Summary

• Scalar Potential : if 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐅𝐅 = 0 everywhere, 𝐅𝐅 = −𝛁𝛁V

• Vector Potential : if 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐅𝐅 = 0 everywhere, 𝐅𝐅 = 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐀𝐀

1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• Coulomb’s Law: 𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫) = � 2 r̂
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 r

• Electric Flux Φ𝐸𝐸 = � 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚

𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢

• Gauss’s Law 𝑄𝑄enc

� 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 = (in integral form)
𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝜖𝜖0

𝜌𝜌
𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐄𝐄 = (in differential form)
𝜖𝜖0
r
Curl of the Electric Field:
Let’s take the simplest electric field:
Electric field due to a single point charge 𝑞𝑞 is:
1 𝑞𝑞
𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫) = r̂
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 r2
We need to find the curl of it
𝑞𝑞 1
𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 𝐫𝐫 = 𝛁𝛁 × 2 r̂
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 r
Take the area integral
Stokes’s theorem
𝑞𝑞 1
� 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 𝐫𝐫 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 = � 𝛁𝛁 × 2 r̂ ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚
𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 r
Use Stokes’s theorem
𝑞𝑞 1 𝑞𝑞 1 since
� 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 𝐫𝐫 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 = � 2 r̂ ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 = � 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �
𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝒓𝒓� + 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝜽𝜽
𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 r 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖 0 r �
+𝑟𝑟sin𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝝓𝝓
𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑎
𝑞𝑞 1
� 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 𝐫𝐫 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 = × � =0 implies 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 = 𝟎𝟎
𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖 0 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟
𝑎𝑎
Q) Which one of the following is an impossible electrostatic field?

Here k is a constant with the appropriate units.

Electric Potential:
Recall: If the curl of a vector field 𝐅𝐅 is zero, that is, if 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐅𝐅 = 0 everywhere, then:
b
(1) ∫a 𝐅𝐅 ⋅ d𝐥𝐥 is independent of path.
This is because of Stokes’ theorem
(2) ∮ 𝐅𝐅 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 = 0 for any closed loop. � 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐅𝐅 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 = � 𝐅𝐅 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥
𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

(3) 𝐅𝐅 is the gradient of a scalar function: 𝐅𝐅 = −𝛁𝛁V

• This is because Curl of a gradient is zero 𝛁𝛁 × 𝛁𝛁V = 𝟎𝟎

The curl of Electric field 𝐄𝐄 is zero, that is,𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 = 0 everywhere. Therefore:

b
(1) ∫a 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ d𝐥𝐥 is independent of path.
This is because of Stokes’ theorem
(2) ∮ 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 = 0 for any closed loop. � 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 = � 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥
𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

(3) 𝐄𝐄 is the gradient of a scalar function: 𝐄𝐄 = −𝛁𝛁V

V is called the electric potential. It is a scalar quantity,

the gradient of which is equal to the electric field
Charge distribution in terms of electric potential:
𝜌𝜌
Gauss’s Law 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐄𝐄 =
𝜖𝜖0

But 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 = 0 ⇒ 𝐄𝐄 = −𝛁𝛁V

𝜌𝜌
Therefore, 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐄𝐄 = 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ −𝛁𝛁V = −𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝛁𝛁V = −𝛻𝛻 2 V =
𝜖𝜖0
𝜌𝜌
𝛻𝛻 2 V =− Poisson’s Equation
𝜖𝜖0

In the region of space where there is no charge, 𝜌𝜌=0

𝛻𝛻 2 V = 0 Laplace’s Equation
Electric Potential:
Since 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 = 0 everywhere, 𝐄𝐄 = −𝛁𝛁V

How to write electric potential in terms of the electric field?

−𝛁𝛁V = 𝐄𝐄
Take the line integral of the above equation over a path
𝒃𝒃 𝒃𝒃

� 𝛁𝛁V ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 = − � 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥

𝒂𝒂 𝒂𝒂
𝒃𝒃
Use the fundamental Theorem for Gradient: � 𝛁𝛁V ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 = V 𝑏𝑏 − V(𝑎𝑎)
𝒂𝒂 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝒃𝒃

V 𝐛𝐛 − V(𝐚𝐚) = − � 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 • Absolute potential cannot be defined.

• Only potential differences can be defined.
𝒂𝒂
Electric Potential:
(1) Electric potential is different from electric potential energy. Unit of electric
N⋅m
potential is Newton-meter per Coulomb ( ) or Volt.
C

(2) The potential obeys superposition principle, i.e., the potential due to several
charges is equal to the sum of the potentials due to individual ones: V = V1 + V2 + ⋯

(3) If one knows the electrical potential (a scalar quantity), the electric field (a
vector quantity) can be calculated
(4) The electric field is a vector quantity, but we still get all the information from
the potential (a scalar quantity). This is because different components are
𝜕𝜕Ex 𝜕𝜕Ey 𝜕𝜕Ez 𝜕𝜕Ey 𝜕𝜕Ex 𝜕𝜕Ez
interrelated: 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 = 0, i.e., = ; = ; = ;
𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝒃𝒃
(5) V 𝐛𝐛 − V(𝐚𝐚) = − ∫𝒂𝒂 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 . Absolute potential cannot be defined. In
electrostatics, usually one takes the reference point to infinity and set the
potential at infinity to zero, that is, take V 𝐚𝐚 = V ∞ = 0. Also if V 𝐛𝐛 = V(𝐫𝐫),
𝐫𝐫

V 𝐫𝐫 = − � 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥
∞
Electric Potential due to a point charge at origin:

Electric field 𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫𝟏𝟏 ) at 𝐫𝐫𝟏𝟏 due to

a single point charge 𝑞𝑞 at origin:
1 𝑞𝑞
𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫𝟏𝟏 ) = 𝐫𝐫�
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟12 𝟏𝟏

Electric potential V 𝐫𝐫 at 𝐫𝐫 due to a

single point charge 𝑞𝑞 at origin:
𝑟𝑟 𝒓𝒓

V 𝐫𝐫 = − � 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 = − � 𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫𝟏𝟏 ) ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥𝟏𝟏

∞ ∞
�𝟏𝟏
�𝟏𝟏 + 𝑟𝑟1 sin𝜃𝜃1 𝑑𝑑𝜙𝜙1 𝝓𝝓
The line element is: 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥𝟏𝟏 = 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟1 r�𝟏𝟏 + 𝑟𝑟1 𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃1 𝛉𝛉
𝒓𝒓 𝒓𝒓
1 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 1 𝑞𝑞 1
V 𝐫𝐫 = − � 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟 = − � 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟 =
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟12 1 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟12 1 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟
∞ ∞

𝑞𝑞 1
V 𝐫𝐫 =
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟
Electric Potential due to localized charge distribution:
Potential due to a point 𝑞𝑞 1
charge 𝑞𝑞 at origin: V 𝐫𝐫 =
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟

Potential due to a point 𝑞𝑞 1

charge 𝑞𝑞 at 𝐫𝐫′: V 𝐫𝐫 =
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 r

Potential due to a collection 𝑛𝑛

1 𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖
of point charges V 𝐫𝐫 = �
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 ri
𝑖𝑖=1
Potential due to a a continuous
charge distribution is
1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
V(𝐫𝐫) = �
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 r

For a line charge 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜆𝜆 𝐫𝐫 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

For a surface charge 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜎𝜎 𝐫𝐫 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
For a volume charge 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜌𝜌 𝐫𝐫 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Ease of calculating the Electric Field

• The easiest way to calculate the electric field is using Gauss’s law. But
this is possible only when there is some symmetry in the problem.

• The next best thing: if the electric potential is known, one can calculate
the electric field by just taking the gradient of the potential 𝐄𝐄 = −𝛁𝛁V.
Sometimes, it is very effective to calculate the electric potential first
and then the electric field from there.

• If the above two is not applicable, one has to go back to the Coulomb’s
law and then calculate the electric field.