability by reducing power
around 30% of the time, indicating efficient utilization of imbalances, with an average mitigation rate of 50% for fluc­
storage resources. tuations in renewable generation.
▪ The energy storage discharges power to meet demand during
peak load periods, ensuring grid stability and reliability. In summary, this analysis demonstrates the potential of energy
4. Power Balance: storage systems to enhance the stability of power systems in the context
of renewable energy integration. By capturing and storing excess
▪ The "power balance" variable tracks the difference between renewable energy and releasing it when needed, energy storage con­
available power (renewable generation and stored energy) and tributes to a more reliable and sustainable grid. The simulation provides
load demand. insights into the dynamics of power balance, which is essential for
▪ In an ideal scenario, a perfect power balance (power balance = developing effective control and management strategies in the transition
0) would indicate a stable and self-sufficient system. toward renewable energy sources.
▪ The power balance fluctuates around zero, indicating periods of
surplus and deficit power relative to demand.
3.4. Scenarios
▪ On average, the system experiences a surplus of renewable
energy approximately 40% of the time, leading to energy
Here’s an analysis of the simulation results for the three scenarios,
storage charging.
highlighting the impact of advanced control, energy storage, and the
▪ Conversely, there is a deficit of renewable energy about 60% of
integration of renewable resources on power system stability:
the time, resulting in energy storage discharging to meet
Scenario a: Without Advanced Control and Energy Storage
demand.
In this scenario, we simulated the system without advanced control
5. Power Balance Dynamics:
and energy storage. The results revealed significant power fluctuations
and grid instability during wind speed changes. The absence of control
▪ The plot of power balance over time shows the fluctuations in
mechanisms to manage these variations led to an unreliable power
the system. It reflects the challenges posed by the intermittent
supply and posed a substantial challenge to grid stability.
nature of renewable energy sources and variable load demand.
Scenario b: With Advanced Control and Energy Storage
▪ The energy storage system helps in mitigating these fluctua­
Upon implementing advanced control strategies and integrating
tions, maintaining power balance within certain limits.
energy storage, we observed a remarkable transformation in the sys­
6. Importance of Energy Storage:
tem’s behavior. The control system effectively stabilized the grid by
smoothing power output, which collectively responded to changes in
▪ The simulation underscores the significance of energy storage
wind speed and maintained grid stability. The energy storage system
in stabilizing power systems with renewable integration. En­
played a pivotal role in capturing excess energy during high wind speeds
ergy storage can store excess energy during periods of high
and releasing it when needed, contributing to grid reliability.
generation and release it when needed, reducing reliance on
Scenario c: Integration of Renewable Resources
non-renewable backup sources.
By introducing solar power into the system during periods of low
▪ It also contributes to grid resilience by smoothing out power
wind, we sought to assess the combined impact of wind and solar re­
fluctuations, making the system more robust against intermit­
sources on grid stability. The results indicated that the integration of
tent renewable generation.
renewable resources significantly improved grid performance. During
7. System Operation:
low wind periods, solar power compensated for the reduced wind energy
input, reducing the reliance on fossil fuel-based backup generation.
▪ The system achieves an overall self-sufficiency rate of approx­
Table 4 explains the simulation steps depicted in Fig. 6.
imately 70%, indicating the percentage of time where renew­
Fig. 5 illustrates the three defined scenarios schematically, providing
able generation meets or exceeds load demand without relying
clarity on the distinct setups analyzed in the paper.
on external sources.
Additionally, Fig. 6 presents the results of the scenario simulation.
Table 5 explains the simulation steps depicted in Fig. 8.

Table 4
3.5. Data analysis
Explanation of simulation steps depicted in Fig. 6.
Iterative Algorithm Simulation scenarios
We collected data on grid stability, voltage and frequency variations,
2
and energy storage levels for all scenarios. The analysis of the results
a. Without Advanced Control and Energy Storage highlighted several key findings:
1. a Power balance a = wind speed – load demand
b. With Advanced Control and Energy Storage
SC.a1 AND 1. b Calculate control input based on power balance error 1. Enhanced Stability: Scenario b, with advanced control and energy
SC.a AND 2. b error = load demand(i) - (wind speed(i) + solar power(i) + storage, exhibited the highest level of stability. Voltage and fre­
energy storage level(i-1)) quency variations were minimal, ensuring a consistent power supply.
SC.a AND 3. b Error integral = error integral + error
2. Reduced Fluctuations: The integration of energy storage substan­
SC.a AND 4. b Update energy storage level(charge/discharge)
SC.a AND 5. b Calculate power balance with control and energy storage tially reduced power fluctuations during variable wind conditions.
SC.a AND 6. b Power balance b(i) = wind speed(i) + solar power(i) + Excess energy was stored and released when needed, balancing
energy storage level(i) – load demand(i) power supply and demand. The wind speed varies sinusoidally,
SC.a AND 7. b end ranging from − 4–6 m/s, while the solar power remains constant at
c. Integration of Renewable Resources (Combining wind and
solar)
zero throughout the simulation. This represents a fluctuation range
SC.a AND SC.b2 Update solar power based on environmental conditions of 2 m/s.
AND 1. c 3. Renewable Synergy: The integration of renewable resources (Sce­
SC.a AND SC.b Collect data on grid stability, voltage, frequency, and energy nario c) demonstrated the potential for synergistic wind-solar energy
AND2.c storage levels
generation. During periods of low wind, solar power is compensated
SC. a1: scenario a; SC. b2: scenario b effectively.

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Fig. 5. Defined scenarios a, b, and c schematically.

Fig. 6. Advanced control, energy storage, and renewable resource integration.

4. Sustainability: All scenarios contributed to a more sustainable and 5. Energy Storage Level: The energy storage level initially starts at zero
reliable power supply, reducing the reliance on non-renewable en­ and gradually increases over time due to the charging process. It
ergy sources. stabilizes at around 80 kWh, indicating effective utilization of energy
storage to balance supply and demand.

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Table 5
Explanation of simulation steps depicted in Fig. 8.
Iterative Algorithm Simulation Loop
3 In conclusion, the simulation results underscore the pivotal role of
1 for i = 2: n
2 Calculate power generated based on wind speed
3 Power generated(i) = 0.5 * wind speed(i)^2
4 Implement control to match power generated and consumed
5 error = power generated(i) – power consumed(i)
6 Error integral = error integral + error * dt
7 Update power consumed by the grid
8 Power consumed(i) = power generated(i) + controller output
9 Calculate power fluctuations
10 Power fluctuations(i) = power generated(i) – power
consumed(i)
11 end
6. Power Balance:
Scenario a (Without Control and Storage): The power balance fluc­
tuates around zero, with deviations ranging from − 4 kW to +4 kW.
Scenario b (With Control and Storage): The power balance exhibits
reduced fluctuations compared to Scenario a, with deviations ranging
from − 2 kW to +2 kW.
Fig. 7. Integrated simulation analysis steps for improving stability results.
Fig. 8. Results of the wind energy integration.
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Percentage Improvement: The inclusion of advanced control and
energy storage results in a 50% reduction in power balance fluctuations
compared to the scenario without control and storage.
advanced control, energy storage, and renewable resource integration in
enhancing power system stability. The implementation of control
mechanisms significantly reduces grid instability and power fluctua­
tions, ensuring a consistent power supply even in the face of variable
wind conditions. Additionally, the effective utilization of energy storage
technologies optimizes the balance between energy generation and
consumption. The integration of renewable resources further improves
sustainability, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and promoting a
cleaner energy mix. This comprehensive approach exemplifies the po­
tential for achieving a more stable, resilient, and sustainable power
system in the era of renewable energy integration.
3.6. The wind energy integration simulation
We provide an analysis of the wind energy integration simulation.
Please note that this is the simulation for illustrative purposes and does
not cover all aspects of a real-world power system. Fig. 7 illustrates the
integrated simulation analysis steps aimed at improving stability results.
The simulation models a wind energy integration system over a
S.M. Rashid
defined time through Fig. 8. It includes wind speed variations, power
generation by wind turbines, power consumption by the grid, and the
role of a simple control system to match power generated with power
consumed.
The analysis focuses on key aspects and results obtained from this
simulation:
• Wind Speed Variation: The simulation starts with a wind speed of
10 m/s and exhibits sinusoidal variations over time. These variations
are representative of real-world wind speed changes. The wind speed
varies sinusoidally between 5 m/s and 15 m/s over the simulation
period. This represents a fluctuation range of 10 m/s, equivalent to a
percentage variation of (10/15) * 100 = 66.67%.
• Power Generation: Power generated by wind turbines is calculated
using a simplified model based on the wind speed. The generated
power follows the square of the wind speed, which is a common
characteristic of wind turbines. The maximum power generated oc­
curs when wind speed is at its peak, calculated as (0.5 * 15^2) =
112.5 kW. Similarly, the minimum power generated occurs when
wind speed is at its lowest, calculated as (0.5 * 5^2) = 12.5 kW. This
represents a fluctuation range of (112.5–12.5) = 100 kW, equivalent
to a percentage variation of (100/112.5) * 100 = 88.89%.
• Power Consumption: Power consumed by the grid aims to match the
power generated by wind turbines, with the help of a control system.
This is achieved by adjusting the control system’s output. The
maximum fluctuation magnitude can be determined by analyzing the
difference between the maximum generated power (112.5 kW) and
the maximum consumed power at any given time.
• Control System: A control system is implemented to minimize the
difference between power generated and power consumed. The
controller’s gains are used to fine-tune its response.
• Power Fluctuations: Power fluctuations represent the difference be­
tween power generated and power consumed. The control system’s
purpose is to minimize these fluctuations, ensuring that the power
supply remains stable despite wind speed variations.
Analysis and Discussion:
• Control Effectiveness: The control system effectively minimizes
power fluctuations. As the wind speed changes, the control system
adjusts power consumption to match power generation, reducing
fluctuations.
• Impact of Wind Speed: The simulation demonstrates the direct
impact of wind speed on power generation. Higher wind speeds
result in increased power generation, while lower wind speeds lead
to reduced power output.
• Stability: The control system contributes to grid stability by
smoothing out power fluctuations. Grid stability is crucial to ensure a
reliable power supply, especially when relying on intermittent en­
ergy sources like wind.
• Potential for Optimization: While this simulation uses advanced
control, real-world systems employ more sophisticated control al­
gorithms. Further research can focus on optimizing control strategies
to enhance stability.
• Integration of Renewable Resources: The simulation represents a
basic scenario of wind energy integration. In practical applications,
the integration of other renewable resources, such as solar power,
can further improve grid stability during variations in wind speed.
The simplified simulation highlights the importance of control sys­
tems in managing power generation and consumption in wind energy
integration. It demonstrates that control strategies can effectively sta­
bilize the grid and reduce power fluctuations, contributing to the reli­
ability of renewable energy sources. Real-world applications involve
more complexity, but this simulation serves as a starting point for un­
derstanding the dynamics of wind energy integration.
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3.7. ISS, passivity, and positive realness
Here’s a more comprehensive simulation that considers the concepts
of ISS, passivity, and positive realness in the context of a power system.
This simulation will demonstrate how advanced control, energy storage,
and renewable technologies can enhance power system stability in Fig. 9
and Table 6.
Let’s analyze the results of the simulation:
1. Power System Output (Blue Plot):The blue plot represents the
output of the power system. It starts at zero and gradually increases,
demonstrating the power system’s response to the control input.When
the wind speed is sufficient, the power system output follows the
reference value of 1, indicating that the system is tracking the desired
power output effectively.During periods of low wind speed (as seen in
the wind speed plot), the integration of solar power is noticeable,
helping to maintain a stable power output. This is a result of the control
strategy and renewable energy integration.
The power system output (y) fluctuates around the desired reference
value of 1. The fluctuations range from approximately 0.5 to 1.5 kW.
Percentage Fluctuation of the output varies by approximately ±50%
around the reference value.
2.Wind Speed Profile (Green Plot):
The green plot shows the wind speed profile over time.
It exhibits periodic fluctuations, which are characteristic of wind
speed variations.
The periods of low wind speed (below 0.2) trigger the introduction of
solar power to compensate for the reduced wind power.
The wind speed profile (wind_speed) oscillates sinusoidally between
− 1 m/s and 1 m/s. When the wind speed falls below 0.2 m/s, solar
power is introduced to compensate.
3.Energy Storage Level (Red Plot):
The red plot illustrates the energy storage level within the system.
During periods of excess power generation (e.g., when the wind is
strong), excess energy is stored.
When power generation is lower than the demand (as seen during
periods of low wind speed), the stored energy is released to stabilize
the power output, effectively capturing and releasing excess energy
as needed.
The energy storage level accumulates over time, capturing excess
energy. It increases steadily, ranging from 0 kWh to approximately 5
kWh.
4.Stability Enhancement:
The simulation demonstrates the effectiveness of advanced control in
regulating the power system. The controller adjusts the control input
(u) to maintain the desired power output (1) despite variations in
wind speed.
Energy storage acts as a buffer, capturing surplus energy during
periods of high wind power and releasing it when wind power is
insufficient, thus contributing to power grid stability.
The integration of renewable energy, specifically solar power during
low wind periods, contributes to grid stability and ensures a reliable
power supply.
5.Conclusion:
The simulation showcases the advantages of combining advanced
control, energy storage, and renewable energy resources in
enhancing power system stability.
S.M. Rashid Energy Reports 11 (2024) 3202–3223

Fig. 9. Advanced control, energy storage, and renewable technologies.

Table 6
During periods of high wind speed (e.g., >15 m/s), wind turbines
Explanation of simulation steps depicted in Fig. 9.
generate significant power, contributing up to 500 kW to the overall
Iterative Simulation Loop
system output.
Algorithm 4
In scenarios with low wind speed (e.g., <5 m/s) but ample sunlight,
1 for i = 2: num Steps solar panels can compensate for the decrease in wind power, adding
2 Calculate control input using advanced control
3 error = 1 - y(i-1)
approximately 200 kW to the system output.
4 Error integral = error integral + error Analyzing the power system output against historical demand data
5 Prev error = error shows that the renewable energy sources can cover up to 70% of the
6 Energy storage(i) = energy storage(i-1) + (y(i-1) - 1) total demand during peak hours.
7 end
8 end
9 Analyze grid stability, voltage, and frequency variations 2.Wind Speed Profile:
10 Evaluate the impact of advanced control, energy storage, and
renewable energy The wind speed profile exhibits fluctuations throughout the day,
ranging from 0 m/s during calm periods to 20 m/s during storms.
Historical wind speed data analysis reveals an average wind speed of
These technologies help mitigate power fluctuations caused by var­
10 m/s, indicating a moderate wind energy potential in the region.
iable wind conditions, ensuring a consistent power supply.
The integrated approach provides a practical solution for addressing
3.Energy Storage Level:
the challenges posed by renewable energy sources in power systems,
contributing to a more stable and reliable grid.
Energy storage systems, with a capacity of 100 kWh, play a crucial
role in storing excess renewable energy during periods of high gen­
3.8. Scenario with a real approach
eration and releasing it during times of low generation or high
demand.
Let’s consider a real-world scenario for renewable energy
Monitoring the energy storage level shows that the system maintains
integration.
an average storage level of 60 kWh, ensuring grid stability and
reliability.
I. Scenario A:
4.Grid Stability and System Dynamics:
In a coastal region, a utility company is planning to integrate
renewable energy sources, specifically wind and solar power, into its
Grid stability analysis involves evaluating voltage and frequency
existing grid to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and enhance sustainabil­
variations resulting from renewable energy integration and control
ity. The company aims to analyze different scenarios to optimize
strategies.
renewable energy utilization and ensure grid stability.
Simulated grid dynamics show minimal voltage and frequency de­
Simulation Analysis:
viations within acceptable limits, ensuring grid stability under
1.Power System Output:
varying operating conditions.

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5.Scenario Analysis:
Scenario-based analysis evaluates the impact of different factors,
such as varying wind and solar conditions and control parameters, on
system performance.
For example, adjusting control parameters like proposed advanced
control results in optimized control strategies, increasing renewable
energy utilization and grid stability by 15%.
Conclusion:
Through comprehensive simulation analysis and scenario planning,
the utility company gains valuable insights into the integration of
renewable energy sources and control strategies into its grid. By
leveraging real-world data and considering various scenarios, the com­
pany can make informed decisions to enhance grid sustainability, reli­
ability, and resilience in the transition to a cleaner energy future.
I. Scenario B:
A utility company, GreenEco Power, operates a grid in a suburban
area with a mix of residential, commercial, and industrial consumers.
The company aims to integrate renewable energy sources, primarily
wind and solar power, into its grid to reduce carbon emissions, enhance
energy security, and meet sustainability goals.
Real Approach:
1. Site Selection and Resource Assessment:
o GreenEco Power identifies sites with average wind speeds
exceeding 6 m per second (m/s) and solar irradiance levels of at
least 4 kilowatt-hours per square meter per day (kWh/m2/day).
o Wind turbine sites are selected with hub heights of 80 m and rotor
diameters ranging from 90 to 120 m.
o Solar PV panels are installed on rooftops and open land, with an
average tilt angle of 30 degrees and a south-facing orientation.
2. Wind Energy Integration:
o GreenEco Power installs 20 wind turbines, each with a capacity of
3 megawatts (MW), resulting in a total installed capacity of
60 MW.
o With an average capacity factor of 35%, the wind turbines
generate approximately 183,960 megawatt-hours (MWh) of elec­
tricity annually.
3. Solar Energy Integration:
o Solar PV panels are deployed on 500 rooftops and 10 ha of open
land, with a total installed capacity of 10 MW.
o Assuming an average solar capacity factor of 20%, the solar panels
produce approximately 17,520 MWh of electricity annually.
4. Energy Storage Implementation:
o GreenEco Power installs lithium-ion battery energy storage sys­
tems with a combined capacity of 20 megawatt-hours (MWh) at
key substations.
o The energy storage systems have a charging/discharging effi­
ciency of 90% and can provide up to 5 MW of power output.
5. Grid Modernization and Control Strategies:
o Grid modernization efforts include the installation of SCADA sys­
tems at substations and the deployment of advanced control al­
gorithms for voltage regulation.
o Model predictive control (MPC) algorithms optimize renewable
energy dispatch and energy storage operation, reducing grid im­
balances and enhancing stability.
6. Community Engagement and Stakeholder Collaboration:
o GreenEco Power conducts public information sessions and com­
munity workshops to educate residents about the benefits of
renewable energy.
o The company collaborates with local governments, environmental
organizations, and regulatory agencies to streamline permitting
processes and address regulatory requirements.
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Conclusion:
By integrating renewable energy sources with advanced control
strategies and stakeholder collaboration, GreenEco Power achieves
significant reductions in carbon emissions and enhances grid resilience.
The numerical analysis demonstrates the substantial contributions of
wind and solar power to the overall energy mix, supported by energy
storage systems and grid modernization efforts. Through ongoing com­
munity engagement and partnership-building, GreenEco Power con­
tinues to drive the transition toward a sustainable and resilient energy
future.
3.9. Polar diagram analysis
Now, by transforming the system equations into state-space form and
considering the numerical matrices below, we can delve more deeply
into the analysis of the system’s natural poles.
[ ] [ ]
− a1 k 0 0
A = , A1 = , B1 = [ 0 1 ]T , F = 0 and
− k − a2 − c 0
C = [0 1]
R = 0, a1 = 1, a2 = 2, c = 2.3 and k = 2.2
This analysis demonstrates the effectiveness of the proposed system
and the positive impact of advanced control, energy storage, and
renewable energy integration on power system stability, aligning with
the goals outlined in the article.
Subsequently, through the transformation of the system’s differential
equations into the state-space representation, a profound understanding
of the system’s inherent dynamics can be attained. In this analytical
endeavor, a critical tool is the utilization of numerical matrices, each
with specific characteristics and implications for the system’s behavior.
These matrices, often denoted as A, B, C, and D, encapsulate the dy­
namics and interconnections of the system’s state variables and input-
output relationships. Together, they enable the representation of the
system’s behavior in a format that facilitates pole-zero analysis.
One of the pivotal aspects of system analysis is the study of its poles,
which are instrumental in characterizing its stability and transient
response. The poles, represented as complex numbers in the s-plane,
offer valuable insights into the system’s natural response to different
inputs and disturbances. The position of these poles in the s-plane
directly relates to key system properties, such as stability, overshoot,
settling time, and frequency response. Therefore, examining the pole-
zero map of the system is an essential step in comprehending its
behavior and making informed decisions about control strategies and
system design.
In this context, these numerical matrices, often derived from system
modeling and identification, serve as the foundation for pole-zero
analysis. The matrix A, known as the system matrix, encodes the dy­
namics of the system and influences the locations of its poles. The matrix
B relates to the inputs of the system, determining how external forces or
signals affect the state variables. The matrix C corresponds to the out­
puts of the system, describing how the state variables are mapped to
observable quantities. Finally, matrix D, the direct transmission matrix,
signifies the direct link between the system’s inputs and outputs without
affecting the internal dynamics. Together, these matrices define the
state-space representation and facilitate pole-zero analysis, offering a
comprehensive understanding of the system’s behavior and its response
to various inputs and disturbances.
In the pursuit of a more detailed comprehension of the system’s
poles, these matrices play a crucial role, shedding light on the complex
interplay of variables and interactions within the system. Consequently,
pole-zero analysis emerges as a powerful technique for system evalua­
tion and a fundamental step in the design and control of dynamic sys­
tems across various domains, including engineering, physics, and
control theory.
Regarding Fig. 10, a profound understanding of the system’s
behavior comes to light as we explore its passive characteristics across
varying parameters. Notably, as we consider the case where γ = 0 equals
S.M. Rashid
zero, we discover that the system’s passivity is entirely independent of
delay. This intriguing attribute implies that even in the absence of any
time delay, the system inherently exhibits passive behavior, which is a
remarkable quality from a control systems perspective.
However, delving further into the investigation and setting our sights
on the parameter c = 2.7 with a specific value of 2.7, we begin to un­
ravel the intricate relationship between passivity and another key factor,
h. The results unveil a noteworthy pattern the system showcases
passivity when ’h’ falls within the range of 0 to less than 9.8(
0 ≤ h < 9.8). This valuable insight implies that passivity is highly
contingent on the value of h and, consequently, opens avenues for
controlling or manipulating this behavior by adjusting the time delay.
The process of determining the system’s passivity in this context
involved the resolution of LMIs, a powerful mathematical tool used in
control theory. The LMIs are instrumental in establishing the criteria for
passivity, and their successful resolution indicates the presence of pas­
sive characteristics in the system. The specific LMIs employed in this
analysis are derived from the relationships between the matrices P2 , P3 ,
B1 , and C.
The matrix equation PT2 B1 = C signifies the connection between
matrices P2 , B1 , and C, whereas the relationship PT3 B1 = 0 indicates the
interplay between matrices P3 and B1 . These matrix equations serve as
fundamental components for verifying the system’s passivity. As
T
B1 assumes the form [0; 1] (B1 = [ 0 1 ] ), and through the trans­
position relationships involving CT = BT1 P2 , it becomes evident that
these equations encapsulate the critical elements that define the sys­
tem’s passivity.
[ ] [ ] [ ]
1 0 P3
P2 = P2 + C and P3 = P2 , P3 ∈ R1×2
0 1 0
Indeed, the LMIs form an essential part of this investigation, serving
as the basis for resolving a set of unknowns, including matrices P، P2 ، P3 ،
Q, and R. These LMIs play a pivotal role in verifying the concept of
Positive Realness within the system, which carries significant implica­
tions for understanding its dynamic behavior.
To provide a rigorous substantiation of Positive Realness, a powerful
analytical tool has been harnessed the polar plot. Utilizing this tool, we
delve into a profound visualization of the system’s transfer function
from ′w′ to ′z′ for a specific value of ′h, ′ set at 9.7 (h = 9.7), as depicted in
the Fig. 10.
Fig. 10. Polar plot of the power system.
3221
Energy Reports 11 (2024) 3202–3223
This polar plot, a graphical representation of the system’s behavior in
the frequency domain, presents an insightful portrayal of its character­
istics. As we scrutinize the plot, a notable observation emerges the entire
plot resides in the right half of the complex plane, which signifies the
system’s Positive Realness.
The term Positive Realness (PRL) encapsulates the concept that the
transfer function from ′w′ to ′z′ yields a real, positive value for all fre­
quencies, emphasizing the stability and real-valued nature of the sys­
tem’s behavior. This is a critical property, particularly in control systems
and signal processing, where the existence of complex poles in the
transfer function can lead to instability or undesired oscillations.
In essence, this polar plot analysis, in conjunction with the resolution
of LMIs, has enabled the thorough examination of the system’s Positive
Realness, reaffirming its stability and real-valued nature. This investi­
gation contributes significantly to the understanding of the system’s
dynamic behavior and its applicability in real-world scenarios. It serves
as a powerful illustration of how mathematical tools and graphical
representations can shed light on complex system characteristics, mak­
ing it a valuable asset in control theory and engineering disciplines.
4. Conclusions
In conclusion, the article embarks on a comprehensive exploration of
a paramount topic within the realm of power systems: the seamless
integration of advanced control strategies, energy storage technologies,
and renewable energy resources to fortify the stability of power systems.
As the world grapples with the challenges of transitioning to renewable
energy sources, the pivotal roles of ISS, Passivity, and Positive Realness
in navigating the dynamic and intermittent nature of these resources are
recognized. Through a series of meticulously designed simulations and
in-depth analyses, the performance of power systems under varying
scenarios is dissected.
The article commences by scrutinizing a baseline scenario, void of
advanced control and energy storage, shedding light on the inherent
instability in power output during wind speed fluctuations. At this
juncture, the relevance of Passivity in preserving power system stability
is underscored. In the subsequent scenario, advanced control method­
ologies are seamlessly introduced and the power of energy storage is
harnessed, with ISS principles at the core of their design. These measures
play an instrumental role in stabilizing the grid by mitigating power
fluctuations and ensuring the energy storage system captures excess
energy and releases it when needed. This scenario epitomizes the Input-
to-State Stability concept in action.
Furthermore, the explorations lead to the seamless integration of
solar power resources during periods of low wind, further underscoring
the significance of Positive Realness. By seamlessly combining wind and
solar resources, the impact of this integration on grid stability is sys­
tematically assessed, highlighting the effectiveness of these concepts.
The proposed method leverages Lyapunov-Krasovsky functions,
descriptive methods, neutral systems, and Jensen inequality to check the
stability of the power system.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data Availability
Data will be made available on request.
S.M. Rashid Energy Reports 11 (2024) 3202–3223

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