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Conflict management in Traditional African Society

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DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.2731.0563

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 Conflict Management in Traditional African Society

Adeyemi Johnson ADEMOWO, PhD

General Studies Department
Afe Babalola University
Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
yemijohnson@gmail.com

CHAPTER DRAFT

Ki agbado to d'aiye kini kan ni Adiye nje

(Before the discovery of maize, chickens are fed with
something) - Yoruba Proverb

Conflicts and Traditional African Societies

It is imperative that we start this chapter with a caveat, that this work is never
an ‘attempt at glorifying the African past’, (as many critical scholars are likely to
allege); rather, as the opening proverb suggests, it is an attempt at unravelling how
Africans have been dealing with their interpersonal, inter-group and communal
misunderstandings before the advent of 'Whiteman' or foreign conflict management
mechanism.
There is no gainsaying the fact that before the advent of slave trade and
colonialism, African societies had well-established mechanisms for conflict
management, peace-making; peace education, peace building, conflict monitoring and
conflict prevention. These institutions and methods were effective and highly
respected and their decisions binding on all the parties concerned. The methods are
relatively informal and thus, less intimidating. Those who use them are also more at
ease in a familiar environment. The role of the chiefs, elders, family heads, and others
is not only to resolve conflicts but also to anticipate and arrest conflicts. Africans
were also very conscious of the fact that conflict can occur when two or more parties
pursue incompatible interests or goals through actions that the parties try to undo or
damage each other. The parties could be individuals, groups or villages or towns; and
the parties’ interests can differ over access to resources, the control of political or
traditional power, their identity and values or ideology. We doubt if the foregoing
assumptions or facts about conflicts differ from that held by those from the West (the
Europeans and Americans). What is peculiar to the Africans, however, is the place of
the family in the conflict management process.
Among all human societies, the Africans inclusive, the family has been the
oldest social institution. The identity of an individual is linked to that of his or her
family and these families are formed by the acceptance of marriage alliances. Within
the family, in most traditional and modern African societies, there was (is) a strict
hierarchy of authority, according to which the males ruled and held responsibility for
the females (Sofola 1977). Brothers ruled their sisters and sons, even their mothers
when they came of age or succeeded to the inheritance. Women, in most cases, did
not enjoy any ultimate authority or responsibility for the household. The husband (or
in matrilineal, the mother’s brother) was the head of the family and it was clear that
this headship was not a joint headship. When a woman is the head of a family or
social group in a ruling family or where she was permitted to become a chief, it was
largely a question of political-religious symbolism (as in the case of the Reagent), in
which – by a legal fiction a woman was treated as a man. The same was the case in
the custom of marriage by which, in order to start a family, a woman was accorded
the legal status of father towards the children of a wife who had been impregnated by
a concubine. This custom was known among the Neur of Southern Sudan, among the
Simbiti of Tanzania, and is recorded as occurring in the Yagba District of Kwara State
in Nigeria (Shorter 1977).
Families constituted the various communities in Africa. Each community in
Yorubaland, for instance, was divided into quarters (Adugbo in Oyo, Itun in Ijebu and
Idimi among the Ondo people). Each of the quarters is overseen by an important chief
appointed by the Oba and these quarters’ chiefs represent their people on the council
meeting. In addition to the quarter chiefs, there are some traditional chiefs such as the
Balogun (Warlord) and the Otun and Osi Balogun (right and left wing assistants to the
Warlord). Each quarter is broken into compounds or Agbo-Ile whose heads are
referred to as Baale (father of the house). The Baale is usually the oldest male
member of the extended family; he is accorded much respect because of his wisdom,
age and experience (Ayo 2002). The Baale settles disputes within his households,
represents his family on the council of the quarters chiefs. The African village or
settlement usually represented a convergence of loyalties that made for a strong sense
of community. Very often, family ties criss-crossed the village, added to which were
the loyalties of chiefdom and ethnic group, as well as those of professional
associations.
Families and neighbours come together for work and recreation, as well as to
resolve disputes among each other. The neighbourhood court played an invaluable
role in this case, most especially in reconciling disputants, in settling quarrels and in
imposing sanctions (Ademowo & Adekunle 2013). A structure like the modern ten
house-group system (kumikumi) of Tanzania is an interesting canalization and
development of African neighbourhood traditions. The small, roving band of hunter-
gatherers, typified by the Pigmies of Zaire and the Hadza of Tanzania, was, perhaps,
the most egalitarian of traditional African societies. Isolated, continually on the move,
with the minimum of structure, the band of hunters had a continually fluctuating
membership. Loyalties were short term and there was no need for elaborate
mechanisms of reconciliation.
The beginning of slave trade, and later colonialism, however, truncated the
indigenous mechanisms for peace in Africa with the obscurity of the place of the
Kings and traditional chiefs. Colonialism, most importantly, portrayed everything that
is African to be incapable of serving any useful purpose. The result of all these is that
African indigenous peace institutions were destroyed, or where they could not be
destroyed, became weakened to a state of ineffectiveness. Courts were created by the
colonialists to adjudicate cases based on their legal system while the police force was
also raised up to take cases that used to be taken before the African indigenous peace
institutions for amicable settlement. In most cases, these disputes were not properly
resolved because the administration of justice in Africa was, mostly, aimed at
resolving conflicts rather than pronouncing judgments. Emphasis was placed on
reconciliation and restoration of social harmony than on punishment of the conflicting
parties. The administration of justice was also made an open affair where all adults
freely participated. There were no in-camera trials as court sessions as the processes
were held in the open with the parties in conflict being freely cross-examined. Truth
was the object of the delivery of justice. There were also respected (and aged) men or
women, often called ‘Agba’ (elder) or group of elders (Bamikole 2008). The
proverbial and symbolic communicative resources at the disposal of the mediator are
other canons of indigenous conflict management because conflict resolution and
harmonization of thoughts require expertise in the people’s oral tradition, good
reputation, experience and a measure of objectivity on the part of the reconcilers
(Ademowo & Balogun 2014; Fayemi 2009). For example, as an illustration, some of
the proverbs often used by the agba (elder) in the process of conflict management,
among the Yorubas, include, among others:
i) Anikan dajo o o seun, anikan dajo o seeyan. Igbati o o go t’enu enikeji, emi l’o
da ‘jo se? (It is a shameful act to either adjudicate or arbitrate on a case on the
basis of the statement of only one party. Why should the verdict be given
when the other disputant is denied?)
ii) Bia banja, bi i k’a kuko (Our being in conflict does not warrant wishing each
other’s death)
iii) K’eni ma binu kinu; ke ni ma baa j’ija kuja. K’eni ma j’ija kuja, k’e ni maba
j’ebi k’ebi (Unnecessary annoyance begets avoidable violent confrontation.
Avoid every slightest violent confrontation to prevent slightest culpability).
iv) Ore kinya ore, ajose ni n diku (There is no permanent hostility in friendship;
only that there is limitation in affective association)
v) Are maja kan kosi, a ja mare kan kosi (No associates without dispute, no
disputants without the possibility of reconciliation)

Methods in African Traditional Conflict Resolution

The methods of performing conflict resolution in the traditional African
societies, though with variations across the ethnic groups, are:
a. mediation,
b. adjudication,
c. reconciliation,
d. arbitration and
e. negotiation.
The above sometimes also includes employing extra-judicial devices like gods, curse
or charms to persuade or convince the disputants about the implication or otherwise of
their behaviour.

Mediation
Mediation is an old method of conflict management surrounded by secrecy. It
involves non-coercive intervention of the mediators(s), called third party either to
reduce or … go beyond or bring conflict to peaceful settlement. Mediators are sought
from within the communities or societies of the parties concerned. Elders are
respected as trustworthy mediators all over Africa, because of their accumulated
experiences and wisdom (Ajayi & Buhari 2014). The concept of agba (elders) in
Yoruba conflict management system, for example, is a Yoruba socio-political model
for conflict resolution, and it is the third-party that is responsible for effective conflict
resolution in indigenous Yoruba societies. agba (elders) were usually relied upon as
arbitrators and agents of conflict resolution in view of certain qualities possessed by
this category of human beings.
“Agba (elders) are respected individuals identified by age
and other qualities, which mark them out in their families,
communities, nations, regions and the world. To be
identified as an agba (elder), s/he must be fearless person
(alakikanju); s/he must be knowledgeable and wise but
must be someone who gives room for criticisms (ologbon,
oloye, afimo ti elomiran se); s/he must be tolerant
(alamumora); s/he must be upright in all ways (olotito,
olododo); s/he must not be selfish (anikanjopon)
(Bamikole, 2008).

Adjudication
Adjudication involves bringing all disputants in the conflict to a meeting
usually in the chambers or compounds of family heads, quarter heads and palace court
as the case maybe. Dialogue was linked with the ad judicatory processes in traditional
(Olaoba, 2005).

Reconciliation
This was the most significant aspect of conflict resolution. It is the end product
of adjudication. After the disputants have been persuaded to end the dispute, peace
was restored. This restoration of peace and harmony was always anchored on the
principle of give a little and get a little. This idea buttresses the idea of the disputing
parties to give concessions. A feast was usually organized to confirm the readiness of
the conflicting parties towards reaching points of compromise (Olaoba, 2005).

Arbitration
 Arbitration is the least used conflict resolution method in traditional Africa.
The reconciliation function is practiced by an authority figure that mediates between
conflicting parties but is empowered to make binding judgments. The purpose is not
to render a judgment in law but to reconcile the conflicting parties and its norms. The
relationship between the authority and the community is cushioned by community
representatives who advise authority (Ajayi & Buhari 2014).

Negotiation
Negotiation, “the secret is to harmonize the interests of the parties concerned”.
Thus, even when the conflict involves a member against his or her society, there is an
emphasis on recuperation and reinsertion of errant member back into its place in
society. The recovery of a dissident member can just as well be seen as the restoration
of the harmony and integrity of the community, as the assertion of value consensus
and social cohesion, so that the management of the conflict favours the concerns of
both parties (Olaoba, 2005). In traditional Yoruba society, for example, peace was
negotiated. Apology for wrongs done to individuals and the entire community was a
feature of negotiation. Such apology was channelled through the elders, compound
heads and chiefs of high calibre in the society. It is done on the representative level or
quasi-representation.

Institutions for Peace and Conflict Resolution in Africa

Africans place great emphasis on peaceful resolution of disputes so as to
restore social harmony to the conflicting parties, and families, while the principles of
equity and justice entrenched, in their customs and traditions are maintained. Among
many African societies, it was strongly upheld that disputes should be settled
amicable by persuasion rather than the resort of force or coercion (Agbu and
Bolarinwa 2006). This system did not condone killings and violence in resolving
conflict.
Among the Arusha people of Tanzania, there was instituted the Golib Festival,
which was a period for the prohibition of all feuds and hostilities between and within
families, clans and villages as the emphasis was laid on abundant food, harmony,
fecundity, and the common interest of all the people in the community. The Gikuyu
elders of Kenya had it impressed on them that their primary responsibility to their
people was the prevention of conflict between members of their community and the
prevention of violent and deadly conflicts that would involve the use of supernatural
powers, open hostilities bloodshed, and destruction of property. In the communities of
many African countries, the concept of “African Palaver” is widely used to settle
conflicts. However various communities in Africa call it various names. Among the
Kpelle people of Liberia, it is called “House of Palaver” or “moot”. Here, it is an ad
hoc committee or council made up of the kinsmen and neighbours of the parties to a
conflict. Every claim from both parties to the conflict was investigated with honesty,
transparency and at the end of it all, judgment was delivered and all parties involved
shared a drink (Agbu and Bolarinwa 2006).
In Chad, especially among the Toubou society, the assembly in which
conflicts are resolved was called “Cofono”. This is a gathering in which not only the
traditional rulers were involved but customary council members from the
surroundings, all interested men (both young and old), as well as women groups of all
ages (Agbu and Bolarinwa 2006). This is because when there is an outbreak of violent
conflict, the whole clan was involved. So often a hot and exciting debate about the
pros and cons of the conflict, a verdict would be given which was binding on the
parties to the conflict.
In the Beti society located in the capital region of Cameroon, the concept is
known as “adzo” which means “to say or “to talk”. It means the act of talking things
over or the use of dialogue for the settlement of conflict. It usually involves the entire
community. All those who feel concerned are invited to participate in the search for
an amicable settlement of the conflict. It involves three stages: the first stage is the
stage for persuading parties to a conflict to bring their case to the “Palaver.” The
second stage has to do with the speech or hearing stage where parties to the conflict
confront each other. It is also the stage when the elders will be given the opportunity
to hear the full history of the conflict, known as the fear and concerns of the parties
and the fundamental issues involved in the conflict. The last stage is one in which the
elders, after hearing the facts of the conflict from both sides, retire to a secluded place
to take a decision and come back later to drop their verdict. The guilty party is made
to compensate the other party in a proportional manner that is made to be symbol,
rather than as punishment (Agbu and Bolarinwa 2006).

The Palaver system is also used in Mali as a conflict management technique.

In Mali society, conflicts are resolved by those that are regarded as the “keepers of the
word of authority”. These people render justice in the name of their ancestors. When
any conflict is brought before them, they first listen to the parties, call witnesses and
from there, go to question session where questions are asked, beginning from the
eldest of these local judges, to clarify issues and get the true picture about the conflict.
After this, they go into their own proceedings to arrive at a verdict which when given
is without appeal and the guilty submits himself to the decision taken (Agbu and
Bolarinwa 2006). It must be noted, however that the use of “Palaver” is the emphasis
on the restoration of harmony within the community rather than the emphasis on who
is right or wrong.

Among the Oromo people of East Africa, there was the “Gada” system.
Institutions were set up to prevent violent conflicts but where there is an outbreak of
violence, they were quickly checked before escalation. Conflicts were resolved
through the establishment of truth, a just and honourable verdict given for the
restoration of social harmony in the community. In Nigeria, the indigenous
institutions for peace include: family, elders (within a lineage), clan, females born in a
family or village, council of elders, village or town assembly, king-in-council,
masquerade system, age grades, hunters association, oracles and deities etc. All these
serve as institutions for the maintenance of peace and the resolution of conflict (Agbu
and Bolarinwa 2006).

Traditional Approaches to Conflict Prevention, Management & Resolution in

Africa
The following were some of the ways through which conflicts were prevented,
managed and resolved in Africa before the coming of the colonialists:

1. Socialization
The indigenous African see human existence as unified, interlinked, and
integrated in a web. In most communities of the South of Africa, there existed the
concept “Ubuntu” which means “collective personhood” or “member of the human
family” This concept is contained in the Nguni proverb that states, “I am because we
are”. From childhood, people were taught to live in harmony with others and avoid a
situation of trying to win at all cost in the case of conflict and dispute settlement.
Indigenous Africans impart in their offspring that quarrel and fight with others are to
be seen as quarrel between blood relations.

2. Inculcation of Myths
The use of proverbs, idioms, folktales and songs to describe the nature of the
world and how to live in it was another way of preventing, managing and resolving
conflicts in Africa. The need to live harmoniously with others and avoid violent
conflict because of the dangers inherent in it was one of the reasons for inculcating
these myths through the use of proverbs, idioms etc. on the children at tender age.

3. Use of Traditional Institutions in Conflict Monitoring

The institutions of family, council of elders, clan, female born of a village etc.
were used in the task of conflict monitoring and prevention. Each family head is
employed and mobilized to prevent conflict through peace education, conflict
monitoring and mediation and reconciliation.

4. Ritual Treaties and Blood Covenant

Rituals treaties and blood covenant were used to remove fear, and engender
trust, blind families and villages and to avoid war. Such treaties and covenants
involve powerful deities, which makes it not easy to violate as violation would bring
dire consequences (Nwolise 2005).

5. Institution and Celebration of Festivals

There were instituted celebrations of festivals during which the virtues of
peace, harmonious living, honesty etc. were extolled in songs. Rituals and scarifies
were performed to the village deities and ancestors foe peace, protection, good works,
fertility etc.

6. Use of Sanctions
Sanctions were imposed on families and individuals who were seen to have
contradicted the customs and traditions of the people in order to deter others from
engaging in behaviours that would engender conflict. Sanctions were meted on such
misbehaviour as stealing, wilful murder, incest, abuse of elders, wilful damage to
property, lying, bearing false witness, poisoning, rape etc. Such sanctions included
those that were imposed by the deities such as accidents, sickness, death, famine,
poverty, misery, barrenness and loss of children etc. to the ones imposed by the
society in such as exile, ostracism, fines, compensation, restitution, rendering apology
etc.

7. Use of Marriages
Marriage is one of the means to the prevention, management and resolution of
conflict before slave trader, colonialism and religion changed the societal life of the
indigenous Africans. Marriages reduced inter-group wars as children who possessed
mixed blood were used to prevent, manage and resolve conflict. Most of those
marriages were not just intra-tribal but inter-tribal and most times involve the royalty
such as the one between Adaeze, the daughter of Obi Ossa; of Aboh and Amain, the
king boy of Brass and that between King Ajaja’s daughter and Alafin of Oyo and
Alafin of Oyo’s daughter and King Ajaja in 1730.

8. Oath Taking
One of the approaches used in the pre-colonial days to prevent, manage and
resolve conflict was oath taking. This was a practice to establish truth and guilt and
discourage dishonest attitude and evil actions in society (Oguntomisin 2004). Most
times this was done at the shrine of a very powerful deity over something that could
be an avenue for contacting such deity. People are always warned before taking oath
on the consequence of doing so on falsehood in order to avoid shame, or even death.

Conclusion
Despite all the alluring offers of conflict management techniques in African
past, the reality today is that ‘we are’ not ‘who we were’ close to a century ago.
Today, African families and societies are so complex that some of the institutions and
approaches are either comatose or, outrightly, dead. Even the much respected and
sought-after elders (agba) are so dearth that it would be almost impossible to find an
agba (elder) with essential qualities and requisite mien to handle conflicts within the
families. The obvious way forward is an abridged conflict resolution technique that
will be an amalgam of the past and the present, and which will make it (perfectly)
capable of handling future conflicts with profits.
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