Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Noise Emission
Noise Emission
se/publications
Published 2006
Författare: Uppdragsgivare:
Mikael Ögren VTI
Titel:
Bulleremission från spårburen trafik
I Europa önskar man öka andelen gods och personer som transporteras på järnväg i förhållande till
väg och om det lyckas så kommer problemet med buller från spårburen trafik att öka. Det är sedan
tidigare känt att åtgärder direkt på källan är effektivare än indirekta åtgärder som byggnation av
bullerskärmar eller byte av fönsterglas i bostäder, även om dessa åtgärder också har en viktig funk-
tion. Denna rapport är en litteraturöversikt över hur bullret genereras och hur olika åtgärder vid källan
kan minska bulleremissionen. Rapporten beskriver också kortfattat vilka gränsvärden och regler för
bulleremissionen som gäller nu och kommer att gälla den närmaste framtiden inom EU. Dessutom
diskuteras de beräkningsmodeller som används för att beräkna ljudnivån i olika mottagarpositioner
(immissionen) utifrån de olika spårfordonens emission.
Nyckelord:
Tågbuller, bulleremission, bulleråtgärder
ISSN: Språk: Antal sidor:
0347–6030 Engelska 37
Publisher: Publication:
VTI rapport 559A
Published: Project code: Dnr:
2006 12 547 2005/0574-24
SE-581 95 Linköping
Project:
Noise emission from railway traffic
Author: Sponsor:
Mikael Ögren VTI
Title:
Noise emission from railway traffic
European authorities hope to be able to increase the volume of freight and passengers that are trans-
ported on railway systems compared to those transported on roads. If that policy is successful the
problem of noise from railway traffic will increase. It is known from previous research that measures
against the noise are more efficient if applied directly at the source itself rather than using indirect
measures such as noise barriers and increased window insulation. This report is a literature survey on
how the railway noise is generated, and to what extent different measures at the source can reduce the
noise emission. The report also briefly describes what limits and recommendations on noise exposure
are enforced now and in the near future. Furthermore the methods used for calculating the noise level
at different receiver positions (noise exposure) from the noise emission are discussed.
Keywords:
Railway noise, noise emission, noise measures
ISSN: Language: No. of pages:
0347–6030 English 37
Preface
This project started in September 2005, and has been funded by VTI.
Mikael Ögren
Kvalitetsgranskning
Granskningsseminarium genomfört den 12 december 2005 där Krister Larsson (SP Sveriges
Provnings- och Forskningsinstitut) var lektör. Mikael Ögren har genomfört justeringar
av slutligt rapportmanus. Projektledarens närmaste chef Lennart Folkeson har därefter
granskat och godkänt publikationen för publicering den 26 oktober 2006.
Table of contents
List of figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
List of tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Sammanfattning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1 Railway noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2 Annoyance and health effects of railway noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3 Scope of this report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2 Noise sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1 Rolling noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2 Wheel/rail roughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 Curve squeal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4 Aerodynamic and secondary sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3 Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.1 Addressing the source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2 Wheel/rail measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3 Summary of reduction potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4 Determining rail vehicle noise emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.1 Sound power and sound pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.2 Maximum and equivalent level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.3 ISO 3095 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.4 TWINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5 European limits, targets and calculation methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.1 Noise emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.2 Noise exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.3 Standardised calculation methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.1 Increasing traffic volumes and noise exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.2 Rail access charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.3 Who is responsible for the rolling noise? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
List of figures
2.1 Sketch of wheel-rail interaction and the track including sleepers and pads. . 14
2.2 Power flow from the contact patch that connects wheel and rail. . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Illustration of the effect of wheel rotation on the mechanical waves in
the wheel propagating away from the contact patch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 Typical track structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.5 Sketch of the mechanical components of the track in the vertical direction. 17
2.6 Examples of calculated modes on a rail. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.7 Sketch of wheel-rail interaction and the track including sleepers and pads. . 18
2.8 Rail roughness amplitude and wavelength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.1 Noise emission vs. exposure and sound power level Lw vs. sound pres-
sure level L p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.2 Illustration of sources on a train that contribute to the maximum sound
pressure level at different distances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.3 Sound pressure level as a function of time during train passage. . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.4 Flow chart of the TWINS model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
by Mikael Ögren
VTI (Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute)
SE-581 95 Linköping
Summary
European authorities hope to be able to increase the volume of freight and passengers
that are transported on railway systems compared to those transported on roads. If that
policy is successful the problem of noise from railway traffic will increase. It is know
from previous research that measures against the noise are more efficient if applied di-
rectly at the source itself rather than using indirect measures such as noise barriers and
increased window insulation. This report is a literature survey on how the railway noise
is generated, and to what extend different measures at the source can reduce the noise
emission. The report also briefly describes what limits and recommendations on noise
exposure are enforced now and in the near future. Furthermore the noise propagation
methods used for calculating the noise level at different receiver positions (noise expo-
sure) from the noise emission are discussed.
av Mikael Ögren
VTI
SE-581 95
Sammanfattning
Både gods- och persontransporter väntas öka inom järnvägssektorn. Förhoppningen från
det Europeiska järnvägsforskningsrådet (ERRAC) är att passagerar- och godsvolymerna
skall tredubblas fram till 2020. Om detta besannas kommer problemen med buller från
järnvägstrafik att stadigt öka i framtiden.
Det är välkänt att det är effektivast att åtgärda bullret vid källan, dvs att angripa ljudet
som strålar ut från hjul och räl snarare än att bygga bullerskärmar eller öka fasadiso-
leringen hos närliggande bostäder. Denna rapport är en kunskapsöversikt över olika sätt
att angripa bullret direkt vid källan, t.ex. via vibrationsdämpare och slipning av hjul och
räl. De grundläggande processerna hur ljudet genereras och utbreds gås också igenom,
samt hur dessa modelleras exempelvis i mjukvaran TWINS, som har utvecklats inom ett
flertal europeiska forskningsprojekt på området. En viktig slutsats är att både rälen och
fordonen bidrar till det utstrålade ljudet, vilket innebär att ansvaret för bullret inte vilar
enbart på Banverket eller tågoperatören, utan på båda.
Rapporten beskriver också förhållandet mellan riktvärden för bullernivån hos boende
i närheten (immissionen) och för den källstryka som varje fordon representerar (emis-
sionen). I Sverige finns inga riktvärden för emissionen annat än de som gäller för hela
EU via de så kallade TSI-dokumenten, som anger de specifikationer som järnvägsfordon
måste uppfylla för att få trafikera det gemensamma europeiska järnvägsnätet. För im-
missionen däremot finns klara riktvärden, vilket skapar en obalans i hur åtgärder för
att minska bullret sätts in. Eftersom få eller inga krav ställs på fordonen återstår en-
dast att bygga bullerskärmar, öka fasadisoleringen på befintliga bostäder eller att planera
bansträckningen så att få boende blir berörda.
70
Air
Road
Rail
60
50
Highly annoyed [%]
40
30
20
10
0
45 50 55 60 65 70 75
LDEN [dB]
Figure 1.1 Polynomial approximation of percentage of subjects highly annoyed by
transportation noise. From [5].
Chapter 2 focuses on the source mechanisms such as rolling noise, aerodynamic noise
and curve squeal.
Chapter 3 is a review of different noise abating measures such as screening, silent
brake pads and rail grinding. The reduction potential for different measures are
summarised in a table based on several references.
Chapter 4 describes how to determine the noise emission strength of a rail vehicle us-
ing measurements with the recently updated standard ISO 3095. The maximum
and equivalent levels are explained and the quantities sound power and sound
pressure are discussed.
Chapter 5 discusses the limits and targets for noise from railway traffic used in coun-
tries within the European Union. The different metrics are also explained and dis-
cussed together with the calculation methods used to predict the noise level today,
and the future calculation method Harmonoise is presented.
Chapter 6 summarises the report and discusses the noise emission challenges faced
by the rail industry and society as a whole due to the expected growth in railway
traffic volumes in the future.
11
00
00
11 11
00
00
11 11
00
00
11
00
11 00
11 00
11
Figure 2.1 Sketch of wheel-rail interaction and the track including sleepers and pads.
The mechanical power flow through the system can be described by the simple flowchart
in Fig. 2.2 The power is generated by the forces on the contact patch, and via the vi-
bration patterns of the wheel, rail and sleepers it can propagate away as ground waves,
radiate as sound or be dissipated as heat.
Figure 2.2 Power flow from the contact patch that connects wheel and rail.
Figure 2.3 Illustration of the effect of wheel rotation on the mechanical waves in the
wheel propagating away from the contact patch.
Rail
11
00 11
00
00
11 00
11
00
11 00
11 Pad
Sleeper
Ballast
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
Inert ground
Figure 2.4 Typical track structure.
At very low frequencies the track is very stiff in the vertical direction. The first reso-
nance corresponds to the mass of the entire track and the stiffness of the ballast. The
second resonance is typically slightly higher in frequency and involves the stiffness of
the pads and the mass of the rail and the sleepers, where the rail and the sleepers are
moving in anti-phase. The resonance frequencies can of course vary a lot depending
on the rail mass, pad stiffness and other factors, but typical values for a modern rail on
concrete sleepers are around 100 Hz for the first and 500 Hz for the second resonance.
Between those resonances there is an anti resonance where the track acts like a tuned ab-
sorber. At frequencies higher than the second resonance the rail is essentially decoupled
from the sleepers by the resilient pads. The mechanical system can be seen as a number
of masses and springs acting in the vertical direction as in Fig. 2.5. Note that the damp-
ing is not included in this simple representation.
The bending and longitudinal waves that travel along the length of the rail are filtered by
the complex structure of the periodically spaced sleepers. Waves at some frequencies are
heavily damped, while others travel along the track relatively unhindered. The important
factor for the radiated sound is the damping as an average over a frequency band, often
expressed as the damping ratio per metre (dB/m). Fig. 2.6 shows a few of the vibration
patterns that can propagate along the rail.
Pad stiffness
Sleeper mass
Ballast stiffness
111111
000000
Figure 2.5 Sketch of the mechanical components of the track in the vertical direction.
At low frequencies the rail together with the sleepers are dominating the sound radia-
tion. The wheel has a smaller radiating area and has few modes at low frequencies. In
the mid-frequency range the sleepers become uncoupled from the rail and the rail is
the dominating source. At high frequencies the wheel is the dominant source since the
damping is lower than in the rail. As noted above the damping in the wheel is deter-
mined by the damping introduced by the contact with the rail, i.e. the damping in the
rail.
Figure 2.7 Sketch of wheel-rail interaction and the track including sleepers and pads.
suring the height with a sensitive displacement sensor1 along the wheel or rail surface
gives a roughness profile. Taking the Fourier transform of the profile will yield a rough-
ness spectrum; a decomposition of the profile into amplitudes at different length scales.
Length scale
Wavelength
Amplitude
Depending on the speed of the train a certain length scale will cause vibrations of differ-
ent frequencies according to
f = v/λ, (2.1)
where f is the frequency in Hz, v the train speed in m/s and λ the length scale or wave-
length in metres. In [11, ch.1] it is stated that the length scales important for noise radia-
tion are between 5 and 200 mm, with amplitudes from 1 µm upwards.
One important effect of the size of the contact patch is what is known as the contact
filter. For roughness lengths that are shorter than the size of the contact patch (about
15 mm) the excitation is less than expected due to the averaging effect of the patch. This
acts like a low-pass filter on the roughness when seen as an input signal into the system.
In Fig. 2.7 the roughness is illustrated in a two dimensional manner, but in the real case
the problem is three dimensional. The wheel and the rail are rough not only in the di-
rection along the rail but also in the lateral direction. If the roughness is random in both
directions there is less excitation than if it is correlated in the lateral direction. This is
important for braking systems that apply brake pads directly on the wheel tread, which
can lead to a correlated roughness profile which is worse than a random profile.
1 Commonly using Laser or LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) technology.
Another approach to reduce the influence of the roughness is to make the contact patch
larger, thereby changing the contact filter effect. This can be achieved by lowering the
stiffness of the tread, but that can be difficult due to increased mechanical stress and
wear.
One important benefit of combining a low barrier with a vehicle mounted screen com-
pared to a standard high barrier is that the low barrier can be stepped on or over when
evacuating a disabled vehicle. A high barrier forms a difficult obstacle when evacuating.
Another benefit is the lower visual barrier effect, both for the passenger (scenery) and
for the housing environment close to the track.
Receiver
Source
Sound pressure level
Sound power level
Lp
111111111
000000000
Lw
000000000
111111111
Figure 4.1 Noise emission vs. exposure and sound power level Lw vs. sound pressure
level L p .
On the other hand the sound power is indirectly specified together with a directivity
when the limit is based on one microphone position at a certain distance. The directiv-
ity would have to be handled in an approach where sound power level is used anyway.
A train that radiates most of its noise upwards will have to be handled in a different way
compared to a train that radiates noise uniformly.
Figure 4.2 Illustration of sources on a train that contribute to the maximum sound
pressure level at different distances.
Determining the maximum level involves more random variations than determining the
equivalent level. The maximum level varies more, and when measuring a number of ve-
hicles, only one single vehicle will determine the maximum level. The equivalent level
will have contributions from all measured vehicles. In the same way the maximum level
is more sensitive to disturbances under the measurement period. A single disturbance
can set the maximum level, but for the equivalent level the disturbance is averaged out as
the number of measured vehicles increases.
departure. On the other hand the single event level SEL is an energy level and would
increase by 3 dB if the train length was doubled. For more details see the definitions
in [24].
The roughness measurements are specified to be carried out in a number of lines de-
pending on the width of the running band (width of the contact patch). These lines must
be at least 1 m long at six positions along the test track. A rail roughness limit spectrum
is given in the report, and a special procedure is defined on how to verify that the track
falls within those limits.
Note that no standardised roughness measurement equipment is readily available, there-
fore the apparatus used must be described in the report for each measurement. The acous-
tical measurement is specified in a simple manner; a type 1 sound level meter is to be
used. For the roughness the acceptable measurement uncertainties and dynamic ranges
needed for the roughness length and amplitude are specified instead.
4.4 TWINS
The Track Wheel Interaction Noise Software (TWINS) is a software that has been de-
veloped, validated and used within a number of European rail research projects [26, 27].
The software uses the finite element method (FEM) to calculate receptances (force to
vibration response functions) of the track and the wheel separately, and then a contact
model and roughness data to couple them together. The contact model is needed since
the receptances do not include the mechanical coupling between the wheel and the rail
as opposed to the geometry and material data of the wheel and rail which are included.
Noise control measures such as damping materials or tuned absorbers can be included,
which are handled by the FEM calculations provided that their material data is available.
The contact model takes care of the coupling between the wheel and rail. It includes
the effect of filtering by the contact patch (see section 2.2), but its main task is to deter-
Emission Exposure
111111111
000000000
000000000
111111111
Unregulated The only available Limits given in legislation
noise control
measure?
Figure 5.1 Illustration of emission and exposure.
For the part of the rolling stock which is international there are limits throughout Europe
based on the Technical Specification of Interoperability (TSI) issued by the European
Commission [19, 29, 30]. This document has been issued for high speed trains and just
recently for regular passenger and freight trains [31]. The limits are expressed as a max-
imum allowable transit exposure level according to ISO 3095 [24] for different speeds.
The limits are also proposed to be lowered after some time to increase the pressure on
vehicle manufacturers and operators to take action.
The same approach of lowering the emission limits is used in the national programmes.
Germany plans to reduce all limits by 8 dB(A) after a ten year period, Italy will lower
the levels by 2 dB(A) in 2012 and Austria has already lowered the limits for freight wag-
ons by 10 dB(A) [25].
There is also a possibility of continuing work on national legislation in Sweden, but
there is a risk that strict legislation will be seen as an obstacle for free trade and inter-
operability.
1 PINA is a research programme aimed at estimating the cost of using infrastructure based on the
marginal cost principle, http://www.vti.se/tek.
2 http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/climat/emission.htm
interoperability
Infrastructure and vehicle compatibility across Europe.
pantograph
The structure on a railway vehicle that contacts the overhead electrical wire.
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