PHYLUM HEMICHORDATA

Entirely marine, burrowing, tube dwellers.

Share some features with chordates including pharnyngeal
gill slits & a nerve cord. Notochord present only in the
anterior end of the body as a short rod.
Body divided into proboscis, collar & trunk. Proboscis
muscular, extensible, used to burrow & collect food.
Trunk with many pairs of small
external gills slits through which water
exits.
A conspicuous dorsal extension of
pharynx forms an anterior buccal
diverticumum or stomochord.
True circulatory system
Fertilization in water, forms a feeding
planktonic larva-Tornaria.
Examples: acorn worm (Balanoglossus
sp, Saccoglossus sp, Cephalodiscus sp,
Rhabdopleura sp)
 PHYLUM CHORDATA
Four vital chordate features:
Dorsal hollow nerve cord, notochord, pharyngeal
gill, post anal tail
Dorsal hollow tubular nerve cord
Stiff but flexible rodlike notochord (nerve cord
support structure)-representing the primitive axial
skeleton, provides internal support, located
between the digestive tube and nerve chord.

Pharyngeal pouches or gill slits-Slits function as suspension-feeding devices in many

invertebrate chordates; slits have been modified in more evolved vertebrates for gas
exchange, hearing, jaw support.
Post anal tail-Provides propulsion for swimming.
Myotomes- Surrounding notochord and nerve cord are blocks of muscle called myotomes
Hepatic portal system: This system is unique to chordates.

•Subphylum Urochordata (uro = tail; chordata= cord) – tunicates or sea squirts

•Subphylum Cephalochordata (cephalo = head; chordata= cord) – sea lancelets
•Subphylum Vertebrata (vertebrate = backbone)
Skeleton: Adult urochordates have nothing, larval urochordates and cephalochordates
have a notochord, vertebrates have bone or cartilage skeleton
Movement: Urochordates are sessile as adults, cephalochordates swim by myomeres
pulling against the notochord, vetebrates have appendages like wings, fins, arms, legs.
 SUBPHYLUM UROCHORDATA
Adult saclike, with a protective
test/tunic,made of tunicin fibers.
Notochord & nerve cord present only in tail
region of larva. Adults lack notochord & have a
single ganglion in place of dorsal nerve cord.
Tunic encloses a basket-like pharynx
perforated by gill slits. Most filter feed via an
incurrent siphon & “squirt” water out an
excurrent siphon after water has been filtered.
Presence of endostyle. Seawater is drawn into a
filter bag of mucus,produced inside the pharynx
by a gland endostyle. During feeding, this gland
continuously secretes mucus into oesophagus,
together with food particles that it has filtered
from the seawater, & the food is passed to the
stomach for digestion.
Retrogressive metamorphosis: Sessile as adults,
but motile during larval stages. After
metamorphosis, tail, notochord, dorsal nerve
cord, disappear.. Larva free-swimming, but non-
feeding, adult sessile filter feeder.
 SUBPHYLUM UROCHORDATA
Egs:Clavelina sp, Ciona sp, Ascidia sp, Salpa sp,
Doliolum sp.

Echinoderm theory:
Garstang was of the opinion that
chordates were evolved from the
auricularia larva of
Echinodermata.
The chordates are closely related
to the echinoderms and
hemichordates. It is evident by
the following resemblances.
 SUBPHYLUM CEPHALOCHORDATA

Exclusively marine animals.Notochord

present throughout life – extends into head
region.
Body fish like with both ends pointed.
Live in shallow marine waters as filter
feeders. Pharynx large with many gill slits.
Tail with blocks of muscles-myotomes.
Inside of the oral hood is lined with cilia -
wheel organ.
Water & suspended food particles pass
through the oral hood, equipped with
projections called cirri that strain larger
particles.
These cilia, plus cilia in the pharynx help
generate a water current.
Feed by secreting a mucous net across the
gill slits to filter out food particles that are
present in the water.
Adults resemble tunicate larva.
Eg: lancelet (Amphioxus sp/ Branchiostoma
sp)
 SUBPHYLUM VERTEBRATA
Chordates with a vertebral column (backbone).
Notochord replaced by a cartilaginous/bony vertebral
column either partly or wholly in the adult.
Nerve cord differentiated into brain & spinal cord in
adult.
Cranium & Cephalization (Craniates). Brain usually
encased in a skull, made of hard bone or a cartilage.
Closed circulatory system with a well developed
ventral muscular heart. Muscles attached to the
skeleton to provide movement.
 Complete digestive tract; often have a muscular
perforated pharynx.

Superclass: Agnatha
Slimy skin with no plates or scales. Body elongated,
eel shaped.
Notochord usually persists in adult.Absence of true
jaws & paired appendages.Larval stage resembles
lancelet.
Egs: lamprey (Petromyzon sp) – parasitic
bloodsuckers (with rasping tongue), hagfish (Myxine
sp) – mainly scavengers.
Superclass: Gnathostomata
Presence of true jaws & paired fins or limbs (paired appendages).Notochord replaced
by vertebral column.
CLASS CHONDRICHTHYES
Cartilaginous fishes; flexible endoskeleton made of cartilage.
Thick placoid scales. 5-7 gills; gill openings as many slits;
spiracle present. Heterocercal tail.Skull far simpler than it is
among the bony fishes.
Rear part of digestive tract modified into so-called spiral valve.
Fertilization internal.Males have a pair of pelvic claspers.
Egs: sharks (Scoliodon sp),
rays (Trygon sp), & skates (Raja sp)

CLASS OSTEICHTHYES
Endoskeleton made of hard calcium phosphate
matrix; Stream-lined; laterally compressed body.
Cycloid & ctenoid scales. Bony operculum cover
gill slits- protective flap. Swim bladder-controls
buoyancy.Fins flexible & supported by visible
spines and rays.
Egs: carp (Labeo sp), catfish, sturgeons, sea
horse.
 CLASS AMPHIBIA

Dual life-transition to land – still tied to water for

respiration & reproduction.
Skin soft, glandular (mucoid secretion), without scales.
Respiration - lungs, gills or cutaneous.
Heart 3 chambered-2 auricles,1 ventricle.
Excretion through opisthonephric kidneys & urea as the
primary nitrogenous waste. Ectothermic with a low
metabolic rate.
External or internal fertilisation; Gills  lungs
(metamorphosis);Tadpole is aquatic herbivore with fishlike
tail & internal gills; during metamorphosis, gills & tail are
resorbed & walking legs develop.

Order Gymnophiona or Apoda (caecilians)

Elongated limb-less worm-like amphibians. Skin glands
produce mucous-cutaneous respiration. Reduced eyes due
to subterranean lifestyle. Annuli (primary grooves): dermal
folds overlaying myomeres. Have internal fertilization.
Eg: Ichthyophis sp
Order Caudata or Urodela
Tailed amphibians.Usually 4 legs; front legs have 4
digits & hind legs have 5 digits. Paedomorphosis
(retention of juvenile characteristics in adult form)
common.
Salamanders, newts. Eg: Ambystoma sp, Necturus
sp, Triton sp.

Order Anura or Salientia (frogs & toads)

Tail absent. Long hind limbs, shortened body, webbed feet.Good
vision with nictitating membranes.Males have better developed
vocal chords in larynx than females. External fertilization; tadpoles
herbivorous while adults carnivorous.
Eg: Rana sp, Bufo sp.
 CLASS REPTILIA

Skin rough & dry with epidermal scales or plates; scales of keratin, waterproof skin -
prevent dehydration.Lungs for gas exchange; Heart 3 chambered or incompletely 4
chambered. No feathers.
Amniotes- Amnion Present during embryonic development, shelled amniotic eggs
(Cleidoic egg) require internal fertilization; extra-embryonic membranes function in gas
exchange, waste storage & transfer of nutrients.
 Cold-blooded – ectotherms; do not use metabolism to regulate body temperature.
Reptiles are able to survive on about 10% of calories required by mammals.
Pentadactyl limbs & digits with claws.

Subclass Anapsida: Roof of skull complete, no

temporal fossae.
Order Chelonia: Aquatic & terrestrial reptiles.Rigid
body shell comprising a dorsal carapace & a ventral
plastron, into which most species draw head & legs
for protection. Head, limbs & tail covered by
scales.Jaws horny without teeth.Quadrate immovable.
Egs: turtles, terrapins and tortoises-Trionyx sp,
Chelone sp.
 Subclass Lepidosauria: Temporal region of skull
with 2 pairs; of temporal fossae.
Order Rhynchocephalia: Nocturnal, burrowing,
sluggish. Sphenodon sp– Tuataras (living fossil)
Order Squamata: Quadrate movable on either
side;mouth can open widely. Highly mobile jaws
(Cranial kinesis); Periodic moulting. Teeth fused with
jaw bones.
 Egs: Lizards (Calotes sp, Varanus sp, Heloderma
sp), snakes (Naja sp, Python sp)

Subclass Archosauria: Largest living reptiles.

Order Crocodilia:
Heavy cylindrical body armoured with bony plates.
Elongated snout with nostrils at the tip of the snout, webbed toes,
powerful tail. Predatory forms. Quadrate immovable. Heart completely 4
chambered.
Egs: crocodiles (Crocodilus sp), gharials, alligators (Alligator sp).
 SUBPHYLUM VERTEBRATA
CLASS AVES

Body streamlined, covered with feathers- feathers provide

insulation.
Forelimbs modified into wings.Body skeleton light and pneumatic
& fit for flight. Beak present without teeth-for weight
reduction.Breastbone with keel or carina – permitting flight.
Endothermic (warm blooded vertebrates), use metabolic energy
to generate heat.
Efficient respiratory system present.Airsacs.
 Heart 4 chambered with 2 auricles & 2 ventricles; efficient
circulatory system supports high rate of metabolism necessary for
flying.
 Acute vision; large brain allows complex behavior.
Archeopteryx is an example of a Mesozoic bird that shows
reptilian featuresa Jurassic bird-reptile.

Few flightless birds-Ratites: wings vestigial, Flat sternum, poorly

developed pectoral muscles. Egs: ostrich, kiwi, emu.
Flying birds-Carinates:keeled sternum with well developed
pectoral muscles. Egs: jays, sparrows, pigeons (Columba livia) ,
parrots, cranes, ducks.
 CLASS MAMMALIA

Presence of mammary glands. Body hair (keratin) &

subcutaneous fat retain metabolic heat. 3 middle ear bones
(malleus, incus, stapes).
Active metabolism, endothermic, efficient respiration,
diaphragm. Efficient circulation- four-chambered heart.
Tooth differentiation-for efficient eating.
Most embryos develop in a uterus. In placental mammals,
lining of uterus & extraembryonic membranes form the
placenta. Large brains, long period of parental care,ability
to learn.
Subclass Prototheria: Monotremes (egg-laying mammals)
Subclass Eutheria
Infraclass Metatheria: Marsupials (Metatherian mammals)
Infraclass Eutheria: Placental mammals (Eutherian mammals)

Monotremes: Lay eggs, milk oozes from skin (no nipples); Aquatic predators on
arthropods and worms. Electroreception. Ear bones shift from lower jaw to skull
during embryonic development. Cloaca present. Eg: Platypuses (Ornithorhynchus
sp) & echidnas or spiny anteaters (Tachyglossus sp).
Metatherian mammals: Born & crawl into mother’s pouch, embryonic development
completed in marsupial pouch. Marsupium- Fold of skin protecting nipples. Eg:
kangaroo, opossum, Tasmanian devil, Koalas.
Eutherian mammals: Long pregnancy with embryonic attachment to mother in
uterus via placenta. So mothers nourish their young internally with a placenta.
Placentals give birth to offspring that are more "adult" like & independent. Different
types of teeth; Considerable capacity for learning & behavioral flexibility. Egs: Rattus
rattus (Rat), Homo sapiens (Man).
Some major orders of Placental mammals
Order SireniaAquatic herbivores; have finlike forelimbs & no hindlimbs.
Eg: Sea cows (manatees).
Order Cetacea  marine forms with fish shaped body; paddle like fore
limbs & no hind limbs; thick layer of insulating blubber. Egs: whale, dolphin,
porpoise
Order Edentata (Cingulata)Have reduced or no teeth; Egs: Sloths,
armadillos.
Order ProboscideaLong, muscular trunk; thick, loose skin; upper incisors
elongated as tusks. Eg: elephants
Order RodentiaHave chisel-like continuously growing incisors.Egs:
squirrel, beaver, rat, porcupine, mice.
Order LagomorphaHave chisel-like incisors; hindlegs longer than forelegs
& adapted for running & jumping.Egs: rabbit, hare, pika.
Some major orders of Placental mammals
Order Perrisodactyla Hooves with odd number of toes on
each foot; herbivorous. Eg: horse, zebra, tapir, rhinoceros.
Order Artiodactyl Have hooves with even number of toes on
foot; herbivorous. Egs: sheep, pig, cattle, deer, giraffe.
Order ChiropteraAdapted for flight; have a broad skinfold that
extends from elongated fingers to body & legs. Eg: Bats.
Order CarnivoraCarnivorous; with sharp & pointed canine
teeth & molars for shearing. Egs: dog, wolf, fox, cat, bear, seal,
otter, walrus.
Order InsectivoraInsect eating mammals. Egs: some moles (star-
nosed mole), some shrews.
Order PrimatesOpposable thumb for grasping; forward facing eyes;
well developed cerebral cortex, complex social behavior; omnivorous.
Egs: lemur, monkey, ape, human.