Chapter-I Introduction to Design of Steel Structures

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

1. INTRODUCTION
Structural steel is a material used for steel construction, which is formed with a specific shape following
certain standards of chemical composition and strength. They can also be defined as hot rolled products,
with a cross section of special form like angles, channels and beams/joints. There has been an
increasing demand for structural steel for construction purposes in all over the world.

Fig -1 Structural members of building

Steel has always been more preferred to concrete because steel offers better tension and compression
thus resulting in lighter construction.
This material has been exhaustively used in various constructions because of its various specific
characteristics that are very much ideally suited for construction. Structural steel is durable and can be
well moulded to give the desired shape to give an ultimate look to the structure that has been
constructed

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1.1 APPLICATION OF STEEL

i) Framework or Skeleton Systems having their main elements beams, trusses and columns etc.
- Industrial building
- Civil Multistory buildings
- Railway, Highway and Urban large-span bridges
- Special structures like towers, mast, cranes, hydraulic engineering structures, etc.
ii) Shell Systems
- Tanks and reservoirs for storage of liquids
- Gasholders and tanks for storage and distribution of gases
- Bunkers for the storage of loose materials

1.2 TYPES OF STEEL DEPEND ON INGREDIENT

Structural steels used for construction purpose are generally grouped into several major classifications:

1.2.1 Carbon Steels

In addition to iron, the main ingredients of this category of steels are carbon (maximum content = 1.7%)
and manganese (maximum content = 1.65%), with a small amount (< 0.6%) of silicon and copper.
Depending on the amount of carbon content, different types of carbon steels can be identified:

Low carbon steel => carbon content < 0.15%

Mild carbon steel => carbon content varies from 0.15 to 0.29%

Medium carbon steel =>carbon content 0.30 to 0.59%

High carbon steel =>carbon content 0.60 to 1.70%

1.2.2 High Strength Low Alloy Steels

These steels possess enhanced strength as a result of the presence of one or more alloying agents such -
as chromium, copper, nickel, silicon, vanadium, and others in addition to the basic elements of iron,
carbon, and manganese. Normally, the total quantity of all the alloying (composition of two or more
metallic element) elements is below 5% of the total composition. These steels generally have higher
corrosion-resistant capability than carbon steels.
1.2.3 Corrosion-Resistant High Strength Low Alloy Steels

These steels have enhanced corrosion-resistant capability because of the addition of copper as an
alloying element. Corrosion is severely retarded when a layer of patina (an oxidized metallic film) is
formed on the steel surfaces. The process of oxidation normally takes place within 1 to 3 years and is
signified by a distinct appearance of a deep reddish-brown to black coloration of the steel. For the

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process to take place, the steel must be subjected to a series of wetting-drying cycles. These steels,
especially are used primarily for bridges and transmission towers (in lieu of galvanized steel) where
members are difficult to access for periodic painting.

1.2.4 Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steels

Quenching refers to heating steel to below a critical temperature, holding that temperature and then
rapidly cooling it in a desirable medium such as air water or oil to obtain desired hardness property

Tempering refers to heating steel above critical temperature, then cooling it rapidly to freez it in a very
hard state followed by rewarming it to an intermediate temperature to give a hardness suitable for the
job intended.

The quantities of alloying elements used in these steels are in excess of those used in carbon and low
alloy steels. In addition, they are heat treated by quenching and tempering to enhance their strengths.
These steels do not exhibit well-defined yield points. Their yield stresses are determined by the 0.2%
offset strain method. These steels, despite their enhanced strength, have reduced ductility

1.3 Mechanical properties of steel

1.3.1 Material Properties

Steel possess Strength, Stiffness, Toughness, Ductility and fatigue that are important in the modern
constructions.

Strength: Is the ability of a material to resist stresses. It is measured in terms of the material’s yield
strength , and ultimate or tensile strength, Fu. There steel grades are used according to CES 3, 2015.

Yield strength of steel is taken as 250 MPa and ultimate strength is taken as 400 MPa and Most of the
structural steel falls into the mild carbon steel or simply mild steel (MS) category.

Stiffness: Is the ability of a material to resist deformation. It is measured as the slope of the material’s
stress-strain curve. It is seen that the modulus of elasticity, E, does not vary appreciably for the different
steel grades and vary from 185-230 GPa Therefore, a value of 210 GPa is often used for design.

Toughness: Is the ability of a material to absorb energy before failure. It is measured as the area under
the material’s stress-strain curve.

Ductility: Is the ability of a material to undergo large inelastic, or plastic, deformation before failure. It
is measured in terms of percent elongation or percent reduction in area of the specimen tested in
uniaxial tension. Ductility generally decreases with increasing steel strength. The ability of

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structural steel to deform considerably before failure by fracture allows an indeterminate structure to
undergo stress redistribution. Ductility also enhances the energy absorption characteristic of the
structure, which is extremely important in seismic design.

Fatigue: - The material shall have sufficient fracture toughness to avoid brittle fracture at the lowest
service temperature expected to occur within the intended life of the structure. It is also a progressive,
localized permanent damage under fluctuating repeated stress from CES 152: ES-3 of page no: 30.

Mechanical Properties of steel (Design values of material coefficients)

 Modulus of Elasticity E = 210 000 N/mm2

 Shear modulus G = 81000 N/mm2
 Poison’s ratio ν = 0.3
 Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion α = 12x10-6 per K (for T ≤ 1000C)
Take: 12x10-6 per K for calculation
 Density of Steel ρ = 7850 kg/m3

From the above can conclude structure and structural steel should have adequate strength, stiffness and
toughness to ensure proper functioning during service life. Brittle failure is to be avoided as it will
imply a sudden loss of load carrying capacity when elastic limit is exceeded.

1.3.2 Member Behavior (Stress-Strain Behavior of Structural Steel):

Typical stress-strain curve for structural steel is shown in Fig. 1.2 .It is based on the application of
tensile forces to a test specimen. The engineering stress-strain curve can be divided into four regions:
Elastic region, inelastic or plastic region, strain hardening and necking and failure.

Proportional Limit: The Proportional Limit is the maximum stress at which stress and strain remain
directly proportional. The proportional limit is determined from the stress-strain diagram by drawing a
straight-line tangent to the curve at the origin and noting the first deviation of the curve from linearity.
Because the proportional limit depends on the precision of the measurement instrument it is not widely
used in engineering calculations.

Elastic Region
The Elastic Limit is the maximum stress that the material can withstand without causing permanent
deformation. An exact determination of the elastic limit requires loading to successively higher stresses
followed by unloading and measurements to detect permanent deformation. Its actual value is, like the
proportional limit, dependent on instrument precision. Due to this and the difficulty in its determination,
its’ engineering usefulness is limited.

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Inelastic Region
Once the material is reached yield stress ( ) the material no longer behaves elastically, even complete
removal of the load will leave some permanent deformation to a specimen. In this region the steel
deforms plastically under a constant stress .During this phase plastic flow of the material is taking
place, the extent of which is a measure of ductility of the material. Ductility implies a large capacity for
inelastic deformation without rupture. Generally ductility decreases with increasing steel strength.

The ability of structural steel to deform considerably before failure or fracture allows the structure to
undergo force redistribution when yielding occurs and it enhance the energy absorption characteristic of
the structure

Fig 1.2 Stress Strain Curve for Structural Steel

Strain Hardening
Following yielding, additional load may be applied which results in a stress-strain curve that
continuously rises up to ultimate tensile strength indicating that the material is becoming stronger.
When loaded beyond the yield point, ductile materials plastically deform and are subjected to cold
working; this is referred to as Strain Hardening. In this range, the material’s elastic region increases, but
its’ ductility decreases.

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Necking and Fracture

When a specimen is loaded beyond its’ ultimate strength the cross-sectional area begins to decrease in a
localized region instead of over its' entire length creating a so-called "neck" which rapidly forms in this
region as the specimen elongates. Since the cross-sectional area within this region is continually
decreasing, the localized stress rapidly increases causing further localized elongation up to rupture.
Three types of structural steels are listed by EBCS3.The yield stress of these steel ranges from 235Mpa
to 355Mpa .As seen from table 1.1, the yield stress of a given grade of steel is not a constant. It varies
with plate thickness, very thick structural shapes and plates have reduced yield stresses.

Table 1 Samples of Nominal values of yield strength fy and ultimate tensile strength fu for hot rolled
structural steel (reference to the CES 152, 2015 pp 27 table 3.1)

Nominal thickness of the element t[mm]

Nominal Steel t  40mm 40mm  80mm
Grade
fy(Mpa) fu(Mpa) fy(Mpa) fu(Mpa)
ES EN 10025-2
S 235 235 360 215 340
S 355 355 490 335 490
S 450 440 550 410 550

1.4 Type of Structural steel depend on shapes:

Steel sections used for construction are available in a variety of shapes and sizes. In general, there are
two procedures by which steel shapes can be formed: hot-rolled and cold-formed. All steel shapes
must be manufactured to meet international standards.

1.4.1 Hot Rolled Steel:- Hot rolling is a mill process which involves rolling the steel at a high
temperature (typically at a temperature over 1700° F), which is above the steel’s recrystallization
temperature. When steel is above the recrystallization temperature, it can be shaped and formed easily,
and the steel can be made in much larger sizes. Hot rolled steel is typically cheaper than cold rolled
steel due to the fact that it is often manufactured without any delays in the process, and therefore the
reheating of the steel is not required (as it is with cold rolled). When the steel cools off it will shrink
slightly thus giving less control on the size and shape of the finished product when compared to cold
rolled.

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Formation of Hot
Rolled Section

Fig 1.3 Hot Rolled Sections

1.4.2 Cold rolled steel: - Is essentially hot rolled steel that has had further processing. The steel is
processed further in cold reduction mills, where the material is cooled (at room temperature) followed
by annealing and/or tempers rolling. This process will produce steel with closer dimensional tolerances
and a wider range of surface finishes. The term Cold Rolled is mistakenly used on all products, when
actually the product name refers to the rolling of flat rolled sheet and coil products.

Fig 1.4 cold Rolled Sections

According to the yield strength and ductility point of view hot rolled steel sections have high strength
and more life span. Whereas cold formed steel sections are light gauge sections used where thicker
hot-rolled sections become uneconomical especially in small buildings subjected to lighter loads.
These are produced from steel strips generally not thicker than 8mm.

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Structural steel has high yield strength. Structural steel has been classified by the CES 152: ES 3 based
on its ultimate or yield strength. Structural steel is obtained by adding small quantities of carbon during
the manufacturing process of iron.

The Compulsory Ethiopian standards (CES 2015: ES 3) standardized structural steel to be used in steel
structures. The latest Ethiopian standard in this regard is Hot rolled low, medium and high tensile
structural steel of steel grades S 235, S 355, S 450. The thickness of the members of these grades varies
from 40mm-80mm.

Steel sections may be classified based on shape: A structural steel can be a rolled shape or can be built-
up from two or more rolled shapes or plates connected by welds or bolts. The more economical rolled
shapes are utilized whenever possible. However, special condition (such as the need for heavier
members or particular cross-sectional geometries) may dictate the use of built up members.

Rolled Sections

Hot rolled sections are produced in steel mills from steel billets by passing them through a serious of
rolls. The main sections are shown in fig.1.5

Compound sections

Compound sections are formed by Strengthen a rolled section such as universal beam by welding on
cover plates. Combining two separate rolled sections, as in the case of the crane girder connecting two
members together to form a strong combined member compound sections.

Classification Based on shape

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Fig 1.5 Typical rolled steel sections

1.4.3 Built-up Sections:
Build-up sections are made by welding plates together to form I, H or Box members which are termed
plate girders, built-up column box girders or columns, respectively. These members are used where
heavy loads have to be carried and in the case of plate and box girders where long spans may be
required. See fig.1.6.

Fig`1.6: Welding plates together to form I, H or Box to Form embers Compound Section

1.5 TYPE OF STEEL STRUCTURES MEMBERS:

Steel, as a building material has been used extensively in various type of structures. Steel structures are
the rigid body connected sections having high load bearing capacity used in civil Engineering
Constructions like High rise buildings, industrial buildings, transmission towers, Railway bridges, Sport
Stadiums, some commercial buildings.

One storey steel building is constructed with planar frames shown in the figure 1.11 as principal frame
elements known as bents. The spacing between bents is known as bay. Multi storey steel buildings may
be constructed shown in fig 1.8 with the plane frames which may be braced or unbraced. In an
unbraced frame the joints transfer both shear, bending moment, whereas in a braced frame the
joints transfer only the shear.

Therefore it is seen that a steel structure consists of structural members connected together so as to form
rigid frame work. The connections are made using welding/bolting. The various structural members in a
steel structure may be classified as:

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 Tension members.
 Compression members.
 Flexural (Beam) members.
 Connections.
 Beam-columns.
 Bracings/Brackets.

Fig 11: One-story plane frames

Fig 12: Un-Braced frame

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Fig 13: Braced frame

Fig 14: Type of steel structure (suspension bridge used for long spans to reduce more column
members)

Structural members can be classified as tension or compression members, beams, beam-columns,

torsion members or plates according to the method by which they transmit the forces in the structures as
shown in fig1.9.

1.6 Loads acting on structures

A structure is designed to carry certain loads so as to serve the intended purpose. A steel structure may
have to be designed primarily to Dead load, Imposed (live) load, Wind load, Seismic loads
(earthquake) load.

Dead Load: Dead load means the self-weight of the structure or it components. This depends on the
unit weight of materials used in the structure and the dimensions of the structure or its components.
This is obtained by multiplying the volume of the structure or its components with the unit
weight.EBCS-1 gives the unit weights of various materials used in construction. Factor of safety 1.3 is
considered

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Live Loads: This is the load due to intended use or occupancy which may be stationary or moving. In
buildings, it includes the weight of the occupants, the various things and materials kept on the floors. In
bridges, it includes vehicular loads on the roads or rail, weight of snow, pressure of liquids on vessels,
Dynamic force due to wind and earthquake, forces due to temperature change. EBCS-1 gives live loads
on roofs.. Factor of safety 1.6 is considered

Wind Loads: A load acts normal to the exposed surface of the structure which is known as wind load.
Resultant wind pressure on body depends upon pattern of flow around it. Pressure vary from point to
point on surface, which depends on shape and size of body. This is an important load on light weight
structures, high rise buildings, towers and bridges. EBCS-1 specifies the wind loads to be considered
for buildings and structures.

Seismic (Earthquake) Loads: When an earthquake occurs, inertia forces mainly in the horizontal
direction act on the structures. These are calculated as per EBCS-8.

1.7 Methods of Structural Analysis and Design Philosophy:

1.7.1. Structural Analysis

The internal forces and moments in a statically determinate structure shall be determined using
statics. The internal forces and moments in a statically indeterminate structure may generally be
determined using either

1) Elastic Global analysis.

2) Plastic Global analysis.

1. Elastic global analysis may be used in all cases.

Elastic global analysis shall be based on the assumption that the stress-strain behavior of the material is
linear, whatever the stress level.

This assumption may be maintained for both first-order and second order elastic analysis, even where
the resistance of a cross- section is based on its plastic resistance.

Following a first-order elastic analysis, the calculated bending moments may modified by redistribution
up to 15% of the peak calculated moments in any member, provided that:

i. The internal forces and moments in the frame remain in equilibrium with the applied loads,
ii. All the members in which the moments are reduced have class1 or class 2.

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2. Plastic Global analysis: - Plastic global analysis may be utilized in the global analysis of structures
of their elements provided that the steel complies with the following requirements

i) The ration of the specified minimum ultimate tensile strength fu to the specified minimum yield

strength fy satisfies .

ii) The elongation at failure on a gauge length of 5.6 (Where is the original cross section area) is
not less than 15%

iii) The stress-strain diagram should show the ultimate strain εu is at least 20 times the yield strain εy.

Plastic global analysis may be carried out using either

i. Rigid - plastic method or
ii. Elastic- plastic methods

When plastic global analysis is used, lateral restraint shall be provided at all plastic hinge locations at
which plastic hinge rotation may occur under any load case.

The restraint should be provided within a distance along the member from the theoretical plastic hinge
location not exceeding half the depth of the member

Rigid -plastic methods should not be used for second - order analysis.

In rigid -plastic analysis elastic deformation of the members and the foundations are neglected and
plastic deformations are assumed to be concentrated at plastic hinge locations.

1.7.2 DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES

Three Design methods evolved in practice

1. Allowable Stress Design (ASD)

2. Plastic Design

3. Limit State Design

1. Allowable Stress Design:

A member is selected that under expected loads, known as service loads the stress will not exceed a
certain permitted or allowable stress. Structures are analyzed by elastic theory and sections are sized so

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that the permissible stresses are not exceeded. An elastic analysis does not give information about
the loads that will actually collapse a structure.

Allowable stress = (Yield stress) / (Factor of safety)

2. Plastic Design method

Plastic analysis is the method through which the actual failure load of a structure is calculated.
Plastic design is a special case of limited state design; where in the limit state for strength is the
achievement of plastic moment strength. Plastic moment strength is the moment strength where all
fibers of the cross sections are at yield point.

3. Limit State Design (LSD)

A structure or part of a structure, is considered unfit for use when it exceeds a particular state is called
as limit state. A general statement assuming safety in engineering design

Resistance of material ≥ Effect of applied loads -------- (1)

In above equation it is essential that both sides are evaluated for same conditions for example: if effect
of load is to produce compressive stress on soil, then it should be compared with bearing capacity of
soil. When particular loading reaches its limit. Failure is the assumed result, i.e. the loading condition
becomes failure modes, such a condition is referred to as limit state and it can be defined as " A limit
state is a condition beyond which a structural system or a structural component ceases to fulfill the
function for which it is designed"

Examples of limit states for structural girders (heavy beams) includes

1. Deflection 6. Torsion

2. Cracking 7. Buckling

3. Fatigue 8. Settlement

4. Flexure 9. Bearing

5. Shear 10. Stability

Two main group of limit state exist:

3.1 The Ultimate Limit State (ULS) or strength of Limit state: Are those associated with collapse or
other forms of structural failure which may endanger the safety of people. States prior to structural
collapse which for simplicity, are considered in place of the collapse itself are also treated as ultimate
limit states.

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The collapse may be due either loss of equilibrium of a part or the whole of structure. Failure by
excessive deformation, or stability, or to fail by rupture of structural or any part or the whole of
structure The Ultimate Limit State includes Flexure, shear, Torsion.

3.2 The Serviceability Limit State (SLS): Corresponds to states beyond which specified service
requirements are no longer met. This is reached when the structure, which remaining safe, becomes
unfit for everyday due to phenomenon such as excessive deformation, cracking or vibration.

The partial safety factor shall be taken as follows

Resistance of class 1, 2 or 3 cross section

Resistance of net section at bolts

1.8 ADVANTAGE AND DIS ADVANTAGE OF STEEL

Advantages:

1. High strength:- resist high loads

2. Easy Transportation:-b/se of size and weight
3. Easy Fabrication, Erection and Replacement
4. Elasticity: Obey Hooke’s law up to high values of stress
5. Ductility- ability to undergo large deformation before fracture
6. Uniformity:- Properties and Shapes
7. Scrap Value:- at the end of its useful life has scrap value
8. Gas or Water tightness: - due to high density and improved welding process etc.

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Disadvantage

1. High cost of Construction compared to R.C. Structures

2. High Maintenance cost:- expose to water and air corrodes which requires periodic painting
3. Poor fire proofing:- Strength of steel reduce at high temperature
4. Buckling:- Because of slender size fail due to buckling rather than lack of strength

Terminology

Read Assignment!

1.9 STEEL MANUFACTURING AND FABRICATION

The term steel refers to a family of iron–carbon alloys characterized by well-defined percentage ratios
of main individual components. Specifically, iron–carbon alloys are identified by the carbon (C)
content, as follows:

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Three substances are needed to enable to extraction of iron from its ore. The combined mixture is
called the charge:
► Iron ore, haematite - often contains sand with iron oxide, Fe2O3
► Limestone (calcium carbonate).
► Coke - mainly carbon
Carbonization of COKE:
► Well graded coal is selected
► Heated or carbonized to COKE
► Heated coal is cooled
► And proper COKE are fed into the Blast furnace for the farther process

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