CHAPTER TWO

2.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF ELECTRIC MOTORS AND GENERATORS

2.1.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Electromagnetic or magnetic induction is the production of an electromotive force (Emf) across

an electrical conductor in a changing magnetic field. This is a phenomenon in which a changing
magnetic field creates a voltage in a nearby conductor. It is the fundamental principle that
underlies all electric motors and generators (Ulaby and Fawwaz, 2007). Michael Faraday is
generally credited with the discovery of induction in 1831, and James Clerk Maxwell
mathematically described it as Faraday's law of induction. Lenz's law describes the direction of
the induced field. Faraday's law was later generalized to become the Maxwell– Faraday equation,
one of the four Maxwell equations in his theory of electromagnetism. The most famous example
of electromagnetic induction is the Faraday's Law experiment. In this experiment, Michael
Faraday discovered that a changing magnetic field could induce a voltage in a nearby conductor.
This discovery laid the foundation for the field of electricity and magnetism (Giancoli and
Douglas, 1998).

In Faraday’s Law experiment, Faraday used a simple setup consisting of a coil of wire, a magnet,
and a galvanometer. The coil of wire was placed next to the magnet, and the galvanometer was
connected to the coil. Electromagnetic induction was discovered by Michael Faraday, published
in 1831 (Feynman et al., 2006). It was discovered independently by Joseph Henry in 1832.
(Feynman et al., 2006). In Faraday's first experimental demonstration (August 29, 1831), he
wrapped two wires around opposite sides of an iron ring or "torus" (an arrangement similar to a
modern toroidal transformer). Based on his understanding of electromagnets, he expected that,
when current started to flow in one wire, a sort of wave would travel through the ring and cause
some electrical effect on the opposite side. He plugged one wire into a galvanometer, and
watched it as he connected the other wire to a battery. He saw a transient current, which he called
a "wave of electricity", when he connected the wire to the battery and another when he
disconnected it (Tipler and Mosca, 2003). This induction was due to the change in magnetic flux
that occurred when the battery was connected and disconnected (Schmitt, 2002). Within two
months, Faraday found several other manifestations of electromagnetic induction. For example,
he saw transient currents when he quickly slid a bar magnet in and out of a coil of wires, and he
generated a steady (DC) current by rotating a copper disk near the bar magnet with a sliding
electrical lead ("Faraday's disk"). Faraday explained electromagnetic induction using a concept
he called lines of force. However, scientists at the time widely rejected his theoretical ideas,
mainly because they were not formulated mathematically. An exception was James Clerk
Maxwell, who used Faraday's ideas as the basis of his quantitative electromagnetic theory
(Fedosin and Sergey, 2019). In Maxwell's model, the time varying aspect of electromagnetic
induction is expressed as a differential equation, which Oliver Heaviside referred to as Faraday's
law even though it is slightly different from Faraday's original formulation and does not describe
motional emf (Fedosin and Sergey, 2019).

Fig.2.1.1 Faraday's experiment showing induction between coils of wire.

The liquid battery (right) provides a current that flows through the small coil (A), creating a
magnetic field. When the coils are stationary, no current is induced. But when the small coil is
moved in or out of the large coil (B), the magnetic flux through the large coil changes, inducing a
current which is detected by the galvanometer (G)

When Faraday moved the magnet near the coil, he observed that the galvanometer registered a

change in voltage. This showed that the changing magnetic field had induced a voltage in the coil

of wire. This experiment led to the development of the first electric motors and generators. In

1834 Heinrich Lenz formulated the law named after him to describe the "flux through the
circuit". Lenz's law gives the direction of the induced emf and current resulting from

electromagnetic induction (Giancoli and Douglas, 1998).

From this experiment, Faraday developed two laws of electromagnetic induction.

a. The first law is known as Faraday's Law of Induction; This law states that the
magnitude of the induced voltage is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic
flux. Faraday's law of induction (or simply Faraday's law) is a law of electromagnetism
predicting how a magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an
electromotive force (emf). This phenomenon, known as electromagnetic induction, is the
fundamental operating principle of transformers, inductors, and many types of electric
motors, generators and solenoids (Giancoli and Douglas, 1998). Faraday's law of
induction makes use of the magnetic flux ΦB through a region of space enclosed by a
wire loop. The magnetic flux is defined by a surface integral (Giancoli and Douglas,
1998).

Where dA is an element of the surface Σ enclosed by the wire loop, B is the magnetic
field. The dot product B·dA corresponds to an infinitesimal amount of magnetic flux. In
more visual terms, the magnetic flux through the wire loop is proportional to the number
of magnetic field lines that pass through the loop (Harrington and Roger, 2003).
When the flux through the surface changes, Faraday's law of induction says that the wire
loop acquires an electromotive force (emf). The most widespread version of this law
states that the induced electromotive force in any closed circuit is equal to the rate of
change of the magnetic flux enclosed by the circuit (Harrington and Roger, 2003).
 Where is the emf and ΦB is the magnetic flux. The direction of the electromotive force is
given by Lenz's law which states that an induced current will flow in the direction that
will oppose the change which produced it (Yehuda Salu, 2014). This is due to the
negative sign in the previous equation. To increase the generated emf, a common
approach is to exploit flux linkage by creating a tightly wound coil of wire, composed of
N identical turns, each with the same magnetic flux going through them. The resulting
emf is then N times that of one single wire (Yehuda Salu, 2014).

b. The second law is known as Lenz's Law; This law states that the direction of the induced

current is such that it produces a magnetic field that opposes the change in the magnetic

flux (Hayt and William, 1989).

It is these two laws that cause the rotor to spin.

2.1.1.1 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

i. Electrical Generators: Electromagnetic induction forms the cornerstone of electrical

generators, converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. In a generator, a rotating

coil within a magnetic field induces an alternating current (AC) by cutting through

magnetic flux lines, powering countless electrical systems and devices.

ii. Transformers: Transformers harness electromagnetic induction to step up or step down

alternating voltages, facilitating efficient power transmission and distribution. By

inducing voltage across primary and secondary coils through mutual inductance,

transformers enable voltage regulation and impedance matching in electrical grids.

iii. Induction Cooktops: Induction cooktops leverage electromagnetic induction to generate

heat directly in ferromagnetic cookware. By inducing eddy currents in the cookware

through alternating magnetic fields, induction cooktops offer rapid and precise heating

while minimizing energy wastage.

 iv. Wireless Charging: Wireless charging technologies, such as inductive charging pads for

smartphones and electric vehicles, exploit electromagnetic induction to transmit power

without physical contact. By inducing an alternating magnetic field in the charging pad,

energy is transferred wirelessly to the receiving device equipped with a compatible coil.

2.1.2 ELECTRIC MOTOR

An electric motor has two main parts: a stator and a rotor. The stator is the outer part of the motor,

and it has coils of wire wrapped around it. The rotor is the inner part, and it has a shaft that spins.

The stator is connected to a power source, which causes a current to flow through the coils. This

creates a magnetic field around the stator (Fedosin and Sergey, 2019).

Fig.2.1.2 Diagram of an Electric Rotor

The rotor is placed inside the magnetic field, and it starts to spin because of the interaction

between the magnetic field and the current in the rotor. The spinning rotor has a property called

"induced current" that causes it to resist changes in the magnetic field around it. This is called

"electromagnetic induction". The interaction between the induced current and the magnetic field

creates a force that pushes the rotor around. This force is called "torque". As the rotor spins, it

turns the shaft of the motor, which can then be used to power something like a fan or a car engine.

2.1.3 CONCEPT OF BACK EMF

Back EMF, or "counter electromotive force", is the voltage that is induced in the rotor as it spins.

The back EMF works against the applied voltage, and this creates a torque that causes the rotor to

spin. The magnitude of the back EMF is determined by the speed of the rotor. The faster the rotor

spins, the higher the back EMF. This is why electric motors spin at a constant speed. The speed of

the rotor is controlled by the applied voltage. If the applied voltage is increased, the speed of the

rotor will increase. If the applied voltage is decreased, the speed of the rotor will decrease. The

back EMF produces a force that opposes the rotation of the rotor. However, this force also creates

a torque that spins the rotor. The torque produced by the back EMF is called "counter torque". The

counter torque and the torque from the applied voltage are equal and opposite. This means that the

net torque on the rotor is zero. However, there is still a net force on the rotor, which causes it to

spin. This is called "rotational motion". The power of an electric motor is equal to the product of

the torque and the speed of the rotor. Since the torque and speed are related through the back

EMF, this means that the power of the motor is also related to the back EMF. The power of the

motor is proportional to the square of the back EMF. This is why electric motors have a very high

power-to-weight ratio.

2.2 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF ELECTRIC GENERATOR

Electric generators work by converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. The generator

has a rotor, which is a rotating shaft surrounded by a stator. The rotor is connected to a source of

mechanical energy, such as a steam turbine or a water turbine.

Fig.2.2 Working principle of an Electric Generator

As the rotor rotates, it creates a rotating magnetic field. The rotating magnetic field then interacts

with the stator to produce a voltage in the stator windings. This voltage is then sent to a

transformer, which converts it into a usable form of electricity. This voltage is called the

"generated voltage". The generated voltage is proportional to the speed of the rotor, the rotating

magnetic field. This induced voltage is then sent to a load, like a light-bulb or a motor. The load

consumes the energy, which causes the rotor to slow down.

2.2.1 TYPES OF ELECTRIC GENERATOR

The different types are; Synchronous generators and Induction generators

 i. Synchrous Generators: are the most common type of generator used in large-scale
power generation. These generators have a rotor that is connected to a synchronous
machine, which keeps the rotor in sync with the frequency of the power grid.
ii. Induction Generators: are used in small-scale power generation, such as wind turbines
and solar panels. These generators do not have a synchronous machine, so the rotor speed
is not as critical.

2.2.2 GENERATOR WITH TWO POLES ON THE ROTOR

Let us imagine a generator with two poles on the rotor. As the rotor spins, it produces a changing
magnetic field. The changing magnetic field induces a voltage in the stator windings, and the
frequency of this voltage is equal to the speed of the rotor divided by two. So, if the rotor spins at
1,800 revolutions per minute (rpm), the frequency of the voltage is 90 hertz (Hz). To change the
frequency of the voltage, you can either change the speed of the rotor or the number of poles on
the rotor. Generators with two poles in the rotor, also known as two-pole generators, are a
common type of synchronous generator used in various applications, including power
generation, industrial processes, and renewable energy systems. Here's an explanation of how
these generators work:

Fig.2.2.2 Two-pole generator

 i. Basic Principle: Two-pole generators operate based on the principle of electromagnetic

induction. When the rotor, which contains a magnet or an electromagnet, rotates within

the stator's magnetic field, it induces an alternating current (AC) in the stator windings.

ii. Rotor Configuration: In a two-pole generator, the rotor typically consists of a central

shaft with two magnetic poles attached at opposite ends. These poles may be permanent

magnets or electromagnets, depending on the generator's design and application.

iii. Stator Configuration: The stator is the stationary part of the generator and consists of a

core made of laminated steel sheets and multiple coils of wire wound around it. The stator

windings are connected to the external electrical load or grid.

iv. Magnetic Field Generation: When the rotor rotates, the magnetic poles create a magnetic

field that interacts with the stator windings. As the rotor turns, the magnetic field

alternately strengthens and weakens, inducing an alternating voltage in the stator

windings.

v. AC Generation: As the rotor spins, the changing magnetic field induces an alternating

current (AC) in the stator windings according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic

induction. The frequency of the generated AC voltage is proportional to the rotor's

rotational speed and the number of magnetic poles.

vi. Voltage Regulation: The output voltage of a two-pole generator can be regulated by

controlling the rotor's speed or by adjusting the excitation current supplied to the rotor's

electromagnets. This allows for precise control of the generated voltage to match the

requirements of the connected load or grid.

Two-pole generators are commonly used in applications where high rotational speeds are

required, such as gas turbines, steam turbines, and some types of wind turbines (Fedosin and

Sergey, 2019). Their compact size and high power density make them suitable for various power
generation and industrial applications. Two-pole generators offer advantages such as high

efficiency, compact size, and relatively simple construction. They are well-suited for applications

requiring high-speed operation and rapid response to load changes. In summary, generators with

two poles in the rotor operate on the principle of electromagnetic induction to generate alternating

current (AC) electricity. They are widely used in various applications due to their efficiency ,

compact size, and suitability for high-speed operation (Fedosin and Sergey, 2019).

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 ALTERNATING CURRENT AND DIRECT CURRENT

Alternating Current (AC) is an electric current which periodically reverses direction and changes

its magnitude continuously with time, in contrast to direct current (DC) which flows only in one

direction. Alternating current is the form in which electrical power is delivered to businesses and

residences and it is a form of electrical energy that consumers typically use when they plug

kitchen appliances, television, fans and electrical lamps into wall socket (Fedosin and Sergey,

2019). Unusual wave form of alternating current in most electric power circuits is a sine wave,

whose positive half-period corresponds with positive direction of the current and vice versa (the

full period is called a cycle).In certain applications, like, guitars, amplifiers, different wave forms

are used, such as triangular waves or square waves. Audio and radio signals carried on electrical

wires are also examples of alternating current (Davison, 1973). These types of alternating current

carry information such as sound (audio) or images (video) sometimes carried by modulation no

fan AC carrier signal. These currents typically alternate at higher frequencies than those used in

power transmission.
3.1 TRANSMISSION, DISTRIBUTION AND DOMESTIC POWER SUPPLY
Electrical energy is distributed as alternating current because Ac voltage may be increased or
decreased with a transformer. This allows the power to be transmitted through power lines
efficiently at high voltage, which reduces the energy lost as heat due to resistance of the wire,
and transformed to a lower, safer voltage for use. Use of a higher voltage leads to significantly
more efficient transmission of power (Davison, 1973). The power losses in the wire are a product
of the square of the current (I) and the resistance (R) of the wire, described by the formula, this
means that when transmitting a fixed power on a given wire, if the current is halved (i.e. the
voltage is doubled), the power loss due to the wire's resistance will be reduced to one quarter
(Clerk et al., 2004).

The power transmitted is equal to the product of the current and the voltage (assuming no phase
difference); that is, consequently, power transmitted at a higher voltage requires less loss-
producing current than for the same power at a lower voltage. Power is often transmitted at
hundreds of kilovolts on pylons and transformed down to tens of kilovolts to be transmitted on
lower level lines, and finally transformed down to 100 V – 240 V for domestic use (Clerk et al.,
2004).

3.2 ELECTRIC GENERATOR

 Fig.3.2 Note the water flows in and makes the turbine spin the generator. The generator then
creates electricity for the grid

Electric generators are used to transform mechanical or kinetic energy to electric potential
difference, also known as voltage. There are several power generation applications that require
the use of electric generators (Clerk et al., 2004). The first electric generators created direct
current (DC), but later were replaced with the cheaper, more efficient alternating current. Almost
all power plants use (Ac) generators, the exception is photovoltaic cells. Electric generators get
their kinetic energy from a fuel (like natural gas) or a primary energy flow (like hydropower or
wind).One particular kind of generator that runs off of diesel is the diesel generator these are
often useful in remote areas like Canada's far North, for the Yukon power grid. The figure above
shows how a fluid would turn a shaft which in then turns the electric generator.

3.2.1 TYPES OF ELECTRIC GENERATOR

i. AC Generator
ii. DC Generator
iii. Electrostatic Generator
3.2.1.1 AC GENERATOR

AC generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The AC
Generator’s input supply is mechanical energy supplied by steam turbines, gas turbines and
combustion engines. The output is alternating electrical power in the form of alternating voltage
and current. AC generators work on the principle of Faraday Law of Electromagnetic Induction
which states that electromotive force – EMF or voltage – is generated in a current-carrying
conductor that cuts a uniform magnetic field. This can either be achieved by rotating a
conducting coil in a static magnetic field or rotating the magnetic field containing the stationary
conductor. The preferred arrangement is to keep the coil stationary because it is easier to draw
induced alternating current from a stationary armature coil than from a rotating coil (Griffiths
and David, 2017).

Fig.3.2.1.1 AC Generator parts and Function

i. Field: The field consists of coils of conductors that receive a voltage from the source and
produce magnetic flux. The magnetic flux in the field cuts the armature to produce a
voltage. This voltage is the output voltage of the AC generator.
ii. Armature: The part of an AC generator in which the voltage is produced is known as an
armature. This component primarily consists of coils of wire that are large enough to
carry the full-load current of the generator.
 iii. Prime Mover: The component used to drive the AC generator is known as a prime
mover. The prime mover could either be a diesel engine, a steam turbine, or a motor.
iv. Rotor: The rotating component of the generator is known as a rotor. The generator’s
prime mover drives the rotor.
v. Stator: The stator is the stationary part of an AC generator. The stator core comprises a
lamination of steel alloys or magnetic iron to minimize the eddy current losses.
vi. Slip Rings: are electrical connections used to transfer power to and fro from the rotor of
an AC generator. They are typically designed to conduct the flow of current from a
stationary device to a rotating one.

3.2.1.1.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF AN AC GENERATOR

When the armature rotates between the poles of the magnet upon an axis perpendicular to the
magnetic field, the flux linkage of the armature changes continuously. As a result, an electric
current flows through the galvanometer and the slip rings and brushes. The galvanometer swings
between positive and negative values. This indicates that there is an alternating current flowing
through the galvanometer. The direction of the induced current can be identified using Fleming’s
Right-Hand Rule (Griffiths and David, 2017).

A. TYPES OF AC GENERATOR BASED ON THE APPLICATION

AC generators can be categorized in many ways based on their applications, designs, or parts of
them. Various types of AC generators based on the applications include:

i. Diesel-electric locomotive alternators – they are used in locomotives that need electric
and mechanical power at the same time.
ii. Brushless alternators – they are used in electrical power plants as the main source of
power.
iii. Radio alternators – they are used for transmission of low band radio frequency.
iv. Automotive alternators – they are used in modern automobiles for generating electric
power.
 v. Marine alternators – they are used in marine

B. TYPES OF AC GENERATOR BASED ON SPEED

Alternators can be categorized based on the speed of rotation as the design of the system can
vary based on the applications. The salient Pole Type is for low speed, and Smooth Cylindrical
Type is designed for high-speed rotation as the application demands (Griffiths and David, 1999).

i. Salient Pole Type

These kinds of alternators are used for low or medium-speed applications. This AC generator has
many poles with the bolted core to the heavy magnetic wheel, which is built from good magnetic
quality steel or casted iron. They are known for their large diameter and short axial length and
look like a wheel. Low-speed turbines such as hydel power plants are using these alternators.
The summary of the salient pole type specification are: Poles are projecting.

 They don’t have a uniform air gap.

 They have a large diameter and small axial length.

 They are mechanically weak and work at lower speeds.

 Another name for this type is the projected pole type.

 They are preferred to be used at high speeds ranging from 125 to 500 RPM.

 There have separate damper windings.

ii. Smooth Cylindrical Type

The steam turbine rotates at high speed, and as a result, it needs a high-speed generator for its
conversion. The rotor is a smooth forged steel cylinder with a certain number of slots placed in
intervals along with the field coils’ outer edge (Harrington and Roger, 2003). They are designed
with 2 or 4 poles for 3600 and 1800 rpm, respectively. The summary of the smooth cylindrical
type specification are:

• There do not have separate damper windings.

• They are preferred to be used at high speeds ranging from 1500 to 300 RPM.

• Another name for this alternator is non-salient or non-projected.

• They use mechanically strong prime movers, the same as steam turbines.

• They have a small diameter and long axial length.

• Poles are non-projecting.

C. TYPES OF AC GENERATORS BASED ON THE NUMBER OF PHASES

Generally, AC generators can be classified as single-phase ([/katex] 1\varphi[/katex] ) and three

phases ([/katex] 3\varphi[/katex] ), and the only difference between them is the number of the
armatures used in the generators. The basis of the operation is the same in these two types, while
the three phases have more consistent voltage and include wye-connection or delta-connection.

i. Single-phase AC generators

Every rotation in rotors provides a current cycle in the single-phase alternators, and the output is
a single sinusoidal current or voltage (Harrington and Roger, 2003).

We can Define position A as the 0 degrees and the beginning position, and clockwise as the
rotation direction. In this position, there is no voltage or current due to the angle of the surface
motion and the magnetic field and not cutting the magnetic field by the armature.

By rotation of the armature from A to B, the armature cuts across the magnetic lines and
produces current in the circuit. The current increases in the sinusoidal form to the maximum
value at 90 degrees, and a quarter of the one complete cycle is complete.
Rotation from B to C and D and finally E, which is the same angle as the A (360 and 0 degrees),
completes one period, and each one is a quarter of the cycle. Current reaches its minimum by the
rotation of -180 to 90 in the displacement B to D and two-quarters of the cycle (Hayt, 1999).

3.2.1.2 DC GENERATOR

A DC generator is an electrical machine whose main function is to convert mechanical energy

into electricity. When the conductor slashes magnetic flux, an emf will be generated based on the
electromagnetic induction principle of Faraday’s Laws. This electromotive force can cause a
flow of current when the conductor circuit is closed (Hayt, 1999).

3.2.1.2.1 PARTS OF A DC GENERATOR

Fig. 3.2.1.2.1 A DC Generator

 i. Stator: The main function of the stator is to provide magnetic fields where the coil spins.
A stator includes two magnets with opposite polarities facing each other. These magnets
are located to fit in the region of the rotor (Hayt, 1999).
ii. Rotor: A rotor in a DC machine includes slotted iron laminations with slots that are
stacked to shape a cylindrical armature core. The function of the lamination is to decrease
the loss caused due to eddy current.
iii. Armature Windings: The armature core slots are primarily utilized to hold the armature
windings. To increase the quantity of produced current, they are connected in series to
parallel in the form of a closed-circuit winding. The armature winding, a unique
configuration of conductors, is regarded as the brain or centre of a DC generator.
Armature windings can be either lap winding or wave winding, depending on the type of
connections.
iv. Bearings: A system uses bearings to provide smooth movement of the different parts of
the DC machine. The friction between the machine’s spinning and stationary components
is reduced with the help of bearings. As a result, the system’s components don’t require
constant lubrication and will last longer. Roller bearings and ball bearings are the two
most prevalent types of bearings used in a dc generator (Hughes and Young, 2005).

v. Yoke: The external structure of the DC generator is known as Yoke. It is made of either
cast iron or steel. It provides the necessary mechanical power for carrying the magnetic
flux given through the poles.
vi. Poles: The function of a pole is to hold the field windings. These windings are wound on
poles and are either connected in series or parallel by the armature windings.
vii. Pole Shoe: Pole shoe is mainly utilized for spreading the magnetic flux to prevent the
field coil from falling.
viii. Commutator: A commutator works like a rectifier that changes AC voltage to DC
voltage within the armature winding. It is designed with a copper segment, and each
copper segment is protected from the other with the help of mica sheets. It is located on
the shaft of the machine.
ix. Brushes: The electrical connections can be ensured between the commutator as well as
the exterior load circuit with the help of brushes (Hughes and Young, 2005).
 x. Shaft: In a DC machine, the shaft is a mechanical component that causes rotation by
producing torque. It has a maximum breaking strength and is made of mild steel. The
shaft is one of the components of a DC generator that aids in the generator’s ability to
transfer mechanical energy. The commutator, cooling fan, armature centre, and other
rotating components are keyed into the shaft (Jordan and Balmain, 2008).

3.2.1.2.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A DC GENERATOR

An electromagnetic field (emf) is induced in a current-carrying conductor when it is put in a

changing magnetic field according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction and Fleming’s
right-hand rule states that as the conductor’s direction of motion alters, so does the direction of
the induced current.

The induced current will flow along the closed path of the conductor when the situation is
provided. The armature conductors are spun into the electromagnetic field created by the field
coils in a DC generator. As a result, the conductors in the armature produce an electro
magnetically induced emf (Jordan and Balmain, 2008).

a. EMF EQUATION OF A DC GENERATOR

Let’s assume that a generator has Z total conductors that are designed so that all parallel routes
are always in series. Hence, the equation for induced EMF in a DC generator is given as;

Where,

Z represents the total number of conductors

A stands for the number of parallel paths

P is the number of poles in the generator

Z/A = number of serially connected conductors

N represents the rotation of armature in r.p.m

N/60 = number of turns per second

e= induced emf of the DC generator

 b. TYPES OF DC GENERATOR

Based on how the field is excited, DC generators can be divided into three basic types: self-
excited, separately excited, and permanent magnet generators (Jordan and Balmain, 2008).

Fig. 3.2.1.2.2 Types of DC Generator

i. PERMANENT MAGNET DC GENERATORS

The most fundamental type of generator is a permanent magnet DC generator, which uses
permanent magnets to produce flux in the magnetic circuit. One or more permanent magnets are
positioned around an armature. The design of the generator and power output is limited due to
which this kind is not used in industrial applications. Similar to the dynamos in bikes, permanent
magnet DC generators are frequently utilized in small applications (Lenz and Emil, 2014).

The amount of voltage produced when the wire cuts the magnetic lines of force depends on the
wireloops and rotational speed of the field. Additionally, the angle between the magnetic flux
and the moving surface affects how much voltage is present. The voltage varies with each loop’s
rotation from zero to its maximum amount as a function of angle, creating an absolute amount of
sinusoidal voltage. The voltage becomes constant at its greatest value as the number of loops at
various angles increases (Lenz and Emil, 2014).

Fig. 3.2.1.2.2 Permanent Magnet DC Generator

The induced voltage can be calculated as;

Vind = Blv

Where,

Vind = induced voltage

v = velocity of the conductor

l = length of the conductor

B = flux density in

ii. SEPARATELY EXCITED DC GENERATOR

In this type of DC generator, field magnets are powered by an external DC source, such as a
battery. A higher EMF and voltage in the output can be produced as the rotation speed rises.

Fig. 3.2.1.2.2 Separately Excited DC Generator

iii. SELF-EXCITED GENERATORS

Field magnets in self-excited DC generators are powered by their own internal current, and the
field coils are internally coupled to the armature. Due to the residual magnetism, there is flux in
the poles all the time (Nave, 2011). A small amount of current is generated as the armature
rotates, and this current travels through the field coils with the load to strengthen the pole flux.
The current and EMF rise as a result of increasing the pole flux, and the accumulative process
continues until the excitation is required. Based on the field coils and their placement, self-
excited DC generators are divided into the following categories:

 Shunt Wound Generators

 Compound Wound Generators
 Series SWound Generators

3.2.1.2.3 USES OF DC GENERATOR

The applications of DC generators are wide-ranged according to their types and properties:
  Separately Excited DC generators are frequently used for testing purposes in
laboratories due to their capacity to output a wide range of voltage. They function in a
stable condition with any fluctuation in field excitation. They are also employed as a
supply source for Dc motors whose speeds need to be controlled for a variety of
applications because of this feature (Nave, 2011).

 Due to their tendency to lose voltage, shunt generators have a relatively limited
range of applications. They are employed to provide electricity to the equipment that is
placed extremely close to its location. With the aid of field regulators, these types of DC
generators often provide constant terminal voltage for short-distance operation from no
load to full load.

 Shunt generators serve as generic lighting sources and are used to charge
batteries.

 Self-Excited shunt generators are employed to provide the alternators with

stimulation. They also serve as modest power supplies. Because of its ability to maintain
a steady voltage, cumulative compound wound generators are frequently used for
illumination, power supply, and heavy power services. A motor can also be driven by
cumulative compound wound generators (Tipler and Mosca, 2004).

 The flat compounded generators are typically used for short-distance operations,
such as providing electricity to hotels, offices, houses, and lodges.

 Due to its significant demagnetization armature reaction, differential compound

wound generators are employed for arc welding when a significant voltage drop and
consistent current are required (Tipler and Mosca, 2004).

3.2.1.3 ELECTRO STATIC GENERATORS

An electrostatic generator is a device that generates static electricity by converting mechanical

work into electrical energy. These generators have been around for centuries and have played a
crucial role in the development of early electrical machines (Tipler and Mosca, 2004). The
working principle of an electrostatic generator and the various types that exist will be considered
in this research work.

3.2.1.3.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF ELECTROSTATIC GENERATORS

Electrostatic generators work on the principle of electrostatic induction and charge separation.
The device uses friction or other means to create a charge imbalance between two objects, which
in turn leads to the generation of an electric field (Yehuda Salu, 2014). When a conductive object
is brought close to the charged object, the electric field induces a charge on the conductor. The
conductor is then separated from the charged object, leaving it with a net charge. This process is
repeated multiple times to accumulate a high voltage in the system.

3.2.1.3.2 TYPES OF ELECTROSTATIC GENERATORS

1. Friction-Based Generators: These generators rely on the friction between two

materials to create a charge imbalance. Examples include the earliest electrostatic
generators, such as the triboelectric generator and the Wimshurst machine (Yehuda Salu,
2014).

2. Influence Machines: Influence machines use electrostatic induction to generate

electricity. The most famous example of this type of generator is the Van de Graaff
generator, which consists of a large hollow metallic sphere mounted on an insulating
column (Whelan and Hodgeson, 1978). A motor-driven belt carries charge from a high-
voltage source to the sphere, accumulating a significant charge on the sphere’s surface.

3. Electrophorus: The electrophorus is a simple device that uses electrostatic

induction to produce high voltages. It consists of a metal plate and an insulating handle.
When the plate is brought into contact with a charged object, the electric field induces a
charge on the plate, which can then be discharged by touching a grounded conductor
(Whelan and Hodgeson, 1978).
3.2.1.3.3 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROSTATIC GENERATORS

i. Education and Demonstrations: Electrostatic generators, such as the Van de Graaff

generator and Wimshurst machine, are commonly used in science classrooms and
demonstrations to teach students about the principles of electricity and electrostatics.
ii. Research: High voltage electrostatic generators have been used in various scientific
research applications, including particle acceleration, electrostatic precipitation, and
studies on the electrical properties of materials (Ulaby and Fawwaz, 2007).
iii. Industry: Electrostatic generators are used in industry for various applications, such as
electrostatic painting and powder coating, where charged particles are attracted to a
grounded object for a more even and efficient application of paint or coating (Ulaby and
Fawwaz, 2007).

3.3 CONCLUSION

Electromagnetic induction stands as a cornerstone of modern technology, weaving its way

through diverse applications and shaping the fabric of our interconnected world. From the
humble beginnings of Faraday's experiments to the sophisticated systems powering our digital
age, its legacy endures as a testament to the ingenuity of scientific inquiry and human
innovation. As we continue to unlock its mysteries and harness its potential, the journey of
electromagnetic induction unfolds, paving the way for a future illuminated by boundless
possibilities. Electric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy, while electric
generators convert mechanical energy into electrical energy, both relying on the principles of
electromagnetism.
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